MODULE 2: Basic and Key Concepts in Ethics

Module 2 will introduce you to the basic terms used in Ethics and to the main components
to be considered when dealing with ethical issues and when making moral decisions. In this
module we will:
(1) examine the subject matter of Ethics;
(2) determine what ethics is, and what ethics is not;
(3) distinguish actions, on whether they are “human acts” or “acts of man”
(4) show examples of moral dilemmas; and
(5) analyse the different determinants of morality.

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of Module 2, you should be able to:

1. explain the similarities and differences of “ethics/ethical” and “morality/moral”;
2. articulate the importance of Ethics to one’s life;
3. judge as to whether the given situations people are embroiled in are instances of
moral dilemmas or not;
4. point out which among the determinants of morality is/are involved in a certain
dilemma; and
5. demonstrate understanding of the fundamental concepts found in ethics and
morality such, as “knowledge,” “voluntariness,” and “impartiality”. This is
demonstrated by applying them to certain moral dilemmas.

ENGAGE

Many people easily make a judgment of others based on what they see about the
other at their “face value.” For instance, when we see a person giving alms to a beggar,
he/she may right away be considered as a “moral person,” a “good person” who is doing
what is “right.” Or when we see someone being caught by a police officer for stealing, he is
judged right away as an “immoral person,” a “bad person” who did something wrong.
Do you think it is OK to make a judgment about the morality or immorality of a person
simply based on what others have shown us, or from what we have heard about them?
Additionally, do observed circumstances matter when making moral judgments? Write your
thoughts in the box provided.

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 EXPLORE

Read through the discussion provided here regarding the Basic and key Concepts in
Ethics, and answer the formative assessment below (it is also found in our Google
Classroom). This exercise ties in with your understanding of the differences between
“human acts”, on the one hand, and “acts of man”, on the other hand.

TRUE OR FALSE: Before each number, write T if the statement is correct, or F if the statement
is incorrect.

1. ____ 1. Circumstances may change a good or indifferent act into punishable

one.
2. ____ 2. Circumstances may not increase or diminish the goodness or badness
of an action.
3. ____ 3. A gravely bad circumstance may destroy the goodness of an act
which eventually makes the whole act bad.
4. ____ 4. The intention determines the fundamental goodness or badness of an
action.
5. ____ 5. The end or telos is not the purpose that motivates a person to perform
the act.
6. ____ 6. A good intention cannot in anyway make a bad act good.
7. ____ 7. The end is good if it conforms with reason, otherwise it is bad.
8. ____ 8. Knowing the qualities or elements of human act will enable a person
to make a responsible judgment.
9. ____ 9. Moral responsibility is considered intrinsic or internal moral duty to
knowingly, voluntarily, and freely respond to a need in a situation.
10.____ 10. An act of man can then become a human act when performed
under the direction of the will.

CATEGORIZING: Categorize whether the act is Human Act or an Act of Man. Before each
number, write A if the act is a Human Act, or write B if the act is an Act of Man.

1. ____ 1. Jogging every morning 7. ____ 7. Reading magazine

2. ____ 2. Brush, brush, brush, 3 times a 8. ____ everyday
day 8. Texting /communicating
3. ____ 3. Women’s monthly period 9. ____ with your bf/gf daily
4. ____ 4. Praying before and after 9. Breathing
meal 10.____ 10. Greeting Happy birthday
5. ____ 5. Quick reflexes to your friends/loved ones
6. ____ 6. Writing a good novel

FOR CONVENIENCE: Please refer to the Google Form uploaded to the Google Classroom for
the activity corresponding to this part of the module (Module 2 EXPLORE)

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 EXPLAIN

 2. Basic and Key Concepts in Ethics

2.1. What Ethics is

There is a close affiliation between “ethos” and “mores”. The term “ethics” is derived
from the Greek word “ethos,” which means a characteristic way of acting, and refers to the
principles or standards of human conduct. The term “morality” is taken from the Latin term
“mos” (nominative) or “mores” (genitive) which means custom, or “traditional line of
conduct.” The term morality is quite close with the term ethics in etymological meaning.
However, ethics deals more with the principles and laws of human acts by providing the
person with the knowledge of what to do and how to do it, and more importantly, of critically
understanding the consequences of such acts. In other words, ethics provides a guide to the
performance of an act and to its criticism. Ethics is thus generally referred to as moral
philosophy in that it involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right
and wrong behavior. As such, it is sometimes referred to as the study of morality.

Ethics is said to be a science insofar as it is a body of systematized knowledge

arranged with its accompanying explanation. In terms of content, it is not to be classified as
a course in the so-called “hard sciences”. As a philosophical science, ethics is not a
technical course or a laboratory study. Note that it is when devoid of human experience,
ethics can be deployed to simply present and deliberate its subject matter “in the light of its
deepest principles by means of human reason alone.” But this defeats the real-world impact
of ethics. Therefore, ethics can be more appropriately described as a “practical science”,
which means that it consists of principles and laws that are applicable to daily living. In this
sense, ethics is not a course taken for the sake of pure contemplation; rather, it is a study
taken for application in a person’s everyday course of action. Ethics, then, is “applied
knowledge”.

As a philosophical science, ethics is not a technical course or a laboratory study.

Devoid of human experience, it presents and deliberates its subject matter “in the light of its
deepest principles by means of human reason alone.” There are various ways of defining
and discussing Ethics: 1) Ethics is a subject matter with content. It is a discipline with a body
of knowledge; 2) Ethics is a process of decision-making because it is a thinking skill leading to
actions that we perform coupled with accountability; 3) Ethics refers to well based standards
of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do in terms of rights, obligations,
benefits to society, fairness, or specific virtues. It refers to standards that impose the
reasonable obligations to refrain from rape, stealing, murder, assault, slander, and fraud.
Ethical standards also include those that enjoin virtues of honesty, compassion, and loyalty.
Ethical standards include values relating to rights, such as the right to life, the right to freedom
from injury, and the right to privacy. Such standards are adequate standards of ethics
because they are supported by consistent and well-founded reasons; 4) Ethics refers to the
study and development of one's ethical standards. Since feelings, laws, and social norms

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 can deviate from what is ethical, it is necessary to constantly examine one's standards to
ensure that they are reasonable and well-founded. It is a continuous effort of studying our
own moral beliefs and our moral conduct and striving to ensure that we live up to standards
that are reasonable and solidly-based; and, 5) Ethics involves the study and application of
“right” conduct. When people ask themselves, “What ought I to do?” they are concerned
of their actions that might be wrong or are having difficulty working through the moral or
values dimensions and from these, they are asking an ethical question.

2.2. What Ethics is Not

Before we understand the moral from the non-moral standards, it is important to look
into some misinterpretations and misconceptions of what Ethics is all about. Such
misinterpretations and misconceptions can obliterate the real essence of Ethics as an
important branch of Philosophy. Raymond Baumhart, a sociologist, asked some people,
"What does ethics mean to you?" Among their replies were the following: "Ethics has to do
with what my feelings tell me is right or wrong;" "Ethics has to do with my religious beliefs."
"Being ethical is doing what the law requires;" "Ethics consists of the standards of behavior
our society accepts;" and, "I don't know what the word means." These replies might be typical
of our own. The meaning of ethics is hard to pin down, and the views that some people have
about ethics are shaky and dangerous.
Ethics is not the same with psychology but is
Ethics and Feelings a companion to it. Ethics is not merely
attributed to observations and scientific
Like Baumhart's first respondent, many
interpretations of behaviors like what
people tend to equate ethics with their psychology does. The ethicists dig deeper on
feelings. But being ethical is clearly not a the reason why an action is such without
matter of following one's feelings. A person necessarily quantifying and measuring
following his or her feelings may recoil from human behaviors. However, psychology
doing what is right. In fact, feelings admits that it developed and progressed in
frequently deviate from what is ethical. the course of time due to the contribution of
Several students fall into the trap of
philosophy, a companion to its scientific
engaging in pre-marital sex because they investigations of human behaviors.
allow their feelings or emotions to
dominate their rationality.

Ethics and Religion

Ethics is not the same with religion but Most religions, of course, advocate high
speaks about it. While religion seeks the ethical standards. Yet if ethics were confined
meaning of human existence through spiritual to religion, then ethics would apply only to
nourishment with Creed, Code and religious people. But ethics applies as much to
Ceremonies, ethics dwell on the reason or
the behavior of the atheist as to that of the
existence of religion. This explains why we have
philosophy of religion. However, since religion saint. Religion can set high ethical standards
uses reason to explain faith like theology, then and can provide intense motivations for
we do philosophizing which we call moral ethical behavior. Ethics, however, cannot be
philosophy. In fact, ethics is also known as the confined to religion nor is it the same as
study of morality. religion.

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 Ethics and Law Ethics is not the same with studying
law but is closely related to it. While
Being ethical is also not the same as following law is concerned about the effects of
the law. The law often incorporates ethical action through punishment and reward,
standards to which most citizens subscribe. But ethics dwell on a deeper meaning of
laws, like feelings, can deviate from what is action by finding the main reason of the
ethical. What is legal is not necessarily ethical; act. This explains the old adage, “not all
but what is ethical is necessarily worth legalizing. legal is ethical.” However, if ethics
For instance; gambling, divorce, abortion, and reflect laws founded on reason as their
the like can be legalized in some nations, but bases, then we do philosophizing like
they do not necessarily mean that they are legal ethics.
ethical.

Ethics and what Society accepts:

Ethics is not the same with culture but
is closely connected to it. Ethics is not Being ethical is not the same as doing "whatever
only about etiquette or manners like the society accepts." In any society, most people
GMRC (Good Manners and Right accept standards that are, in fact, ethical. But
Conduct) we used to learn. Learning standards of behavior in society can deviate from
variety of cultural norms is not a what is ethical. An entire society can become
guarantee of ethical evaluation. This
ethically corrupt. Nazi Germany before,
explains why ethics is not only researches
in cultural anthropology or sociology
particularly during the time of the holocaust, is a
that studies behaviors of a social group, good example of this. If being ethical were doing
an organization or a community. "whatever society accepts," then to find out what
However, in studying society and culture, is ethical, one would have to find out what society
we have social philosophy to explain the accepts. To decide what I should think about
reasons of organizations to exist. We can abortion, for example, I would have to take a
say then that culture and society are survey of American society and then conform my
associated with ethics as a branch of beliefs to whatever society accepts. But no one
philosophy. ever tries to decide an ethical issue by doing a
survey.

Note that the lack of social consensus on many issues makes it impossible to equate
ethics with whatever society accepts. Some people accept abortion but many others do
not. If being ethical were doing whatever society accepts, one would have to find an
agreement on issues which does not, in fact, exist.

*Given the above observations, while it was said previously that ethics and morality are
generally synonymous with each other, it must be expressed that in strict terms, ethics is not
the same with morality. On the one hand, morality may simply consist of fixed rules, and may
fashion for itself a set or sets of do’s and don’t’s that a person may simply apply (as they are
accepted by society). On the other hand, moral rules may not be so strict, and may open
itself to some reflexivity. To distinguish, ethics may be used to critique even existing moralities,
and it uses both theoretical and practical reason to attain such. With this, mere norms of
conduct do not represent what ethics truly is. Thus, in stricter terms, ethics is not the same with
morality but is closely linked to it. Ethical thinking can provide guidance to the performance
of an act, and hints that simply following a moral rules or avoiding moral taboos does not
equate to the true practice of ethics.

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 2.3. Importance of ethics

For some people, the importance of ethics only comes as a result of encountering
unethical conduct. But if Ethics is inculcated into one’s system, it is being carried into one’s
bloodstream and to the day-to-day activity of the individual. Ethics is an important
requirement for human existence. It is our means of deciding a proper course of action.
Without it, our actions would be aimless and not properly rooted. When a rational ethical
standard is taken, we are able to correctly organize our goals and actions to accomplish
our most important values. Any blunder in our ethical values will reduce our ability to be
successful in our endeavors.

Ethics is important because of the following reasons: 1) It serves as a guide towards

our goals, rather than just allowing our lives to be controlled by self-serving motives,
accidental occurrences, customs, feelings, or our impulses; 2) It helps us deepen our
reflection on the ultimate questions of life and help us think better about the concerns of
morality; 3) It offers us a wider perspective on how to live our life to the fullest, taking into
consideration that we do not have the luxury of eternal time in this world; 4) It reminds us of
our duties, responsibilities, and accountabilities to ourselves, to our fellowmen, to our society,
to our nation, and to the world in general; 5) It encourages us to examine our life and
honestly evaluate how we are responding to the challenges and demands of this
contemporary time; 6) It increases our capacity to perceive and be sensitive to relevant
moral issues that deserve consideration in making our choices that will have significant
impact on ourselves and on others; 7) It polishes, strengthens and brings out to the fore our
value priorities in life which will make us better and happy individuals; and, 8) It helps us
realize and become what we ought to be in this challenging, yet beautiful, world.

2.4. Recognizing Terms in Ethics

There are ethical terms to be distinguished in relation to human acts: It is important to

consider Moral, Amoral, and Immoral actions.

Moral actions or events are those which require the goodness of the object chosen, the
intention or the end in view, and of the circumstances together. Moral actions are deemed
to be good as one performs the moral rules or codes of the society.

Immoral actions or events are those actions or areas of interest where moral categories do
apply and are considered to be evil, sinful, or wrong according to the code of ethics. For
examples: consciously telling a lie; graft and corruption; cheating during examinations,
gluttony, taking a sip of water fully aware that there is hemlock in it (suicide), and many
more.

Amoral actions or events are those actions or areas of interest exhibiting indifference. At
times, these are manifested in the absence of knowledge, freedom and voluntariness on the
part of the acting agent. For examples: a young child who speaks bad words, an Aeta who
just came from the mountain obstructs a city traffic, a person innocently taking a sip of water
but the water contains a hemlock, or a man accidentally entering the ladies comfort room.

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 2.5. Moral versus Non-Moral Dilemmas

A moral dilemma is a situation in ethics where the human person finds himself or herself
choosing between two possible alternatives, and either option presents possible favorable
and unfavorable outcomes/consequences. Note that in decision-making, even the option
to not choose to act in a situation is still considered a choice. (In cases, this choosing not to
choose between alternatives can be considered as a third way, but by itself also represents
another choice for the person). It is thereby quite paradoxical for a person to declare that
he/she has not chosen, because choosing not to choose is by itself a choice. Thus, whatever
choice a person makes, whatever he/she decides (even though this is a “non-decision”),
he/she is expected to stand for and be responsible for the ramifications of that decision (or
non-decision). This further means taking whatever consequences such a choice (or non-
choice) would entail, regardless of whether these consequences are easily or difficulty
discerned or observed. To decide is to be responsible.

Moral dilemmas happen when we cannot easily make a distinction between what is
a good act from an evil act. When we encounter questions of ethics like, is it moral to attend
my class even if I am sick? Is it necessary to avoid killing someone when my life is in danger?
Is waking up early necessary of I am to make it in time for school, knowing full well that a full
night’s rest is important for my health? Is it important to maintain my diet even if my doctor
suggested I do not need to for the moment? Avoiding moral dilemmas comes with being
able to promptly distinguish between the qualities of actions. Generally, this involves
distinguishing between “morally good” and “morally evil” actions.

A morally good act requires the goodness of the object chosen, of the intention, and
of the circumstances together. An evil end corrupts the action, even if the object is good in
itself like for instance in the case of praying and fasting in order to be seen by men. The
chosen object can by itself vitiate or destroy an act in its entirety. There are some concrete
acts, such as bribery, robbery, fornication, and the like, which are always wrong to choose,
because choosing them entails an evil act.

It is therefore an error to judge the morality of human acts by considering only the
intention that inspires them or the circumstances which supply their context. There are acts
which, in and of themselves, independently of circumstances and intentions, are always
gravely illicit by reason of their object; such as blasphemy, murder, adultery, and the like.
One may not do evil so that good may result from it. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, an
evil action cannot be justified by reference to a good intention. A good intention does not
make the action or behavior that is intrinsically disordered, good or just. The end does not
justify the means. Thus, for instance, the condemnation of an innocent person cannot be
justified as a legitimate means of saving the country.

2.6. Distinctions of Action:

Acts of man vs. Human acts

Human acts should be differentiated from ordinary ‘acts of man’. Acts of man are
bodily actions performed without deliberation and in the absence of the will. For instances,

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 the blinking of our eyelids, our breathing patterns, sneezing, and the like are considered as
acts of man. In many ways, we are accountable for our actions, but somehow our
responsibility is lessened or is non-applicable when it comes to acts of man. The absence of
deliberation and will distinguishes a certain act from being treated as an action that
springs from a person’s free choice. Thus, the act does not call upon moral obligations,
responsibility, and accountability.

On the other hand, human acts are the fundamental foundation of morality. These
acts are under the control of the will and are therefore done knowingly and willingly; not
acts which happen by accident, as falling, or by nature, as growing, but acts performed by
choice, that is, after deliberation and decision. They are imputable to their human author to
the extent that he/she has knowledge of his/her own activity and its import, and to the extent
that he/she has freedom of election. The moral or ethical character of the human act lies in
this, that it is freely placed with knowledge of its objective conformity or nonconformity with
the law of rational nature.

As elaborated by ethicists, human acts are characterized by the following: 1) Acts

which are free and voluntary; 2) Acts done with knowledge and consent; 3) Acts which are
proper to man as man; because of all animals, he alone has knowledge and freedom of the
will; 4) Acts which are under man’s control, and for which he is responsible for its
consequences; and, 5) Acts which man is the master and has the power of doing or not
doing as he pleases.

Human Acts requires moral responsibility that is derived from a person. If responsibility
is a coined term of “response” and “ability” then the ability to response is important in ethics
because “no one can give what s/he does not have.” It is expected for young people
studying ethics to respond to the problems of society today based on their capacities. As
such, we can apply the old saying, “if there’s a will, there’s a way.” For example, the right to
vote in local and national election, participate in any assembly, joining school organizations,
becoming choir members of the Church, joining professional associations, and other
organizing activities, are simple ways that young people can do to become responsible
individuals.

If a person achieves an ethical attitude, it presupposes that s/he takes moral

responsibility to society. A personal conviction of what is “right and wrong” becomes a social
duty and such duty must be put into action. This makes ethics an axiology, or what
philosophy calls praxis, the emphasis on the practical application of ethical ideas.

Ethics of Being vs Ethics of Doing

There are two significant considerations of ethics; the Ethics of Being and the Ethics of
Doing. In the Ethics of Being, the emphasis is on the “character development” which involves
the integrations of virtues, values and personhood; it is looking into the foundation of actions
who is the “good person” while the Ethics of Doing focuses not only the goodness of the
person but on the ability of the person to put into action his/her ethical conviction (Fr. Ramon
Coronel & Fr. Paul Van Parijs, CICM, Bioethics, 1996). It is not enough simply to be contented
in believing to be a good person while forgetting to do good actions; on the other hand, it

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 also not good just to think that you are doing good while you forget that you are first and
foremost a good person. There is the need to harmonize the two considerations of ethics;
hence, you do a good act because you believe and think that you are a good person
capable of doing good. Both considerations are inseparably related to be better person –
intellectually mature, psychologically stable, socially involved, spiritually nourished and
economically well-off; and, to do good acts.

Our ethical responsibility is reflected in the following scheme:

Foundation of Morality

Responsibility
Ethics: Human acts: Bases of

Moral
Ethics
human responsibility: Free,
Theory and
voluntary, and deliberate
Principles as
guidelines of
human actions

The fundamental bases of morality start with the use of reason, the exercise of human
freedom, willfulness, voluntariness, and the deliberateness of the act. Ethical principles and
theories are guidelines for human actions for which we can only talk about moral
responsibility. It is because we cannot be totally responsible to our actions that we are not
aware of. We can only be responsible to our actions that we are aware of, freely acting on
them, and voluntarily responding to the circumstance we are engaged in. With our moral
conviction arises our moral responsibility.

2.7. Three-fold Elements of Human Acts

There are three essential elements to consider any action to be a human act. Without
one of these elements, the action cannot be considered as a human act. These are
knowledge, freedom of the will, and voluntariness.

Knowledge is awareness or being conscious of one’s actions including its possible

consequences. The act of knowing is always consciousness of something which is inevitably
linked to the subject, who is the knower. For example, an insane person and a three-year old
child are not liable for their actions since they are not capable of acting with proper
knowledge. Their actions can never be considered as immoral. College students and
professionals are expected to be possessors of knowledge; thus, they cannot claim excuses
for their immoral actions. They are liable for the consequences of their actions. According to
Aristotle, knowledge is the first element of ethical practice. This knowledge provides a
framework for deliberating about the most appropriate technique(s) by which the good can
be attained. But, it should be noted that; although, knowledge is a requirement for
considering an act to be a human act, being knowledgeable or being aware of what is
ethical or moral is not a guarantee that the person is already considered as an ethical or
moral person. It is not enough for an individual to know what is good. What really count are
his good acts.

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 Freedom of the Will. According to St. Thomas Aquinas, this is the power which human
beings have in determining their actions according to the judgment of their reasons. This
always involves a choice or an option of whether to do or not to do a certain action. Without
this freedom of choice, then responsibility and/or liability on the part of the individual would
be meaningless. Insane people who have no control of their minds and children who have
no idea of what they are doing or are not free to do or not to do, are not responsible for their
actions. Matured people, college students and professionals are expected to be free from
doing or not doing; thus, they are responsible or liable for their actions.

Voluntariness. This is an act of consenting or accepting a certain action whether it is

done whole-heartedly, half-heartedly, or non-heartedly. According to Aristotle, the moral
evaluation of an action presupposes the attribution of responsibility to a human agent; thus,
responsible action must be undertaken voluntarily (Nicomachean Ethics III). Agapay
presented four modes of voluntariness. These are perfect, imperfect, conditional, and simple
voluntariness.

Perfect Voluntariness is actualized by a person who is fully aware and who fully intends
an act. The person, under perfect voluntariness, is fully convinced of his action including its
consequences. A politician who, in his right mind, engages in graft and corruption is
considered to be acting with perfect voluntariness. Imperfect Voluntariness is seen in a
person who acts without the full awareness of his action or without fully intending the act. A
drunken person who, acting irrationally, jumps from a ten-storey building is said to be
exhibiting an imperfect voluntariness. Conditional Voluntariness is manifested by a person
who is forced by his circumstances beyond his control to perform an action which he would
not do under normal condition. A freshman college student who is forced by his parents to
enroll in a course which is against his will is showing a conditional voluntariness. Simple
Voluntariness is exhibited by a person doing an act willfully regardless of whether he likes to
do it or not. It can either be positive or negative. It is a positive simple voluntariness when the
act requires the performance of an act. For examples: Studying one’s lesson; participating
in class discussions; engaging in sports, and so on. It is a negative simple voluntariness when
the act does not require the performance of an act. For examples: Remaining silent or
choosing to be alone; deciding not to go to a drinking spree; avoiding to take illegal drugs;
and so on.

2.8. Determinants of Morality

Freedom makes man a moral subject. When he acts deliberately, man is, so to speak,
the master of his acts. Human acts, that is, acts that are freely chosen in consequence of a
judgment of conscience, can be morally evaluated. They are either good or evil. The
morality of human acts depends on the object chosen; the end in view or the intention; and
the circumstances of the action. These are the factors to consider in making ethical
judgement in determining the morality of human acts.

Object Chosen: This is a good toward which the will deliberately directs itself. The
chosen object resides out the acting subject. The object chosen morally specifies the act of
the will, insofar as reason recognizes and judges it to be or not to be in conformity with the

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 true good. Examples of Good Chosen Objects: nutritious foods; hard-earned money or
wealth; educational books and films; and the like. Examples of Bad Chosen Objects:
Forbidden drugs; Pornographic materials; Leakages for examinations; and others.

The Intention: This is a movement of the will toward the end. It is concerned with the
goal of the activity. The end is the first goal of the intention and indicates the purpose
pursued in the action. It aims at the good anticipated from the action undertaken. Intention
is not limited to directing individual actions, but can guide several actions towards one and
the same purpose. The intention can orient one's whole life toward its ultimate end. For
example, a service done with the end of helping one's neighbor can at the same time be
inspired by the love of the Divine Being as the ultimate end of all our actions. One and the
same action can also be inspired by several intentions, such as performing a service in order
to obtain a favor or to boast about it. The intention resides in the acting subject as contrast
to the object chosen. Because it lies at the voluntary source of an action and determines it
by its end, intention is an element essential to the moral evaluation of an action.

The Circumstances: These, including the consequences, are secondary elements of

a moral act. They contribute to increasing or diminishing the moral goodness or evil of human
acts. For instances: the number of people killed; the amount of money being stolen; the
number of trees cut by loggers; the regularity of the graft and corruption done by politicians;
the number of times a lie is spoken; or, the number of times a student cheated. They can
also diminish or increase the agent's responsibility. For examples: acting out of ignorance or
fear of death; acts done because of habit; choosing between two or more evils in a certain
situation; being forced to do something against one’s will; and so on. It should be noted that
circumstances of themselves cannot change the moral quality of acts themselves; they can
make neither good nor right an action that is in itself evil.

In Summary: A morally good act requires the goodness of the object, of the end, and
of the circumstances together. An evil end corrupts the action, even if the object is good in
itself (such as praying and fasting "in order to be seen by men"). The object of the choice
can by itself vitiate an act in its entirety. There are some concrete acts - such as fornication
- that it is always wrong to choose, because choosing them entails a disorder of the will, that
is, a moral evil. It is therefore an error to judge the morality of human acts by considering only
the intention that inspires them or the circumstances (environment, social pressure, duress or
emergency, etc.) which supply their context. There are acts which, in and of themselves,
independently of circumstances and intentions, are always gravely illicit by reason of their
object; such as blasphemy and perjury, murder and adultery. One may not do evil so that
good may result from it.

The object, the intention, and the circumstances make up the three "sources" of the
morality of human acts. The object chosen morally specifies the act of willing accordingly as
reason recognizes and judges it good or evil. "An evil action cannot be justified by reference
to a good intention" (cf. St. Thomas Aquinas, Dec. praec. 6). A morally good act therefore
requires the goodness of its object, of its end, and of its circumstances together. There are
concrete acts which are always wrong to choose, because their choice entails a disorder
of the will, i.e., a moral evil. One may not do evil so that good may result from it.

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 ELABORATE

What is “impartiality?” Elaborate its role and significance in making moral decisions in the
box provided.

EVALUATE

Refer to the Google Forms quiz uploaded to the Google classroom for the graded activity
of this module. Answer the Google form quiz diligently. Do your Best!

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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 12
 References:

Agapay, Ramon B. (1991) Ethics and the Filipino: A manual on morals for students and
educators. Manila: National Bookstore, Inc., 1991.

Andre, Claire and Manuel Velasquez. (Fall 1987). Issues in ethics: Vol.1 No.1, Markkula Center
for Applied Ethics.

Audi, Robert. (2000). Philosophy: A brief guide to undergraduates. The American

Philosophical Association.

Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC). (1994) Catholic Bishops Conference of the
Philippines (CBCP).

Coronel, Ramon & Parijs, Paul Van, CICM. Bioethics (1996). Baguio City: St. Louis University
(SLU)

Frank Navran, (1998) Ethics. Resource Center’s Principal Consultant Jackson, Wayne.
Christian Courier: Archives. October 26, 1998.

Gensler, Harry J. (1998). Ethics: A contemporary introduction. New York: Routledge.

Gualdo, et al. (2012). Ethics and contemporary moral issues. Revised Edition. Quezon City:
Mutya Publishing.

Kaplan, J. D, Ed. (1958). The pocket Aristotle. New York: Washington Square Press.

Montemayor, Felix. Ethics: The philosophy of life. (1994). Navotas: National Bookstore.

Petrick, Joseph A and John F. Quinn. (1997) Management ethics: Integrity at work.
California: Sage Publications, Inc., 1997), pp. 89-91.

Rachels, James (2003). The elements of moral philosophy. 4th Edition. Boston: McGraw Hill.

Velasquez, Manuel. (2005). Philosophy: Text with readings. “Ethics.” 9th Edition.
Australia: Thomson and Wadsworth.

Electronic Sources:
http://www.ethics.org/staff_bios.
http://www.philosophy.lander.edu
http//www.philosophy.lander.edu
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/socialresponsibility.asp
http://www.ehow.com/info_7861861_difference-between-social-responsibility-ethics.html
https://www.pachamama.org/social-justice/social-responsibility-and-ethics
http://www.imasocialentrepreneur.com/social-responsibility/

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means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited. 13