Mount Kenya University

VIRTUAL CAMPUS, UNION TOWERS, 6TH FLOOR

P.O. BOX 13495–00100 G.P.O Nairobi
Email: [email protected],
0700-912353, 0702041042

School of Education
Early Childhood Studies Department
Course Code: EBCU 001

Course Title: Introduction to Research Methods

 COURSE OUTLINE
Purpose: To produce graduates with sound knowledge and understanding of how to
carry out educational research study.

I Objectives:
• Meaning of educational research.
• Importance of research.
• Categories of research. Qualitative and quantitative research methods.
• Designing a research study.
• Proposal writing.
• Methods of data collection.
• Advantages and disadvantages of both qualitative and quantitative methods.
• Ethical and technical issues in research.
• Reliability and validity.
• Techniques of data analysis and presentation.
• Writing a research report/thesis.

II Unit Content
Topics Remarks
Meaning of educational research
Importance of research
Categories of research
Qualitative and quantitative research methods
Designing a research study
Proposal writing
Methods of data collection
Advantages and disadvantages of both qualitative and quantitative methods
Ethical and technical issues in research
Reliability and validity.
Techniques of data analysis and presentation
Writing a research report/thesis.

III Teaching/Learning Methodologies: Group discussions, lecturing, and

individual assignments

IV Course Assessment: Examination 70%, Continuous Assessment Tests 30%,

Total=100%

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V Recommended Textbooks
AIC/Wageningen U. R (2004-2006). Participatory Learning and Action, http://
www.portals.wi.wur.nl/ppme/? Participatory Learning-and Action (19/6/2007)
Bory, W. R., & Gall, M. O. (1979). Educational Research: An Introduction. London.
Longman
Durojaiye, W. O. A. (1976). A New Introduction to Educational Psychology. London.
Evans Brothers Ltd
Hilgard, E. R & Bower G. H (1975). Theories of Learning. Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.
J. IFAD (1987). Monitoring and Evaluation. Rome. Guiding Principles
Ingule, Rono, R. C. & Ndambuki P. W. (1996). Introduction to Education Psychology.
Nairobi. East African Educational Publishers
K.I.E (2005). Community Development: A Training Manual for Community Mobilisers,
Nairobi. Government Printer
Kiminyo, D. M., (1994). Introduction to Educational Statistics for Teachers and
Students. Nairobi. Educational Research and Publications Ltd
Mwamwenda, T. S (1995). Educational Psychology. Durban. Heinemann
Nwana, O. C. (1981). Introduction to Educational Research for Student-Teachers.
Ibadan, Nigeria. Heinemann Educational Books Limited
Rossi, K. Appreciate Inquiry: an Overview http://www.cirtrainers.org/appreciative
inquiry-overview.htm (16/6/2007)
Santrock J. W. (2004). Educational Psychology. New York. McGraw Hill Companies
Save the Children. (1995) Toolkits: A Practical Guide to Assessment, Monitoring, Review
and Evaluation. London.
UNICEF. (1991). A UNICEF Guide for Monitoring and Evaluation. New York.

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 COMMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS
Dear Learner,
This is the first issue of this module. I therefore wouldn’t mind to get your comments and
observations upon this module. This is to enable me on behalf of Mount Kenya
University to make further improvement on the future issues and reach at points of your
need. I look forward to your feedback. Thank you.

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 Table of Content
Course Outline.............................................................................................................................. ii

Comments and Observations ....................................................................................................... iv

Table of Content ........................................................................................................................... v

Lecture One: Meaning of Educational Research .......................................................................... 1

Lecture Two: Importance of Educational Research In ECDE Programmes ................................. 3

Lecture Three: Categories of Research ........................................................................................ 4

Lecture Four: Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods .................................................. 16

Lecture Five: Methods of Data Collection ................................................................................. 19

Lecture Six: Proposal Writing .................................................................................................... 28

Lecture Nine : Designing A Research Study .............................................................................. 40

Lecture Ten: Ethical and Technical Issues in Research.............................................................. 42

Lesson Eleven: Reliability and Validity ..................................................................................... 47

Lecture Twelve: Techniques of Data Analysis and Presentaion ................................................. 48

Lecture Thirteen: Research Report .............................................................................................. 54

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 LECTURE ONE: MEANING OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
This unit defines the terms research, monitoring and evaluation. It is important for
learners to understand clearly the differences between the three terminologies so that they
are able to engage in meaningful research activities. The unit also discusses the
importance of educational research, monitoring and evaluation.

Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:

D e f i n e the terms educational research, monitoring and evaluation.

E x p l a i n the importance of educational research, monitoring and evaluation.

I d e n t i f y the main differences between research, monitoring and evaluation.

Definitions
Research is defined as:-
 A diligent (well thought out) study to discover facts or to solve a problem.
 A scientific investigation carried out to discover facts or to solve a problem.
 A systematic collection of data (information) under carefully defined conditions
to discover facts or to solve a problem.
 A scientific investigation to produce new knowledge.

Monitoring is a systematic and continuous collection of data which is analyzed to show

the progress achieved in a project over a period.

Evaluation is a systematic and periodic collection of data which is analyzed and is used
to make certain judgments about a project. Evaluation assesses the effects of
the activities in the project of the beneficiaries (those who are meant to
benefit from the project).

Characteristics of educational research

 R e s e a rc h is systematic in that it follows a well structured process and has
definite rules.
 R es e a r c h is logical because it follows logical steps that are clearly defined from
the beginning to the end.
 R es e ar c h is empirical since it involves use of concrete data collected from the field
or from experiments carried out.
 R e se a r c h is objective in that it should not be based on researcher’s
biasness.
 R e s e ar c h is critical because its results may disapprove any earlier
findings.
 Research is controlled in order to realize the effects of both dependent and
independent variables.
 R e s e a rc h is rational in that it relies on the facts of the data collected and
analyzed.
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 R e s e a r c h is deductive, because the researcher is able to analyse and interpret
data collected in order:-
• To bring out better and clearer understanding of the problem being
studied.
• To arrive at certain conclusions and generalizations.
• To identify relationships or patterns that emerge in the study and to show
how these relationships might operate in other contexts.
• To translate abstract issues into reality. This helps to make the findings of
the study easy to understand and to apply in real life situation.
 R es e a rc h is replicable since a research that has been carried out in one place
can be carried out again in other similar environments, with a similar sample,
using the same instruments and the same methodology.

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LECTURE TWO: IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH IN ECDE
PROGRAMMES
Educational Research provides information which may help to:-
♣ Improve our understanding of children, how they grow, develop and learn.
♣ Identify the needs of children and best practices on how to meet these needs.
♣ Identify services required to meet the needs of children.
♣ Solve problems facing children and their families.
♣ Improve ECDE services for young children, for example, health services, learning
environments in ECDE centres’ growth, monitoring and promotion (GMP) of
services etc.
♣ Develop innovative methods of improving children’s learning.
♣ Provide new knowledge that improves children’s learning and their total
wellbeing.
♣ Parents, teachers, communities and policy makers to appreciate the importance of
meeting the needs of children properly. For example, research is able to identify
the importance of applying teaching/learning resources in influencing
understanding of concepts during learning of young children.
♣ Improve the care of young children both at home and in the ECDE centres.
♣ Identify what is required to ensure the provision of quality teaching-learning
conditions in ECDE centres.
♣ Identify the effects of provision of needs of children in influencing growth,
development and learning.
♣ Improve learning-teaching processes in the ECDE centres.
♣ Direct and advise planning and future programmes.
♣ Influence the development of new policies in ECDE.
♣ Advocate. The research data collected can be used as a tool to convince policy
makers, parents, teachers and other stake holders about the importance of early
childhood period and the need to invest in these years.

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 LECTURE THREE: CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH
Introduction
Researchers select certain types of research and research designs depending on the type
of problems they plan to investigate. This chapter presents various categories of research
and research designs.

Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:

I d e n t i f y categories of research and research designs.

D e s c r i b e the main features of the categories and the designs.

E x p l a i n the strengths and limitations of various types of researches and designs.

Categories of Research
a) Basic research
The main aim of basic research is to add new knowledge. It does not necessarily
produce results of immediate practical application. It is mostly based on testing or
applying theory. However, not all basic research is based on theory. A theory
consists of systematically organized ideas and observable data which are used to
predict or explain behaviour.

b) Applied research
Applied research is undertaken to solve an immediate practical problem. In action
research, knowledge which has been gained through theory can be applied to
solve practical problems. Not all applied researches are however based on theory.
Whether based on theory or not, research should be systematic and well organized
in order to obtain valid data.

c) Action research
Action research is a type of applied research. Action research is used to solve
specific problems. It is aimed at improving practices and is usually carried out by
practitioners such as teachers and administrators. Action research uses modified
basic research guidelines. Action research is supposed to improve practices, for
example, provide ideas on better methods of teaching young children. It can be
carried out by individuals, teams or organizations. Research undertaken by teams
is sometimes referred to as collaborative research.

Action research should be organized in a systematic way to minimize bias and

misinterpretation. Classroom teachers, ECDE centres or schools can use action
research to improve teaching-learning methodologies. This can lead to
improvement in learning environments and pupil performance. Action research
can also be done on a large scale, for example, during piloting and

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 implementation of a curriculum, a lot data is collected by teachers, education field
officers and curriculum developers. This data is used to decide on areas that need
to be modified or strengthened. Action research is characterized by the following
features:-
♣ It focuses on specific problems within a specific context.
♣ It involves planned ongoing activities and interventions which are constantly
reviewed to increase understanding of the processes and factors involved.
♣ It is usually participatory in nature involving the practitioners (for example
teachers) and target groups or beneficiaries (for example learners) in taking
decisions and monitoring the interventions.
♣ The practitioners and the target groups engage in continuous reflection so that
they can learn and creatively contribute to improving the programme or project.

Strengths
♣ It provides practical solutions to problems.
♣ It focuses on the situation that the practitioner that the practitioner is engaged in.
It is therefore likely to be relevant and to motivate practitioners to participate fully
in it.
♣ The participants are happy and comfortable with the research. They are not
threatened by it because it deals with problems that affect their daily lives. Since
the participants are happy with the research they participate in it and are likely to
implement recommendations arising from the programme or project.
♣ The practitioners and target groups acquire new knowledge and skills which they
can use to improve their work.

Limitations
♣ The researcher who is also a practitioner can be subjective while interpreting
the results.
♣ It is difficult to balance the ‘practice’ and ‘research’ aspects.
♣ The practitioner may lack some necessary research skills to ensure that the
action research findings are reliable.
♣ It might not be possible to generalize results to other situations.

Basic Research Designs

Descriptive research design

Descriptive research is used for observing and recording behavior. It consists of
naturalistic observation, participant observation, interviews, questionnaires, case studies,
ethnographic studies and historical research.

i) Naturalistic Observation Research

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In naturalistic research, the participants are studied in their real natural world. One can,
for example, do a naturalistic research by observing children as they play in the
neighbourhood, or observe them in the classroom.

Advantages
• The researcher can study without interfering with the participants’ activities.
• The participants are likely to show their real behaviour.

Limitations
• The study can be time consuming.
• It is likely to be expensive.
• Presence of the researcher can influence the behaviour of the people being
studied.
• Researchers might disagree on what they have seen.
• This type of research does not tell us about causes and effects of what is observed.

ii) Participant Observation

Participant observation occurs when the observer or researcher is actively involved as a
participant in the research activity or intervention. The researcher takes time to observe
what he/she is researching on and the rest of the time participates in the activities that the
people he/she is studying are involved in. The researcher observes whatever he is
supposed to observe over a period of time. He takes detailed notes. The information
collected helps to reveal the progress made patterns and trends.

Strengths
• The researcher can obtain a lot of data as those participating in the activity might
be free in providing information.
• The participants of the activity are likely to show their real behaviour once they
are used to the researcher.

Limitations
• The researcher could become less objective if he/she becomes part of the
implementing team.

iii) Interviews and questionnaires

Interviews and questionnaires are also used to obtain descriptive data.

iv) Case study research design

A case study is an in-depth look at an individual or a single entity. A case study of person
can be done by tracing the age history from birth and noting the experiences and
environments that the person has been through. Several methods such as published
biographical materials, observation, clinical interviews, medical examination and tests, or

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achievement tests can be used to collect data for case studies. Such case studies are
helpful for persons in need of guidance and counseling, medical treatment and
rehabilitation. The case study method can also be used to study groups or projects. It can
provide data on the history of the group, group dynamics and processes.

Advantages
• Case studies provide in-depth information about an individual or group.
• The results can be fairly accurate if the observations and other data collection
methods are carried out well.

Limitations
• Case studies are time consuming and very expensive.
• Verification of information can be difficult and cannot be generalized to other
people or situations as each person or situation is unique.
• The case study data can be unreliable if the person collecting data is biased. Often
case study data is not verified by other persons.

v) Ethnographic studies
An ethnographic study is an in-depth description and interpretation of behaviours in a
cultural group. The researcher lives among the group, participates in the group activities
and collects information through interviews, observation and study of documents.

Strengths
• It is possible to collect in depth data about people’s lives.

Limitations
• It is time consuming and very expensive.
• The researcher can provide biased data which are not easily verifiable by other
researchers.
• The data are not generalizable to other situations.

vi) Historical research

Historical research is the systematic and objectives study which evaluates and synthesizes
data collected in order to establish facts and draw conclusions concerning past events. In
order to obtain credible facts and carry out a good historical research it is important to
ensure that:
• You have clear goal, objectives or hypothesis to ensure that the study is focused.
• You have sufficient evidence in the area of interest before embarking on the
research.
• You know where the sources of materials are and have a plan of how they will be
accessed.

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 • You are able to assess the facts for accuracy and authenticity through internal and
external criticism. Internal criticism checks on the accuracy of the facts. The
external criticism establishes whether the documents and sources are genuine. It
establishes who the author of the source documents was, whether he/she was a
trained historian, why the document was written and under what circumstances.
• After collecting the information, you as the researcher sorts out the facts,
synthesizes them and tries to identify trends and patterns. By so doing you are in a
better position to balance the facts and to give correct interpretation.

Strengths
• It helps us to understand the origins of our educational institutions.
• It helps us to understand the origins of practices used in educational institutions.
• It helps us appreciate how present practices and problems have evolved.
• We can learn from past successes and avoid repeating mistakes of the past.
• We can use past experiences to predict the future.

Limitations
• Historical research cannot give conclusive results about past events.
• There is possibility of errors in recording and interpreting events that happened in
the past.
• It is possible for the researcher to introduce own biases in the documentation and
interpretation of past events.
• It is time consuming and expensive.

Correlational research design

Correlational research design is a design in which the researcher gathers information
without changing the participant’s experiences and examines relations between variables.
Variables are factors which may influence changes in a population. Examples of variables
include age, formal education level, gender, religious background and socio-economical
level. Correlation refers to the degree of relationship between two or more variables. A
correlation coefficient ranges from 1.0 to -1.0. A correlation of 0 means that there is no
relationship between two variables. A positive correlation indicates that the two variables
tend to change in the same direction, for example, the older people get; the more patient
they become. A negative correlation between two variables indicates that they tend to
change in the opposite direction. For example, the older one gets; the slower the physical
movements. When two variables are correlated, they can be used to predict one another.
Two positively correlated variables can cause one another or both can be caused by
another variable.
Example of positively correlated variables

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Another example, if you give 3 tests of Maths, history and geography to a group of
pupils. The results of the tests can be analyzed statistically to obtain correlation
coefficients. If the correlation coefficient between the marks in Maths and geography is
0.80 while that between Maths and history is 0.50, we can conclude that Maths is likely
to be a better predictor of performance in geography than in history. Correlation,
however, does not mean causation. For example, if parent-child relationship correlates
with high academic performance, you cannot say for certain, that high academic
performance was caused by the parent-child relationship because there are many factors
that influence academic performance. Also academic performance can influence parent-
child relationship.

Strengths
• One can study relationships between variables

Limitations
• Does not allow inference on cause and effect relationships

Experimental research design

Experimental research design comprises of experimental design, modified experimental

design and natural experiment.

i) Experimental design
This is research design in which participants are randomly assigned to two or more
treatment conditions. In such a design, one studies the effect that manipulating and
independent variable has on a dependent variable. An independent variable is the one
anticipated or hypothesized to cause a change in the other variable known as the
dependent variable. A treatment such as a new teaching method is introduced in one
group and not in another similar group which is referred to as a control group. The two
groups are matched for all factors except the teaching method.

Strengths
• Permits inferences about cause and effect.

Limitations
• Findings may not generalize to real world situations.
• It is not possible to do experiments in all aspects of behaviour because of ethical
and practical factors.
• The control and experimental participants often influence one another.
• The experiment might create an unnatural environment that can influence results.

ii) Modified experimental designs

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Field experiments are a type of modified experimental design. Field experiments are
designs in which the participants are randomly assigned to treatment conditions in natural
settings. Treatment refers to a condition such as training, teaching method or a type of
reinforcement. For example, one can randomly assign children from one class into two
groups. One group is taught Maths by a teacher who only works all the examples on the
chalk board. In the other group, the teacher works the examples on the chalk board and
then children practise in their exercise books. After some lessons, children are tested to
find out if there is a difference in the performance of the two groups.

Strengths
• Permits generalization of findings to the real world.

Limitations
• Control over treatment is not as good as in laboratory experiments.

iii) Natural experiment

This is a design in which the researcher studies already existing treatments in natural
settings by carefully selecting groups of participants with similar characteristics. One can,
for example, compare pre-schools, carefully selecting the participants to ensure they have
similar characteristics. In natural experiments, one can study the same group before and
after the treatments and compare it with a group that has not undergone the treatment.

Strengths
• Permits study of naturally occurring variables which are not under control of the
researcher.

Limitations
• Obtained differences may be due to other factors other than treatment.

Non-Experimental research design

These would include correlations where the researcher relates (seeks to establish the
relationship) between two or more variables. This is where the researcher doesn’t
manipulate the independent variable, but just measures it.

Time-span research designs

i) Longitudinal research design

Longitudinal design is a research in which participants are studied repeatedly at different
ages over a period of time. The time span may range form months to several years. The
same group of children can be studied on their performance in Maths or Social Skills at
the age of 3, 5 and 7 years.

Strengths

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 • One can track performance or behaviour of a person/child over time. This allows
the researcher to see patterns as well as individual differences in development.
• It is possible to examine relationships between early and later events and
behaviour.
• Longitudinal studies show stability and changes in development over time.

Limitations
• Longitudinal studies are time consuming and can be quite expensive.
• These studies take a long time. Therefore, usually few people agree to participate
in such studies.
• Biased sampling where people who participate in such studies are likely to have
unique characteristics which might not represent the wider population.
• Selective attrition where many participants are likely to dropout and those who
remain could be different in important ways. The results based on the remaining
group cannot be generalized to the wider group.
• Practices where the effect of being repeatedly tested or observed can make
participants behave or perform in a different way.
• Cohort effects in which participants may have certain characteristics arising from
historical or cultural situations in which they have gone through and which may
influence their behaviour and performance.
• Changes in the field of psychology sociology or education, for example, new
theories or modification of theories may affect the way research is perceived or
interpreted.

ii) Cross sectional research design

This is a research in which groups of participants of different ages are studied at the same
point in time. One can study children’s academic aspirations by comparing at the same
time responses of 5, 7 and 9 year-olds.

Strengths
• One can compare and understand behaviour of children of different ages in one
go.
• It avoids problems of selective attrition, practice effects or changes in the field.

Problems of conducting cross sectional research

• One cannot study individual developmental trends or individual differences.
• If there is a wide age gap between groups being compared, cohort effects may
occur.

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LECTURE FOUR: QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Introduction
Researchers use different methods depending on whether they want to collect information
emphasizing measurement of achievements or processes, opinions and perceptions about
a programme or activity. This unit discusses methods and techniques used to collect
numerical or non-numerical data, their strengths and limitation.

Objectives: By the end of this unit you should be able to:-

• Define qualitative and quantitative research.
• Identify and describe qualitative and quantitative data collection procedures.
• Explain the strengths and limitations of the different data collection procedures.

Qualitative research collects information that shows how people in an area live and
function as a community. The information collected consists of the views, opinions,
feelings, values, norms aspirations, achievements and problems of a community group.
Qualitative methods help to build an in-depth picture of how a relatively small group
functions, how members relate and how different aspects of their lives are linked.
Qualitative methods also indicate how people understand their own situation, their
aspirations, problems and what their priorities are. Most of the data of qualitative research
is presented through descriptions. The research describes what most of the people said or
felt. It is difficult to use numerical form to analyze. Qualitative research does not use
numerical data like percentages and correlation coefficients extensively.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research methods

• The researcher needs to establish very good rapport to create trust so that people
can share their intimate views, opinions and thoughts.
• The researcher poses ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions. It helps the researcher to
understand social life of a community such as the opinions, relationships,
traditions, practices and interactions.
• It is flexible. Usually questions which are asked are open-ended.

Quantitative research is a method of carrying out an inquiry that emphasizes

measurement. The data collected is analyzed using percentages, correlation coefficients
and other statistical methods. This is because quantitative research methods collect data
that can be analyzed in numerical form. They pose the questions like who, what, when,
where, how much, how often? Things are measured or counted or close-ended questions
asked so that answers can be coded and analyzed numerically. Statistical analysis can be
used on quantitative data to give precise description in terms of averages, ratios, ranges or
percentages.

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 • Findings are usually analyzed as data is collected.
• The design of the study can be modified as the research progresses to follow up
significant findings as they emerge.
• Qualitative methods are used in flexible way but should be systematized to ensure
that the findings are objective and reliable.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research methods

• It is used to collect data that is counted or measured.
• Data is analyzed using statistics.
• Design a n d m e t h o d s a r e m o r e s y s t e m a t i c a n d s t a n d a r d i s e d
t h r o u gh o u t t h e research.
• The set design usually holds for all the aspects of a particular research such as
data collection and analysis.
• Quantitative research places emphasis on methodology, procedure and statistical
measures to test hypothesis and make predictions.

Strengths and Limitation of Qualitative Research

Strengths and usefulness
• Useful when planning a programme concerning social change.
• To get an in-depth understanding of a particular social context. Information
collected consists of people’s views, opinions, values, norms, practices and
aspirations.
• To get relevant indicators of qualitative change according to the target group.
• Useful When time and money are limited.
• Useful when addressing sensitive and personal issues.
• It is easy for unskilled researchers such a as community members to participate in
this type of research.

Limitations
• A researcher can be derailed to collecting a lot of unnecessary data.
• Data are not as precise and objective as in quantitative research.

Strengths and Limitation of Quantitative Research

Strengths and usefulness
• Useful when accurate and precise data are required.
• Useful in getting a broad view of a population.
• Useful in identifying major differences in characteristics of a population.
• Useful in finding out if there is and the extent of relationship between problems
and causes.
• Provides hard (statistical) data to prove that a problem exists or to show results of
an intervention.

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 • Establishes clear baseline data that can be used to evaluating impact of an
intervention.
• Data tends to be more convincing to especially policy makers because real
numbers and comparisons are presented.

Limitations
• Can be expensive and may require skilled researchers and data analysts.
• May ignore relevant views of respondents, when closed ended questions are used.

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 LECTURE FIVE: METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Introduction
This lecture discusses methods that are commonly used in the study of human behaviour
and in education. You should understand different methods of collecting data and be able
to select appropriate ones depending on data you would like to collect.

Objectives: By the end of this unit you should be able to:

• Identify general research methods in psychology and human learning.
• Describe the main features of each of the methods.
• Explain the strengths and limitations of each of the methods.

Researchers use different methods of collecting data. These include the following:-

Observation

i) Naturalistic observation: Involves recording behaviour of interest in the natural

setting. This helps the researcher to observe things as they are or as they really
happen in real life.

Strengths
• The investigator observers directly the everyday behaviour one wishes to explain.
• The investigator is able to collect other data related to the study as he/she carries
out the observations.
• It is possible to get accurate data.
• Real, natural behaviour can be observed and recorded.
Limitations
• One cannot control conditions under which participants are observed.
• Observer’s bias may affect accuracy. Observer’s bias can include such things as
people’s attitudes or training which influence the way they perceive things.
• The presence of the observer may influence the way participants behave during
observation.
• Observation does not tell us about cause and effect.
• It can be a slow and expensive method.

ii) Structured observation: Involves observation of behaviour in a laboratory

setting where conditions are the same for all participants.

Procedures used in systematic observation

• Specimen - record which is a description of everything that is said and done
during an observation session.
• Event sampling - which involves recording all, instances of a particular behaviour
during a specified period, for example every lesson. One can, for instance,
observe how many times a teacher praises children in a period of one lesson.
• Time sampling - which involves recording
19 whether certain behaviours occur
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 during a sample of short intervals. One can have a checklist of the behaviours and
the observation time is divided into a series of, say, 30 seconds or 1 minute
intervals.

Strengths
• Each participant is granted opportunity to show the behaviour of interest without
interference.
• It is possible to get accurate data.

Limitations
• May not yield observation of typical everyday behaviour.
• Observer’s bias may limit accuracy.
• Observer influence may limit accuracy.

Self reports

i) Clinical interview
This is a flexible interview procedure in which the researcher obtains a comprehensive
account of the participants’ thoughts and behaviours by questioning the participant. Jean
Piaget used this method in his studies. It is also used by doctors, psychologist,
psychiatrists, and counselors to collect information from clients.

Strengths
• This method comes close to the way participants think in everyday life.
• One can collect a lot of information.

Limitations
• The report could be inaccurate because of researcher’s bias or influence.
• It is difficult to compare individuals because questions posed to different people
are not necessarily the same.

ii) Structured interviews, questionnaires and tests

In these instruments, every participant responds to the same questions in the same way.

Strengths
• Data collection and scoring is efficient.
• It is possible to compare the responses of the participants.

Limitations
• These methods do not always give the same depth of information as the clinical
interview.
• There could be inaccurate reporting intentionally or unintentionally.

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 iii) Interview schedules
Interview schedules involve face-to-face and one-to-one sessions.

Advantages
• The interviewer and respondent are able to clarify issues that may be ambiguous.
• All questions are usually responded to.
• The interviewer is able to gather other data about the respondent and environment
which may be useful in the research.
• Data collected is often more accurate than in questionnaires.

Disadvantages
• Interviews can be time consuming and expensive.
• Respondents may not be available when you want them.
• It is a slow method of data collection.
• Respondents may be intimidated by the presence of the interviewer and therefore
not give objective responses.
• The interview might not be exactly the same from one respondent to another since
new questions and clarifications may be needed from different individuals.
• Respondents might not give accurate information. It is not easy for the researcher
find out whether the respondents are telling the truth or not. Since the respondent
is alone, her/his information is what the researcher takes as the truth.

Guidelines for doing a good interview

• Prepare the questions. Give them to another person to critique them.
• Make questions that are relevant to the study, clear, simple, short and as few as
possible.
• Compile the questions in logical sequence.
• Study your questions, know them by heart to make questioning fast.
• Inform the respondents long before the day you intend to visit. Ask for feedback.
Honour and respect their suggested dates.
• Be punctual, brief and to the point.
• Build a rapport with the respondent before starting the real interview. You can do
this by starting with introductions and explanation of the objectives of the study.
• Get a convenient, comfortable and quiet place for the interview.
• Be clear, polite, modest in dressing and when addressing the respondent.
• Avoid asking embarrassing and very personal questions.
• Do not push or force the respondent to answer a question. Respect his/her
decision.
• Develop a quick way of recording. Have an assistant, take quick short notes or use
a tape recorder if the interviewee agrees to it.

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 iv) Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)
Focus group discussions are similar to interviews but involve more than one person. They
are discussions held with a group of people. The number should be 6-10 respondents.
FGD is an effective method of data collection in qualitative studies, for example, those on
opinions, attitudes, likes, dislikes or aspirations.

Strengths
• Plenty of data is collected within a short time from many people.
• The researcher and the respondents are able to clarify issues.
• The researcher is able to collect ‘other’ data related to the environment (human
and physical) that may be useful to the study.
• Most of the information collected is correct. This is because the group members
tend to censure one another’s responses. No respondent will dare tell a lie when
she/he knows that those around her/him know everything about her/him.

Limitations
• The method is more time-consuming than individual interviews as more
respondents are allowed to give their views on one question.
• Sometimes only a few people speak because some of the participants tend to
dominate the sessions.
• The group may stifle or prevent a person wishing to give the true picture of the
situation if this is not acceptable to the group.

Guidelines of doing a good FGD

• Make prior arrangements about the date, time, venue and the number and mix of
respondents.
• Prepare the list of lead questions and make sure you are quite familiar with them.
• Get names of participants. Address them by name. Call out those who tend not to
participate to ensure full participation.
• The group should be about 6-10 respondents.
• Have a group which has similar characteristics such as same sex, age, economic
status, profession.
• Have another person to record the responses. You can use a tape recorder but with
clearance from the group.

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 v) Questionnaires
These are questions mailed or given to respondents to answer on their own.
Questionnaires can be closed or open-ended. In open-ended questions, respondents are
free to respond to questions in the way they choose. Respondents could, for example, be
asked “What is the cause of discipline problems in our schools?” The answers are likely
to vary from one respondent to another. In close-ended questionnaires, answers are
provided and the respondent is asked to choose the answer. For example, “Indicate by an
X the causes of discipline problems in your schools among the options given below.”
Answers to close-ended questions reflect facts and opinions more accurately. However,
they give no room for other factors which could be significant and true. An example of
close-ended questionnaire/interview
1. Since completing your training as a teacher have you had any problem obtaining a
job?

Yes No

2. How often was this, the case?

Always Most of the time Hardly Never

3. What among the following fall within your immediate plans?

Go to university Look for another job

Stay where I am Take leave for 2 years

An example of an open ended questionnaire

1. What would you like to do as soon as you complete the ECDE Diploma training?
2. What are the reasons for your choice of this action?
3. What else can you do if your first plan does not succeed?

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Advantages of questionnaires
• Questionnaires are a quick method of collecting data.
• Plenty of data may be collected if mailed questionnaires are returned.
• Use of questionnaires is cheaper than interviews and FGDs.

Disadvantages
• It is not possible to clarify ambiguous questions in mailed questionnaires.
• In questionnaires, the researcher may not know who actually responded to the
questionnaire.
• Respondents may give incorrect data if they do not understand some questions.
• Many questions may not be responded to; arising in gaps in data.
• Many questionnaires might not be returned.
• Questionnaires are mainly useful with literate people.
• The information received may not be correct because the person who responded
to the questionnaire may not be the one who was expected to respond to it. The
person to whom the questionnaire is sent may give it to another person to fill it.

Guidelines of developing a good questionnaire

• Questions should be relevant to the problem. They should be clear, short and
simple.
• The questionnaire should start with a short explanation of the objectives of the
study.
• Put questions in a logical sequence.
• Give another person the questionnaire to critique before compiling the final copy.
• Avoid questions that my require data that may be embarrassing to the respondent.
• Give the respondents time limit within which to mail questionnaires back to you.
• Enclose a self-addressed stamped envelope to quicken the mailing back of the
questionnaire.

vi) Case studies/Clinical method

The case study method is also referred to as clinical method in psychological studies. It
involves getting a picture of an individual’s psychological functioning. Data is obtained
by combining interviews, observation, text scores and sometimes psycho- physiological
assessments. The method is used a lot by doctors, psychologists, social workers and
counselors. The case study method can also be used to study a group or youth group or an
organization such as an ECD centre of primary school. Both qualitative and quantitative
methods can be used to collect data.

Strengths
• It provides rich descriptive insights into factors that affect behaviour and
development of an individual.
• It brings to light many factors that affect development.

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Limitations
• May be biased by the researchers’ theoretical preferences or experiences.
• The findings apply only to the individual who is studied.
• This method may be time consuming and expensive.
• Sometimes data is not collected in a systematic way and therefore does not give a
clear picture of the individual.

Ethnography
In ethnography, the researcher becomes a participant observer of a culture or distinct
social group. He lives with them during the research period. He participates in all their
activities. He shares their life with them including their joys and sorrows. During his stay
with them he collects extensive information on the culture of the people, their traditions,
beliefs, values, aspirations and practices.

Strengths
• One gets a detailed description than can be obtained during a single observational
visit, interview or questionnaire.

Limitations
• Researcher’s values and biases can influence the data obtained and how they are
interpreted.
• Usually the data cannot be generalized to other settings

Psychological texts
Psychological tests are used to measure and assess human behaviour. Some of the
psychological tests are used to assess intelligence, vocational interests, values, attitudes,
scholastic achievement or personality. A person’s performance on these tests is compared
to others in a similar situation. Some of the tests are administered on individual basis
while others are administered in group settings.

Strengths
• Many psychological tests are quite reliable as they consistently and repeatedly
give accurate results.

Limitations
• Some of the tests are culturally biased since some of the items are related to
experiences of a particular setting or cultures.

Survey Method
The survey method is used to collect a lot of data from a large number of people within a
very short period of time. Surveys are, for example, used to study types of diseases found
in an area, opinions of people on discipline in schools, services available in homestead,

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political opinions or attitudes. Surveys usually use questionnaires or interviews.
Questions can be administered to participants by mail. Interviews are done through either
telephones or person to person.

Strengths
• A sample when well selected, i.e. it is representative of the population can be used
as a basis for generalizing and predicting what is likely to be observed in future on
the basis of current findings in the larger population.
• It is less expensive than using a study of the whole population.
• It can also be done within a relatively short time.

Limitations
• The results are likely to be inaccurate if the sample is not representative of the
population.
• Sometimes a return of the questionnaires is poor and some questionnaires are not
complete.
• Sometimes it is difficult to get in-depth information.

Experimental method
Experimental research method is possibly the most scientific of the research methods. It
tests for cause and effect of behaviour. It is crucial to understanding and predicting
behaviour.

Strengths of the method

• It is precise.
• It is easy to replicate and verify.
• Comparison of the treatment and control groups makes the results more
convincing.

Limitations
• The method can be lengthy and rigorous.
• The method is best carried out by the people trained in research.
• It can be expensive.

Self description
Individual can provide important information f o r research studies through self
description. They could write their life stories (autobiographies), through compositions,
diaries, paintings and drawings or drama. The accuracy and reliability of such data will
depend on how much the individuals want to disclose about themselves, the purpose and
context of the research.

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Correlation method
In correlation method, two sets of variables or attributes are compared to see the extent to
which they are related and if they can be used to predict each other. The correlation
between two sets of variables is indicated by means of correlation coefficient which may
be positive or negative. A positive coefficient ranges from 0 to 1.0 while a negative
coefficient ranges from 0 to -1.0. 1 is a perfect correlation and 0 indicates that there is no
correlation between two sets of variables.

Achievement tests
Achievement tests measure what the student has learnt or the skills he/she has mastered.
Teachers administer many achievements tests based on subjects during term time, end of
term or year. External examinations conducted by Kenya National Examinations Council
(KNEC) are also achievement tests.

Rating techniques
Rating technique is a type of observational or self descriptive method whereby besides
categorizing behaviour or items to be observed, one also classifies behaviour according to
evaluative characteristics. One makes qualitative judgments. Rating techniques use rating
scales. The scale has a number of positions which are defined through brief descriptive
statements.

Example of a rating scale

Please indicate by an X your rating of the methods your teachers use to maintain class
discipline.
Method Often Sometimes Rarely
Praises children
Gives physical reward
Pats children
Scolds children
Slaps children
Beats children
Allows children a lot of time to play

Strengths
• Can be done within a fairly short time.
• It can gibe fairly accurate information.

Challenges in use of rating scales

• Ensuring rate reliability. The rate(s) should have precise indicators of the
behaviour or item to be rated so as to increase reliability. Reliability is better

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 when the classification of the ratings is not too wide. A scale of 3-5 produces
better results than a wider one.
• Rate bias. Some raters might be strict while others are lenient on the impression of
the people or items being observed.
• Rating scales are not suitable for behaviours that do not occur frequently. The
observation would have to be extended for a long time. This would be time
consuming, expensive and would reduce reliability.

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 LECTURE SIX: PROPOSAL WRITING
Introduction
A research proposal is a document which describes how the researcher anticipates
carrying out his/her study. It describes the purpose and importance of the study, research
site, the sample, instruments and methods of analysing data. The proposal is developed
before the researcher goes to the field to select the site and the sample and to collect data.

Layout of the Research Proposal

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
1.2 Purpose of the Study
1.3 Statement of the Problem
1.4 Specific Objectives or Hypotheses
1.5 Research Questions
1.6 Justification/Significance of the Study
1.7 Limitations of the Study
1.8 Delimitation of the Study
1.9 Theoretical Framework
1.10 Conceptual Framework
1.11 Operational Definition of Terms

CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Review of related list
Review of related studies

CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Research Site
3.3 Target Population
3.4 Sampling Procedures and Sample
3.5 Description of Research Instruments
3.5.1 Piloting
3.5.2 Validity and reliability
3.6 data collection procedures
3.7 data analysis procedures
3.8 Ethical issues
References
Appendices
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Research instruments
Work plan
Estimate budget

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 LECTURE SEVEN: IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL
• It helps the researcher to have a clear picture of how he/she will
carry out the study from the beginning to the end.
• It identifies the gap the researcher hopes to fill by carrying out the study.
• It describes the purpose of and the objectives of the study.
• It describes the importance the research findings to those involved in the
study.
• It describes the literature related of the study.
• It describes the methodology the researcher hopes to use in the
field. This includes description of the research site, the sample,
instruments, data collection procedures, data analysis, time schedule and
budget.

Content and Structure of the Proposal

1. Title of the study.
The title of the study should be clear and specific. It should state what the
research topic is and often the site of the study.
2. Introduction

i) Background of the study

This consists of a short description of the research problem. This is supported by
carefully selected literature review.

ii) Statement of the problem

The most important aspect of the research problem is that the researcher identifies
the gap he/she hopes to fill by carrying out the study. To help him/her identify this
gap he/she needs to clearly understand the problem. He/She needs to review
widely the literature on the problem in order to find out what has been done and
what remains to be done. After reviewing the literature, the researcher needs to go
to the field. This will help him/her understand what is happening in relation to the
problem further.

The statement of the problem should be clear, precise, brief, and easy to
understand. The problem should facilitate easy collection and analysis of data.
The statement of the problem needs to identify the gap in knowledge that the
researcher hopes to fill by carrying out the study. The statement should indicate:-
• The summary of past related research studies.
• Where necessary the theory that will guide the research.
• The source of the problem.
• The importance of this problem to those affected.
• The gap that exists in terms of knowledge and practices that the researcher
hopes to fill.
• How the researcher hopes to understand the problem better by collecting
and analysing data.

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 • The delimitation or the scope of the problem in terms of persons affected,
materials and situations.

Importance of the statements of the problem

The knowledge gap identified by the researcher in the statement of the problem helps to
guide the researcher on:-

The goal and objectives to the research.

The hypotheses or research questions to formulate.

The justification of the research study.

The data to be collected. The study should limit itself to collecting only
that data which will address the problem stated.

iii) Aim/Goal or Purpose of the study

This is a broad intention of what the researcher hopes to achieve at the end of his/her
study.

iv) Objectives of the study

Objectives are specific statements which state what that researcher intends to achieve at
the end of the study. These should be derived from the goal or purpose of the study.
Objectives are very important because they guide all the activities of the researcher. They
determine the data to be collected, how this data will be organized and analysed. They
also determine the presentation of findings. The data collected is organised and analysed
under the objectives. The findings of the study are also presented under the objectives.
Objectives must be:
• Clearly stated.
• Testable.
• Measurable.
• Stated in behavioural terms.

Importance of objectives
• They determine the nature and form of the proposed study. They help to bring out
clearly what the problem is all about and what the researcher wants to find out.
• They determine the hypotheses and research questions to be formulated.
• They determine the data to be collected and how it will be analysed.
• They determine how data will be presented in the research report.

Hypotheses
These are statements which consist of predictions that the researcher makes at the
beginning of the study. They are based on the theory, prior research or actual problems on
the ground. The findings of the study are expected to confirm or reject these predictions
or hypotheses made at the start of the study. There are two types of hypothesis: -
alternative hypothesis and null hypothesis. Alternative hypothesis is the prediction that
there would be a change in the dependent variable/outcome because of a manipulation of
the independent variable. The null hypothesis suggests that there would be no effect even
after the manipulation of the independent variables.
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The importance of a hypothesis
• It helps to delimit the scope of the study. This involves identifying the boundaries
or the scope of the study.
• It keeps the researcher on the track when carrying out the study.
• It helps the researcher to sharpen his/her focus in the study. His/her understands
more clearly what he/she is expected to do in the study.
• It guides the researcher on the type of data to be collected and how it will be
analysed.

Guidelines for developing goods hypothesis

• Read relevant literature and critique what you read.
• Discuss with colleagues and other experts about your problem so that you
understand its origin and why it is important for you to seek a solution.
• Try and understand the problem clearly. This will help you establish what has
been done, the gaps that exists and data to be collected to fill these gaps.
• Examine the available data, literature and other records to establish concerns
identified possible trends, gaps, consistencies, inconsistencies, peculiarities and
clues.
• A hypothesis expresses relationships between two or more variables. The
researcher therefore needs to ensure that the statements of the hypothesis have
two variables.

Examples of good hypotheses

The learners who perform well in ECDE will also perform well in KCPE.

The orphans and vulnerable children drop out of school and repeat grades
more than other children.
Variables
Hypotheses normally have two or more variables. A variable is anything that influences
change. Variables are differences in the population which in sampling are referred to as
strata. For example, differences in levels of formal education (literate versus illiterate);
economic level (rich versus poor); gender (men versus women), age (differences in age,
adults versus youth or adolescents versus children).
v) Significance/Justification of the study
Justification of the study is statements that show the importance of the data collected.
Justification statements show:-
• Who will make use the data collected.
• How the data collected will benefit the beneficiaries.
• How the data collected will be used to solve some of the problems faced by
beneficiaries.

vi) Delimitation/Scope of the study

This involves stating the boundaries or the scope of the study. Examples of delimitation:-
• The study will only collect data from ECDE children aged 4-5 years who live in
Gachagi slum, Thika.
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 • The study will only sample young mothers aged below 30 years and who have
children aged 4-6 years of age.

vii) Limitations of the study

These are problems or challenges that the researcher knows may adversely affect data
collection, reliability and the generalization of results. Often the researcher has no control
over these problems and challenges. Examples of limitations:-
• The study was carried out only among single parents living in slum areas. The
results obtained might not be similar to those which may be obtained from single
mothers in the urban areas as they live under different conditions.
• The time projected for the study during the implementation was reduced by
donors due to lack of funds. The researcher was therefore forced to reduce the
sample. This is likely to limit the generalization of the results.

viii) Definition of operational terms

These are definitions of the applied terminology in the research study. They should imply
the intended meaning as may be opposed to dictionary meaning. For example, a child in a
research study done on ECDE children, should be ‘any human being between age 3 -8
years’

3. Review of literature
The researcher needs to study documents, reports and researchers that have been
carried out in relation to the problem being investigated. Literature reviews does
not mean that the problem has been investigated and solved. It means that there
are other researchers who have attempted to carry out similar studies and have
written on some of the aspects of the problem. When carrying out literature
review, the researcher should remain focused on the problem being investigated.
His/her must also credit all the authors quoted. The researcher needs to
summarize:-
• The theories related to the problem.
• Researches carried on the problem and related problems.
• Other information related to the problem.

Importance of literature review

Literature review helps the researcher:-
• To establish what has been done or written on the problem being investigated.
• To identify the information available on the problem.
• To identify the gaps available in terms of knowledge, skills and practices.
• To provide the researcher with new knowledge on the problem.
• To identify trends, patterns, consistence, and inconsistencies that exist in the
researches carried out.
• To have a clearer picture of the problem.

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 • To refine the problem further in order to make it clear.
• To refine the problem further in order to make it clear.
• To direct the researcher on what to focus on during sampling and data collection.
• To develop better objectives, research questions and hypotheses.
• To obtain more information on the research design and methods of data collection
and analysis.
Types of literature sources

Primary data is information that a researcher gets from the original informant like
through interviews, etc. one gets first hand information/data through asking
questions through questionnaires, interviews and observations

Secondary data is information that has already been collected and documented by
others. The main sources of secondary data are (1) published sources and (2)
unpublished sources
Published sources

• Official government publications such as ECD policy framework, Children’s Act,

syllabi, reports of Education Commissions and Taskforces, and conference
reports.
• Publications from universities and other research institutions.
• Reports from development agencies, government departments, NGOs and
schools.
• Newspapers and periodicals.
• Books in libraries and other institutions.
Unpublished sources

• Reports and documents form government departments, NGOs, private sector and
institutions.
• Researches in universities and other institutions.
Strengths of the method

• One can describe and explain change by analyzing data collected at different
times on similar issues.
• One can get a rich source of information to compare different environments.
• One can save time and money by using secondary data.
• Use of secondary information helps to avoid duplicating previous studies.
• Information helps those implementing projects to avoid making the same mistakes
made by others in the past.
Limitations

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• Secondary data is not always as accurate as field data.
• The original investigator might not release all the data available.
• The original investigator may have had a specific goal for the research and this
could introduce a bias in the data.
• The researcher may have insufficient information about how data was collected.
This information is important for determining potential sources of bias or errors.

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 LESSON EIGHT: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
All variables’ inter-relationship should be seen in the flow of the literature reviewing.
This brings the picture of how independent variables and extraneous variables influence
results of any occurrence/idea under the study.
It’s imperative to note that a researcher can engage in either manual or electronic search
of literature review

4. Design of the study and methodology.

The design of the study methodology consists of the following:-

• Research site
The researcher identifies the research site and states briefly the reasons for
choosing the site. His/her also identifies the criteria for selecting the research site.
Some of the criteria to be considered include:-

Accessibility of the research site. The research site should be accessible
for data collection throughout the period of data collection.

Nearness of the research site. The research site selected needs to be near
so that little time is spent travelling there. Nearness also reduces costs on
travel.

Availability of the sample. The research site should have adequate sample
required for the study.

Safety. The research site selected should be safe for data collection. This is
an important consideration especially in places where insecurity is a
problem.

Have a sample willing to participate in the study. The research site
selected needs to have a sample which is willing to participate in the
research and will give the information required.

Description of the research site

The researcher describes briefly the research site in terms of the following
aspects: - physical features, climatic conditions, communities living in the
research site, economic activities and social services.
The researcher should visit the research site before finalizing the proposal to
ensure that the site meets her criteria for selecting it.

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 • Type or design of Research
The researcher describes briefly the type of research he/she intends to carry out,
for example, cross-sectional, longitudinal, survey, case study, etc.

• Population of the study.

The researcher describes the population of the research. For example, this study
targets all preschool teachers in a particular educational zone.

• Sample.
The researcher describes how he/she will select the sample (sampling procedure)
and reasons for using the sampling techniques he/she intends to use. She/he needs
to give the number selected and categories of the sample. When deciding on the
sample the researcher needs to consider (determinants of sample size):-

The categories of respondents required in the sample, for example, parents,
teachers, schools, or children.

The numbers required in each of the categories.

The data to be collected from each of the categories.
For example, a study on relationships between preschool children and their parents
will collect data from the preschool children, their parents, teachers, local leaders and
religious leaders in a given sub-location or location. The categories in the sample will
include adolescent boys and girls, their parents (fathers and mothers), teachers (male
and female), religious (male and female and different denominations). The researcher
needs to draw a table summarizing this sample, for example:-

Table 1: summary of the sample

Categories Population Sampl Percentage
Male Female Total Male EEe
Female Total
Preschool children 20 20 40 10 10 20 50
Parents 20 20 40 10 10 20 50
Teachers 10 10 20 5 5 10 50
Local leaders 5 5 10 2 2 4 20
Religious 5 5 10 2 2 4 20
leaders

To identify the sample required, the researcher needs to select most appropriate sampling
methods from a variety of sampling techniques. Qualities of a good sample would
include:-
♣ Be representative of the population
♣ Provide all the data population
♣ Be available and willing to participate in the research
♣ Give the correct data.

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Sampling methods include:-
 Probability sampling where a sample is designed to be representative of the whole
population e.g. random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic sampling, cluster
sampling, purposive sampling, etc
 Non-probability sampling where there is no requirement foe thee sample to be
representative of the whole population, or when the sample is chosen to include
specific categories of individual. This includes opportunity self-selected and
snowball sampling, volunteer sampling, etc
In most researches, researcher uses a combination of sampling methods (multi-
stage sampling).

• Research instruments
The researcher decides about the data to be collected in order to address the problem
under investigation. After identifying the data to be collected, the researcher then decides
from whom to collect it and the best tools to be used. The possible data collection tools to
select from include questionnaires, interviews schedules, focused group discussions,
observation schedules and measurement. His/her will give a brief description of each of
the instruments. This description should state e.g. to study on effects of free primary
education (FPE), will collect data from teachers using interviews towards FPE, issues of
discipline, provision of textbooks and other materials, availability of funds, its
achievements, problems experienced and recommendations they have for improving the
FPE. After deciding on the data collection instruments, the researcher develops the
questions to be asked.

• Data collection procedures

The researcher gives a brief description of how data will be collected. Data collection
involves the following activities which should be documented in the proposal:-

Deciding on who will collect data and why. The researcher needs to decide
whether he/she will collect the data alone or he/she will require assistance. He/She
needs to indicate reasons for his/her decision.

Making preparations for field work. For example, getting permission to carry out
the research from relevant authorities, informing the sample when she will collect
data.

Deciding how the data will be collected e.g. if the study involves interviewing
parents or teachers, the researcher has to decide and inform the respondents
whether they will be interviewed alone or in a group.

Deciding when and from where the data will be collected. It is important to
inform the respondents what time the data will be collected. For example, if you
are doing a study on parents with children in preschools, let the parents know
whether you will meet them in the school or in their homes.

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 • Data analysis
The researcher describes briefly how he/she intends to analyze the data he/she will
collect. His/her should decide if he/she needs to tally the data, calculate percentages,
tabulate data, draw graphs or charts. These help to summarize and present data in a
form that makes it easier to understand and to identify trends and patterns.

5. References
The researcher outlines the references of documents or books read by the researcher
to help him/her to carry out the study.

6. Time schedule
The researcher states how long the research will take. He/She breaks this period into
manageable time schedules showing how long it will take to develop instruments,
prepare the field for data collection, collect data, analyze data and write the report.

7. Budget
The researcher presents an estimate budget for the research. This budget should also
be broken down to show how much funds are required to select the sample, prepare
instruments, collect data analyze, write and produce a report.

Activity
The ECDE committee in your school has found a donor who has promised to support a
researcher to find out impact of school feeding programme on learning performance of
learners age 4-6 years. The donor requires a proposal written on this project. Please
compile this proposal for them because they know you are attending a degree course in
Mount Kenya University. Describe briefly:-
• The outline of your proposal
• The instruments you would use to collect data and why
• The time frame for the study and why.
• The budget you would propose for the study and why.

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 LECTURE NINE: DESIGNING A RESEARCH STUDY
The design of the research project consists of the stages that a researcher goes through
from the time of identifying the project to the writing of the research report.

Objectives: By the end of this unit you should be able to:-

• Identify the steps required to go through to carry out a research project.
• Explain the importance of a research proposal.
• State the outline of a proposal.
• Explain the contents of the major elements of the proposal.
• Define the terms population and sample.
• Describe the sample and sampling procedure.
• Identify and describe research tools.
• Describe the data collection procedures.
• Describe the data analysis procedures.

Major steps in research

The following are the major steps in research:-
• Selection of the problem. This is the identification of the research gap.
• Development of the proposal.
• Review of related literature.
• Formulation of goal, research objectives, research questions or hypothesis.
• Design of research project; deciding on research design, research site, sample,
instruments to collect data and analyzing data.
• Collection of data.
• Organizing of data collected.
• Interpretation of data collected.
• Developing conclusions of the research study.
• Writing the research report.
• Publication of the report.
• Dissemination of the findings.

Selection of the problem

Every research study starts with the researcher identifying a problem whose solution
he/she considers will offer useful information for child development or the education
system. A researcher needs to narrow her problem down to address problems related to
his/her discipline and area of interest. For example, if the researcher is in ECD, he/she
should focus on problems related to ECD. If he/she is in primary education, she should
focus in that area.

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Possible sources of research problems/topics.
• Curriculum - types of curriculum and curriculum materials used in ECDE
programmes; processes used to develop ECDE curriculum; availability of ECDE
centres; how well the teachers are able to use ECDE curriculum materials
(syllabus, text books, learning and play materials)
• Educational materials/ learning and play materials - types of learning and play
materials available for young children both at home and in school; how these
materials are developed; how well they help children to acquire the concepts,
knowledge, skills and attitudes.
• Teaching learning methods - Types of methods used in ECDE centres; how well
they help the children to acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes.
• Assessment tools used to assess children in ECDE centres.
• Services available in ECDE programmes - Types of services; ages of children
served etc.
• Children with special needs – types of children with special needs; services
available for them both in ECDE centres and at home; awareness of parents and
communities on the needs of children with special needs; types of support given
to parents and ECDE teachers caring for these children.
• Management, administration and supervision of educational programmes - types
of management and administration in ECDE centres e.g. types of committees and
their roles; other actors etc.
• How children learn.
• Methods used to help children learn.
• Children’s growth and development - milestones of growth and development;
abilities.
• Child health and nutrition - common diseases; on childhood types of foods given
to young children weaning foods, practices and taboos, care of young children,
caregivers and their roles etc.
• Community involvement in the development of care and educational programmes.

Principles in selecting a research problem

The selection of a research problem is a difficult task. It often takes a long time. The
following are some principles or considerations that can guide a researcher when
selecting a research problem:-
• The problem should be related to the researcher’s area of study, discipline and
interest. This ensures that the researcher has adequate knowledge and skills to
carry out the study. She/he is also able to understand better the literature she
reviews, what data to collect, how to analyze and interprets data collected.
• The problem will add new knowledge and learning. The researcher needs to
ensure that the problem selected is bringing in new information that will be useful
and that will contribute to new learning in the area of study.

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 • The problem should be her original work. The researcher needs to ensure that the
problem he/she has selected has nor been copied from other researchers. In case
of replicating research, the researcher needs to make this clear. He/She should
however, use different environments and sample.
• Workability. This involves the researcher ensuring that:

Resources are adequate to carry out the study. The resources include
money, equipment and people.

Time available is adequate to carry out the whole study.

She is able to get adequate sample from the population available within
the research site.

The methodology identified for the study is manageable and easily
understood. His/her instruments should be simple to understand, easy to
administer and analyse. The research site should also be easily accessible
throughout the period of data collection.
• Critical mass. The problem should be of sufficient magnitude. It should be a
serious problem that affects a large number of people in a large area. It must have
such serious effects on those affected that they feel they must have it addressed
urgently. The problem should also have enough variables to be studied. Three
should also be adequate sources of information for literature review.
• Theoretical value. The researcher needs to ensure that the study will contribute
new knowledge that will add value to the discipline of study. The research
findings should also add more literature for future studies, improve personal and
professional growth of the researcher and be useful to other professionals.
• Practical value. The researcher needs to ensure that the study will provide new
knowledge which will help to improve practices of professionals and practitioners
and also improve the lives of the people affected by the problem.

How to find a research problem/topic

In order to find research problem, the researcher needs to be motivated and interested to
do research. She/he should appreciate the value of research in improving her personal and
professional life in contributing new knowledge to the discipline. To be able to get a good
research problem the researcher needs to:-
• Become a scholar. His/her must be interested in reading about issues and
problems in his/her area of interest.
• Look for gaps, difficulties and explanations given on issues. His/her needs to find
out what areas have not yet been researched and which areas are lacking data.
• Watch out for inconsistencies and contradictions on issues.
• Observe the problems that emerge during the implementation of projects in
his/her area of interest. What problems have emerged that is of concern to
professionals, practitioners, beneficiaries and researchers
• Read, listen, discuss and think critically. His/her must acquire an attitude of
reading and questioning whatever she reads; he/she needs to listen to people and

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 question whatever they say. It is important to start to question the obvious beliefs
and practices. Why are they the way they are? Can they be improved? Can they be
changed? If so how? She needs to carry a notebook to write down ideas as they
come.
• To criticize and challenge statements made in articles, books, research studies and
in what people say.
• To associate with researchers, professionals and intellectually competent people
in his/her field of study. This will motivate him/her to carry out research.
• To follow up ideas that stem from current researches. In some cases it is possible
to replicate a research done by someone else in order to try and establish whether
he/she will get similar findings in other environments. (verify the findings)

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 LECTURE TEN: ETHICAL AND TECHNICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH

Research is governed by rules and regulations which help to reduce conflicts and
misunderstanding among researchers. All those carrying out research studies are expected
to observe these rules and regulations.

Objectives: By the end of this unit you should be able to:-

Identify the ethnics that govern research.
Explain the research ethnics.
Indentify and explain problems encountered while undertaking research.
Explain how the problems can be avoided or solved.

Research Ethics
Encroaching on others, privacy, freedom and procedure. The researcher should take into
account the following factors in relation to privacy, freedom and procedure:-
♣ Privacy: Ensure that information being collected does not encroach on private life
of respondents.
♣ Respect: Respect the respondent’s decisions on what information to give. If that is
information that they feel uncomfortable to give, the researcher should respect
their decision.
♣ Confidentiality: The researcher should ensure complete confidentiality of
information collected.
♣ She should not reveal the names of the respondents who give her information
without their permission.
♣ Give respondents freedom to make decisions about when and where to be
interviewed.
♣ Plagiarism: It is against research ethics to copy other people’s work. Research
should be the original work of the researcher. If you want to refer to other
people’s researchers you must credit them.
♣ Crediting the sources of information: You should always credit the authors of
information that you obtain from books, other publications and internet.
♣ Voluntary participation: The respondents need to be given the freedom to decide
whether to participate in the study or not. In case of young children, their parents
must give this permission, preferably in writing.
♣ Informed consent: The researcher needs to explain to the respondent the
objectives of the study, how the data collected will be used and what they will be
expected to do in the study. This will help them to make informed decisions on
whether or not to participate in the study.
♣ Minimize risks to human beings: The research should ensure that the research
carried out has minimal negative or none negative effect on the respondents. For

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 example, it advisable to avoid doing research may leave them with little time to
study. This may result in their performing poorly in the national examinations.
♣ Integrity: Researcher should report the data collected without changing it. She
should also not distort the meaning of the data. The research should not expose
issues which could undermine the integrity or the personal lives of either the
respondents or those mentioned in the study. The researcher should maintain a
moral code of behavior which is beyond any reproach by avoiding immoral or
corrupt activities.

Limitations in Research Study

Any researcher that sets out to carry research study encounters a variety of challenges and
problems. These problems vary depending on the site of the research, the age and ethnic
background of the researcher and the respondent, type of data collected as well as tools
and language use to collected data. It is important that the researcher is aware of possible
problems before he/she starts the research so that he/she decides how he/she will deal
with them if they occur. Some of these include:-

Language Problem
Most of the research tools are developed in English. Since the majority of communities,
do not speak English, tools have to be translated into their mother tongues. The translated
version of the tools may not always carry exactly the same meaning as the English
version. There are also cases when those carrying out research do not speak the mother
tongue of those being interviewed. This requires that the person doing the interviews has
a translator who translates the instruments to the mother tongue of those being
interviewed and then translates the responses of the interviewees to the researcher. In the
process of these translations important information may either be omitted, ideas
misrepresented or distorted. At time the translated version of responses may bring out
very different meaning from what the respondents had said in their mother tongue. If the
questionnaire is used to collect data, those who are not able to read and write can only
respond to it with the assistance of literate person or one who speaks English if the
questionnaire is in English.

Communication and infrastructure problem

Although attempts have been made to provide transport system and communication
networks (especially through mobiles), there are still many places in Kenya which are
inaccessible by road and where there are telephone networks. Even where there are
transport systems, there are still many places which roads are impassable during the rainy
seasons. All these problems of communication and road network poses a serious problem
to researchers because they are either not be able to reach some of the sampled research
sites or they may not get the information to and from them in good time. In addition,
reaching such places takes a long time and is also very expensive.

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Negative attitudes towards research
Many communities do not understand the importance of research so when they are asked
to participate in the research study they will either refuse or if they accept to participate
they might make unrealistic demands in return for giving information. Some communities
might not also give the correct information because of fear and suspicion. They may feel
that whatever they say might be used against them. These negative attitudes from the
community are sometimes caused by “research fatigue”. This happens when there are
very many researchers that have been done in the community and no researcher goes
back to the community to inform them of the research findings. The negative attitudes
may also come from the researchers. There are some researchers who go to the field with
air of pride and arrogance. They look down upon communities. Such researchers offend
the communities because of the way they ask questions and treat them. They make the
communities feel useless and powerless. Such attitudes may result in the communities
either not giving the correct information or refusing to give the information.

Social and cultural barriers

Sometimes some of the communities may refuse to give information to researchers who
are not from their ethnic group. It may be difficult to carry out research in such
communities if there are not enough local researchers. There are also communities where
women are not allowed to address men or where women do not give information unless
they are given permission by men. In such communities it may also not be easy to carry
out research if there are not enough competent male researchers or research assistants
from the community.

Age barriers
There are times when communities refuse to give information to researchers whom they
consider too young. This is particularly so in researches related to gender, marriage,
socialization and reproductive health. The old men and the old women may refuse to give
information because according to their culture they cannot discuss such information with
“children”.

Dress code
The way researchers dress when they go to the field may also act as a barrier. For
example, there are communities who will feel offended if the women researchers wear
trousers or make-up. Researchers need to be careful about their dressing especially when
they go to rural communities.

Ethical Problems
Some of the ethical problems that many researchers encounter include:-
• Encroaching on the privacy of the respondents by expecting then to give very
personal data. This is not fair as respondents are entitled to maintaining their”
personal space” in life.
• Failure to maintain confidentiality of information given by respondents.

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 • Negative unintended outcomes of research for example, a research carried out in
secondary schools to find out the services given in schools may result in strikes
because the students start to analyze the services given to them and they realized
they are not treated well.

Bureaucracy
To get permission to carry out research, especially in schools is a long and tedious
process. The researcher is required to get permission from very many government offices
starting from the national to the district level. The researcher has to write many letters to
all the offices. She/he has to go to those offices personally. This process is both time
consuming and expensive. Nevertheless it has to be done because it protects the
respondents from being misused by unethical and unauthorized researchers.

Lack of adequate facilities and services

There are times when researchers lack adequate facilities and services which make
research difficult to carry out. They include:-
• Lack of adequate facilities such as buildings and sitting facilities where the
researcher can interview respondents and prepare the report.
• Many places have no electricity so one cannot use computers there.
• Lack of computers makes data analyses and report writing difficult.
• Lack of documents required either for data collection or for literature review

Problem of attrition
There are times when those sampled to participate in the study drop out. This is called
“attrition” or “mortality.” The respondent may drop out when:-
• The study has taken too long to be completed.
• They may leave the community due to marriage, employment or other reasons.
• They feel they do not want to participate in the study due to their negative
attitudes or because they do not feel comfortable and safe to give the information
required.
When respondents leave the study, the researcher is expected to get new respondents to
replace them. Those selected should have similar characteristics to those who dropped
out.

Failure of the researcher to understand the respondents

There may be times when the researcher is not able to understand the respondents or the
research situation. This may happen when the researcher is “outsider.” The researcher
may not understand what the respondents tell him/her or may misinterpreted what he/she
sees in the research site because he/she does not understand the local culture. This may
result in collection of incorrect data.

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The researcher’s views and background may influence the way he/she perceives and
interprets information
This is a common problem. We tend to use our past experiences to make meaning of the
present situation. Consequently, a researcher misinterprets information he/she collects
because of his/her past background and experiences.

Biases
Biases associated with various sampling where people who participated in the studies are
likely to have unique characteristics and therefore are not representative of the research
population.

Practice effects
Practice effects occur when respondents are repeatedly interviewed, tested or observed.
When this happens, respondents may behave or perform in a different way. For example,
selecting a few schools in the country or region to try out new curriculum materials or
new teaching-learning methodologies is in itself a motivation factor. The teachers and
pupils in such school feel “honoured” and “privileged” to have been selected. This may
lead to improved academic performance of pupils not so much because of the new
curriculum or new teaching- learning methodologies but mainly because they feel special.

Cohort effects
A cohort effect is when a group carries certain characteristics from their historical or
cultural situations which influence their business and performance.

Changes in the field of psychology or education

New theories or modification of theories may affect the way research is perceived or
interpreted. This calls for researchers to keep themselves updated on new developments
in their discipline so that they do not give wrong information and advice to the
respondents.

Activity
1. Explain briefly the following problems the researcher may encounter in research.
For each problem, describe what you could do to eradicate or minimize the
problem.
a) Language problem
b) Social and cultural problem
c) Negative attitudes
d) Attrition

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 LESSON ELEVEN: RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
Reliability is a measure of the degree to which a research instruments yields consistent
results or data after repeated trials. Research instruments should measure what they are
supposed to measure. Reliability in research is influenced by random error. As random
error increases, reliability decreases. Random error is the deviation from a true
measurement due to factors that have not effectively been addressed by the researcher.
Errors may arise from inaccurate coding, ambiguous instructions to the subjects,
interviewer’s fatigue, interviewee’s fatigue, interviewer’s bias, etc. the smaller the
deviations the more reliable the data. There are four different methods of assessing
reliability in data and each technique deals with a different aspect of the concept. These
are: test-retest, equivalent form, split-half and internal consistency. The results obtained
by using indicators should be the same regardless of who used them and time they are
used.

Validity is the accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences, which are based on research
results. It’s the degree to which results obtained from the analysis of the data actually
represent the idea under study. The data obtained in the study should accurately represent
the variables of the study. The data being a true reflection of the variables ensures that the
inferences based on such data will be accurate and meaningful. Validity is a matter of
degree and therefore no data can have perfect validity. There are three types of techniques
used in validating a study data: construct validity, content validity and criterion-related
validity.

Pilot testing becomes necessary in research study in order to verify the validity and
reliability of the data collection tools employed in the research study. It is an exercise that
should come before the real research’s data collection. The researcher collects data and
test whether the content of every tool meets the requirements in terms of the information
required to be collected. Where the tools need modification it’s done.

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 LECTURE TWELVE: TECHNIQUES OF DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTAION
When the researcher goes to the field, he/she collects various types of data. These data
could be in form of frequencies of events or things, people’s opinions, preferences, test
and examination scores or marks, and numerical values of objects such as height, weight,
or quality of environmental conditions. Any of such data needs to be analyzed and
organized in such a way that it is easy to understand it. Graphic and mathematical
techniques are used to organize and analyze data. In this lecture, we discuss the methods
used to organize and analyze data.

Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:-
• Appreciate the importance of analyzing data correctly.
• Analyze data.
• Interpret the data you analyze.

Organization and representation of data

The knowledge and skills on how to analyze and interpret data is very important as it
enables you as a leaner to analyze and organize the data you have collected and write
reports. Organization refers to the process of rearranging and reducing (summarizing)
data so that it can be easily understood and utilized. It is necessary to organize data before
attempting to analyse it. The researcher uses methods that are visually easy to interpret.
The main methods of organizing data are frequency distribution tables, graphs and pie
charts.

Frequency distribution table

In order to analyze data the researcher is required to start by drawing tables each of which
should have the following:
• Table number.
• Title of the table.
• Columns showing responses of respondents, tallies, number of tallies and
percentages.

Example of Table frame

Table 4.1 Responses of parents on the importance of ECDE centres.
Responses Tallies Numbers Percentages

Total

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If the researcher is carrying out a study on the importance of pre-schools, one of the
questions she may have asked parents is “Why is pre-school important for children? The
researcher may sample about 20 parents whom he/she asked this question, among many
other questions he/she asked them. She/he interviews them individually. After collecting
data from all the parents the researcher examines each question in the interview schedule
to find out the responses given by the parents. The researcher groups all the responses
that are the same together. This helps him/her to find out how many parents gave the
same responses. She/he may come up with the following as the main common responses
given by the twenty parents she interviewed. (Note that one parent can give more than
one of these responses)

• Prepares children for primary school.

• Children are given care.
• Children learn to socialize
• Children learn not to fear teachers.
• Children are taught to read and write.
• Children are taught how to behave well.

The researcher then transfers these common responses in the table under the column of
‘responses’. After this he/she goes back to the interview schedules and examines them
again and tallies each of the responses of parents against the appropriate “common
response” as given in the table under the column of response. Whenever the tallies reach
five, she crosses them. This makes counting of the tallies easier. The result of this
analysis will be as in the table 1 that follows.

Table 1: Responses of parents on importance of ECDE centers

Responses Tallies Number Percentage
Children are prepared for primary school. //// /// 8 11.43

Children are given care. /// 3 4.29

Children learn to socialize /// /// /// / 16 22.86

Children learn not to fear teachers. //// 5 7.14

Children are taught to read and write. //// //// //// //// /// 23 32.36

Children are taught how to behave well. //// //// //// 15 21.42

Total 70 100.00

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After examining the interview schedules and tallying, the researcher proceeds to fill the
column of numbers and also calculate the percentages.

GRAPHS
Graphs provide a visual representation of data. This means one can see clearly
differences and similarities in data collected. Graphs make the data easy to see and
interpret. The main types of graphs include frequency histograph, frequency polygon, pie
chart and line graph.

Frequency histogram
A frequency histogram is a graphic representation of a frequency distribution table. This
graph consists of a bar that shows the number in the frequencies. The horizontal axis
represents all the possible scores either single or class intervals and the vertical axis
represents the frequency. Example:

Frequency polygon
A frequency polygon is another method of representing frequency distribution
graphically. Horizontal and vertical axes are drawn as in the histogram. The graph is then
plotted to join the midpoints of all intervals at height corresponding to the frequency of
the intervals. Finally these points are joined by straight lines. The polygon line should be
brought down to the horizontal axis in both ends.

Histograms and frequency polygons clearly show how scores are distributed along the
scale that is they show the form of distribution.

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CURVES
Bar graphs
Bar graphs are used to represent data in categories or sub classes in proportion to the
frequency in each category or sub-class.

Simple bar charts

Bar charts are used for simple representation of data to facilitate comparison. Example,
Five children scored as follows in amid term exam.
John 30, Petr 50, Mary 70, Susan 40, Tom 20.
Draw a bar graph to present the scores.
First of all you decide a key, e.g. (A to represent John) and so on
A-30
B-50
C-70
D-40
E-20
Then plot the vertical and the horizontal axes and the bars at equal intervals to
represent the scores.

Below is a bar graph showing students’ scores in a Maths test

Component bar graph (striked)

Component bar graphs are mainly used in group comparison. One can, for
example, compared the number of female and male teachers in each of the school
in one zone using a component bar. Component bars show the total number in the
unit, such as the number of teachers in each school by gender and also all the
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 teachers in the zone. Example, Four schools had the following numbers of
teachers in a zone:-

Schools Male Female Total

A 30 20 50
B 20 20 40
C 20 50 70
D 5 15 20

Below is a component bar graph showing the number of teachers in 4 schools

Multiple bar graph
Multiple bars are used for cross-group comparison, for example, number of male and
female teachers in certain schools. Example, Draw a multiple bar graph of the following
data of teachers in 4 schools:-

Schools Males Females Total

A 20 30 50
B 20 20 40
C 20 50 70
D 15 5 20

A multiple bar graph to show the number of teachers by sex in 4 schools

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Pie chart
A pie chart is a graph that represents data by proportions in the pie or circle. One uses the
percentages to calculate degrees. The pie chart drawing starts from the center of the circle
and goes to the circumference. The total number of degrees for all segments should add
up to 360°. Example, suppose four preschool had the following number of 5-6 years old
children:-

School Number of children Degrees

A 50 100
B 30 60
C 20 40
D 80 160
Total 180 360

And you are told to present this information in a pie chart; first you work out the degrees
i.e. Number of children x 360
Total number of children
A 50 x 360=100
B 30 x 360=60
180
C 20 x 360=40
180
D 80 x 360=160
180

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 LECTURE THIRTEEN: RESEARCH REPORT
It is important for you as the learner to know what constitutes the outline of a research
report so that when you carry out your research study you are able to compile a report
without problems.

Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:-
Appreciate the importance of having a well organized research report.
Indentify the main headings of research report.
Describe in details what each of the research outline headings contains.

Importance of Research Report

• It describes in details the purpose and importance of the study.
• Identifies the gaps the data collected in the study fill.
• It discusses in details the literature related to the research study.
• It outlines the methodology used in the study which includes the research site,
sample, instruments and data collection procedures.
• It presents in details the findings of the study. This is done in form of frequency
tables, graphs, pie charts and descriptions.
• It gives the conclusions and the summary based on the findings of the study.
• It identifies the main recommendations of the research.
• It also outlines the references used in the study.
• It contains information that can be used by other researchers, decision makers and
practitioners.

The Outline of Research Report

• Preliminaries Section
i) Cover page; Title of project, name of researcher and name of the sponsoring institution
(State the examining or sponsoring agency to which you are submitting the
report).
ii) Declaration page; State that the study is your original work if you are doing it in
fulfillment of course requirements. Authentication signatures, student’s
names and date of approval come in here.
iii) Table of Contents
iv) List of tables or figures
v) Acknowledgements
vi) Abstract (executive summary of the report)

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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study
1.2 Purpose of the Study
1.3 Statement of the Problem
1.4 Specific Objectives or Hypotheses
1.5 Research Questions
1.6 Justification/Significance of the Study (in point form) Why is this study important?
Who will benefit from the research and how will they benefit?
1.7 Limitations of the Study refer to problems faced/challenges beyond researcher’s
control which may affect the quality of data and the generalization of the findings.
1.8 Delimitation of the Study (scope and boundaries of the study)
1.9 Theoretical Framework
1.10 Conceptual Framework
1.11 Operational Definition of Terms

CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Organize the chapter guided by the research questions or research objectives or
hypotheses. Review of related studies (Read what others have said about your selected
problem and quote them.

CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Research Site should be a brief summary including: where the study was done, physical
features, climatic conditions, communities of research site, economic activities, social
services such as education and health, administration, markets, transport and
communication services.

3.3 Target Population

3.4 Sampling Procedures and Sample
• What methods were used to sample and why?
• Actual sample by number and category summarized in table.

3.5 Description of Research Instruments used to collect data and briefly describe the data
each instrument collected.
3.5.1 Piloting
3.5.2 Validity and reliability
3.6 data collection procedures
• Who collected data and why?
•How did you collect the data? State if you collected from each individual or group and
where?
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3.7 data analysis procedures
How was data analyzed?
3.8 Ethical issues

CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
• Use objectives to organize the chapter
•Draw tables, graphs and/or pie charts where relevant to make the presentation of the
findings clearer.
• Explain and interpret the findings in the tables, graphs, and pie charts.
• If the study is qualitative, use content analysis and do a narrative report.

CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
• The summary attempts to summarize the main findings of the study.
•The conclusions attempt to draw the main interpretations of the findings.
•Recommendations are statements which show what should be done to address the problems
identified.

REFERENCE
One is advised to use the American Psychology Association 5th Edition format i.e.
Author. (Year). Title. Town. Publisher
Example, Kamau, A. J. (2007). Games Children Play. Nairobi. Apt Publishers

APPENDICES
These are for example, r esearch tools, Lists of schools in the sample, letter requesting
permission to carry out the study, sample of children’s class work, etc.

Activity
• Discuss the importance of research report
• Identify the contents of the methodology chapter of a research study
• Briefly describe how findings are presented in chapter four.

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