11AS_Electricity notes khalid Yousef Al Hindi

Al Nahda National Schools for boys

11 AS _ Electricity

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11AS_Electricity notes khalid Yousef Al Hindi

Objectives
1. Describe electric current as the rate of flow of charges
particles.
2. Make calculations of electric current.
3. Define electromotive force and potential difference.
4. Make calculation of voltage and energy transfer in
components.
5. Evaluate a model of electrical circuits.
6. State Ohm’s law.
7. Calculate resistance.
8. Explain the I-V characteristics of components.
9. Define resistivity.
10. Explain how to measure resistivity experimentally.
11. Make calculation of resistance using resistivity.
12. Explain conduction in metals.
13. Explain electrical resistance.
14. Calculate the drift velocity of conduction electrons
in metals.
15. Explain conduction in semiconductors.

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11AS_Electricity notes khalid Yousef Al Hindi

16. Calculate current , voltage, and resistance in series

and parallel circuits.
17. Derive the equations for combining resistances in
series and parallel.
18. Understand how the distribution of current in a
circuit is a consequence of charge conservation.
19. Understand how the distribution of potential
difference in a circuit is a consequence of charge
conservation.
20. Make calculation based on current and voltage
circuit rules.
21. Describe and explain the potential divider.
22. Make calculation in potential divider circuits.
23. Explain uses of potential divider.
24. Explain what is meant by internal resistance.
25. Describe an investigation to determine an emf’s
internal resistance.
26. Make calculation of internal resistance.
27. Explain how work done by electric circuits.
28. Make calculation of work and power in electric
circuits.
29. Explain efficiency and make calculation of it within
electric circuits.

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11AS_Electricity notes khalid Yousef Al Hindi

Material
PART 1 ( topic 3.1) : Electrical quantities
A. The electric charge (Q)
• Electric charge (Q or q) is a scalar physical quantity of
two types , the positive and the negative .
• SIU of charge is the Coulomb (𝐶 ) , it can be measured
in a devise called coulombmeter (the one used in
PEE).
• Electric charge is NOT a basic quantity.
• Charge is conserved (like energy).
• Charge is quantized ( like energy of the photon).
• Charge carrier may be an electron,a proton, or any
charged particle (ions).
• Origin of charge is the positive and negative charges
of electrons and protons in the atom ( to be explained
ore in A2).
• Objects may be
➢ Neutral : when the number protons = the number
electrons in the atoms of the material.
➢ Charged : when the number of protons ≠ number of
electrons in the atoms of the material.
✓ Positive : when No. of proton > No. of electron.
✓ Negative : when No. of protons < No. of electron.
• To charge any neutral object , the balance of protons
and electrons must be broken .This can be done by
adding or removing electrons from the atoms from
the material (neutral object)
Note : ways of charging is not included.

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11AS_Electricity notes khalid Yousef Al Hindi

• If 6.25 × 1018 electrons are collected , they will

produce a charge of 1 C .
𝑸 = 𝒏𝒆
Q: total charge / C n: number of electrons
And e = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
1 𝐶 = 6.25 × 1018 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶

B. The electric current (I)

• The electric current : rate of flow of charge.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝐼=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠
∆𝑸
𝑰=
𝒕
∆𝑄: 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏)
𝑡: 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑)
𝐼: 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑠 −1 𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 (𝐴)
∆𝑄 = 𝐼 × 𝑡
𝑛𝑒 = 𝐼𝑡
𝑛𝑒
𝐼=
𝑡
𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶

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11AS_Electricity notes khalid Yousef Al Hindi

C. Potential difference (PD) , electromotive force (emf),

voltage (V).
• PD : The potential difference of a load (component) is
the electrical energy converted (transferred) into
other forms per unit charge.
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 (𝐽) 𝑊
PD in volt(V) = 𝑉=
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝐶 ) 𝑄

W : energy being used by the component could be

referred to as work done , W.
➢ If a component uses one joule per a charge of I C that
passes through it , it has a pd of I volt.
• Voltage : electrical quantity that is a measure of the
amount of energy a component transfer per unit of
charge passing through it . It can be calculated by
𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 (𝐽) 𝐸
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑉=
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝐶 ) 𝑄
• Electromotive force:
For a supply voltage ( component which is putting
electrical energy into a circuit) , emf is total energy
supplied to a circuit per unit charge. It is calculated
by

𝑒𝑚𝑓
𝑡𝑜𝑡. 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔

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11AS_Electricity notes khalid Yousef Al Hindi

➢ When a circuit is setup, the power supply does work on

the free electrons of the wire of the circuit, energy is
supplied to these electrons , electrons will flow in the
circuit and deliver electrical energy to any load like bulb
which converts electrical energy to other forms like light
and heat.

D. Power.
• Power is the rate of transferring energy from a
form to another.
𝐸
𝑃=
𝑡
𝑊
= 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑠 𝐽𝑠 −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 (𝑤)
𝑡
➢ a bulb labelled (60 W) converts 60 J of energy to 60 J of
light and heat in a time of 1 s.
➢ power is dissipated across or transferred across a load
is also can be calculated by
𝑉2
𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 = 𝐼2 𝑅 = ( to be derived later , this is
𝑅
required ) .

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11AS_Electricity notes khalid Yousef Al Hindi

E. Circuit : closed pathway for the flow of current. It may

include power supply (cell , battery , multicell battery ,
capacitor , solar cell) ,wires, loads( lamps, resistors,
motors, diodes, ammeter , voltmeter), switches, relays,
reed switches ,,,,,
▪ types of circuits or connections are to be explained
later.
▪ In circuits the current direction is the direction of
motion of positive charge carrier , this current is called
the conventional current.
▪ If the charge carrier is negative , the conventional
current direction is opposite to the direction of that
negative charge carrier.
▪ Always take the direction of current (conventional
current ) from positive terminal to negative terminal of
the DC supply.

F. Resistance: resistance of a load is caused by collisions of

the conducting (mobile) electrons with the vibrating ions
(particles) of the load. It is the opposition to the flow of
electrical current.
𝑝𝑑. 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
▪ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 =
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
unit of resistance (SIU) is 𝑉𝐴−1 = 𝑜ℎ𝑚 (Ω)

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11AS_Electricity notes khalid Yousef Al Hindi

G. Internal resistance of a power supply (r).

▪ Any power supply is made of a conductor , it has a small
resistance to the flow of current , this resistance is called
the internal resistance of the power supply.
▪ The internal resistance of the power supply plays a very
important role , as explained below,

𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 + 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

o 𝑽𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 is the voltage supplied to circuit , it is the

pd across the terminals of the power supply .
o Lost voltage is the voltage lost across the internal
resistance of the power supply.
o the current (I) flows in the circuit , flows also in the
power supply , so we can rewrite the above as

𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 + 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒

𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 + (𝐼 × 𝑟 )
➢ When the circuit is open , current is zero , lost voltage is
zero and so,
𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
➢ When the circuit is closed , then
𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 is less than emf by the lost voltage across r .
Result : the value of the internal resistance of the supply
determines how must voltage is supplied to the circuit. This
means the following ,

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11AS_Electricity notes khalid Yousef Al Hindi

▪ (emf) and (r) are certain values for each power supply , if
r is high then (Ir) is high , lost voltage is high and
terminal voltage is low.
▪ If (r) is low then (Ir) is low , lost voltage is low and
terminal voltage is high.
𝑉𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
▪ Efficiency of power supply = × 100%
𝑒𝑚𝑓
H. The transport equation.
The equation is
𝑰 = 𝒏×𝑨×𝒗×𝒒
𝐼: 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐴𝑚𝑝)
𝐴: 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔 (𝑚2 ).
𝑞: 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟 = 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶
𝑣: 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟
𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 (𝑚𝑠 −1 ).
𝑛 ∶ charge carrier density of a material which is the number
of charge carrier per unit volume.
𝑁
𝑛=
𝑉
𝑁: 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑟
𝑉 ∶ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑚3 ).
Unit of (n) is 𝑚−3

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11AS_Electricity notes khalid Yousef Al Hindi

➢ Cases for the charge carrier density

At room temperature
1. The charge carrier density (n) is very large ( range from
1028 𝑚−3 𝑡𝑜1029 𝑚−3 ). 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
2. The charge carrier density (n) for Semiconductors is
much smaller than that of metals , for example
o For Silicon : 1017 𝑚−3
o For Germanium : 1019 𝑚−3
3. For insulators : the charge carrier density is negligible.
The above give an idea about the differences between
metal conductors, semiconductors , and insulator as follows
▪ A metal conductor : Material that has all free or mobile
electrons in the conduction band.
▪ A semiconductor : material that has some electrons in
the Conduction band ( will conduct current ) , and
some in the Valence band. (will not conduct current)
▪ Insulator : material that does not have free electrons
in the conduction band.
▪ There is a small gap between the valence and
conduction bands in semiconductors
▪ The bands overlap in metal conductors .
▪ The gap in insulators is very big.
More differences between conducting metals ,
semiconductors , and insulator are found in the BAND
THEORY. (This is not included in AS/IAL, but it good to know)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qt8E3YmA-Cs

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11AS_Electricity notes khalid Yousef Al Hindi

I. Resistivity
• For a metal conductor , like copper , the resistance
depends on four factors as follows
1. Length of wire as 𝑅 ∝ 𝐿
1
2. Cross – section area , as 𝑅 ∝
𝐴
3. Type of material .
4. Temperature , 𝑇 ↑ 𝑅 ↑
𝑑 2
Note 1: 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 = 𝜋( )
2

Note 2 : the following are observed from the above relations

(1 to 4)
o 𝐿 ↑↑ 𝑅 ↑↑
o 𝐴 ↑↑ 𝑅 ↓↓
o 𝐿 ↑↑↑↑ 𝑅 ↑↑↑↑
o 𝐴 ↓↓↓↓ 𝑅 ↑↑↑↑
o ( 𝑟 2 ) ↑↑ 𝑅 ↓↓
o 𝑟 ↑↑ 𝑅 ↓↓↓↓
o 𝑑 ↓↓ 𝑅 ↑↑↑↑

• Resistivity : Is the same value as a resistance

between opposite faces of a cube meter of a
material .
Using the factors that affect the resistance , we can write the
following
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡(𝜌) × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐿)
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝐴)
The constant above is called the Resistivity ( 𝜌)

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11AS_Electricity notes khalid Yousef Al Hindi

So , we can rewrite as
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝜌) × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(𝐿)
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎(𝐴)
And
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
If the length = 1 m area = 1 m2
Then
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 Ω × 1 𝑚2
𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
1𝑚
𝑠𝑜 ∶ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑎𝑛𝑑 1 𝑚2 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 ( 𝑎 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)
𝑇𝐻𝐼𝑆 𝐸𝑋𝑃𝐿𝐴𝐼𝑁𝑆 𝑇𝐻𝐸 𝐷𝐸𝐹𝐼𝑁𝐼𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁 𝑂𝐹 𝑅𝐸𝑆𝐼𝑆𝑇𝐼𝑉𝐼𝑇𝑌
➢ Unit of resistivity is Ω. 𝑚
➢ Resistivity is a material dependent factor.
➢ Resistivity does not depend on the dimensions of the
material.
➢ Resistivity varies with temperature .
➢ For metals : resistivity is very small value
➢ For insulators : resistivity is a high value

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11AS_Electricity notes khalid Yousef Al Hindi

These values are approximate

We can notice that for metal conductors like iron and
copper , the resistivity is very low . For insulators like
rubber and glass, the resistivity is b=very high.

➢ At constant temperature we can plot the following

graphs and find the resistivity experimentally ( this is to
be done in more details later in unit 3B)

𝑅
Gradient =
𝐿

𝑅𝐴
𝜌= ,
𝐿
𝑅 𝜌
= = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑.
𝐿 𝐴
𝜌 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑.× 𝐿

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11AS_Electricity notes khalid Yousef Al Hindi

And so we can plot

Gradient = 𝑅 × 𝐴
𝑅𝐴
𝜌= ,
𝐿
𝑅 × 𝐴 = 𝜌 × 𝐿 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑.
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜌=
𝐿
➢ Effect of temperature on resistivity .( very important)
Using the band theory (recommended)
• Valence and conduction bands over lap in metal
conductors. All electrons exist in the conduction
band. All electrons are free to contribute in
conduction of current.
• Valence band and conduction band are separated
by a small gap , there are electrons in the
conduction band ( free electrons) and there are
other electrons in the valence band ( not free
electrons).
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11AS_Electricity notes khalid Yousef Al Hindi

Source : Edexcel AS/A level -PHYSICS

In simple language :
In metals : as metal conductor is heated ( temperature
increases) , the number of free electron does not increase because
all electrons already are free in the conduction band.
Increasing the temperature will increase the KE of these free
electrons and the resistance along with resistivity will increase.
Current will decrease as free electrons act as barrier to each other
due to fast and random motion in all directions .

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11AS_Electricity notes khalid Yousef Al Hindi

In semiconductors : as it is heated , the number of free

electrons will increase as electrons in the valence band gain energy
and move to the conduction band(remember the gap is small so as
electron can easily move through the gap to the conduction band).
Increasing the temperature will increase the current , this will affect
the resistance along with resistivity , the resistance and resistivity
will decrease.
In insulator : the gap is huge , electrons in the valence band
need enormous amounts of energy to over come the huge gap
between the valence and conduction band , increasing the
temperature of an insulator will not affect its conductivity.
End of explanation using the band theory
We can explain the effect of temperature using the
transport equation as follows:
• Metal conductors
➢ As temperature increases, lattice expands (lattice is the
arrangement of atoms in the metal conductor).As in
figure 1 below.

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11AS_Electricity notes khalid Yousef Al Hindi

➢ Collisions between electrons and atoms arranged in the lattice

increase.
➢ Charge carrier density remains constant , all electrons in the
metal conductor are in the conduction band. ( AS
TEMPERATURE INCREASES , THE CHARGE CARRIES DENSITY IN
METAL CONDUCTORS REMAINS UNCHANGED)
➢ Drift velocity of electrons decreases due to the higher rate of
collisions between electrons and atoms.
➢ Current will decrease, resistivity increases.
➢ Using 𝐼 = 𝑛𝐴𝑣𝑞
o 𝑎𝑠 𝑣 ↓
o (𝑛, 𝐴, 𝑞) 𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑
o 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒.
o 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒

• Semiconductors
➢ As temperature increases , lattice expands , collisions of
electrons and atoms will increase , drift velocity
decreases ( like metals).
➢ The charge carrier density will increase as electrons in
the valence band gain energy and over come the gap
between the valence band where they existed and the
conduction band. ( AS TEMPERATURE INCREASES , THE
CHARGE CARRIES DENSITY IN SEMICONDUCTORS INCREASES).
➢ The charge carrier density increases with higher rate than the
decrease in drift velocity.

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➢ Using 𝑰 = 𝒏𝑨𝒒𝒗
o 𝑎𝑠 𝑣 ↓
o (𝐴, 𝑞) 𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑
o 𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠
o 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 .
o 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒

end of explanation using the transport equation

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