English Composition I Unit # 1 Stanley Oviedo

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

In English there are eight parts of speech. A word’s part of speech is determined by the
job that it does in a sentence. The same word may be used as a noun in one sentence
and as an adjective in another sentence.

The eight parts of speech are: Nouns, Pronouns, Verbs, Adjectives, Adverbs,
Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.

I. THE NOUN (Names)

A noun is a word used to name a person, place, thing or idea. There are three kinds
of nouns:

a) Proper or Common
Nouns b) Abstract or Concrete
c) Collective

a) Proper Nouns:
A proper noun names a particular person, place or thing and is capitalized (Kay,
Miami, White House, etc.)

Common Nouns:
A common noun is a noun that doesn’t name a particular person, place or thing.
Common nouns aren’t capitalized (woman, city, building, etc.)

b) Abstract Nouns:
An abstract noun names a quality, a characteristic, an idea (beauty, strength,
love, courage, etc.)

Concrete Nouns:
A Concrete Noun names an object that can be perceived by the senses (hat,
desk, book, box, etc.)

c) Collective Nouns:
A collective noun names a group (crowd, team, class, crew, audience, troop,
committee, herd, chorus, etc.)

 Some other ways to classify nouns: (Research Point!)

a) Countable and Uncountable Nouns
b) Singular and Plural Cactus=Cacti ------- Ox=Oxen---- Datum=Data

c) The four functions a noun can have in a sentence are:

1) Subject: Vanessa is a very good student. (N# 1)
2) Object of the Verb: Alex still loves Vanessa. (N # 2) (What? Or Who?)
3) Object of a Preposition: Alex is walking in the park with Vanessa.(N # 3)
4) Nominative Predicate: This is Vanessa. (N # 4) (There must be a
linking verb.)

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1) Subject: Lucia has been studying English grammar for years. (N# 1)
2) Object of the verb: I have known Lucia for many years. (Who? or what?)
3) Object of a preposition: I am playing basketball with the beautiful Lucia.
4) Nominative predicate: This is Lucia. (You need a linking verb.) (N # 4)

The previous ones can be studied in grammar books according to the forms and
modifiers they take.

Note:
A compound noun is a noun of more than one word (First National Bank, Ringling
Brothers Circus, High school).

II. THE PRONOUN (Replaces)

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun or of more than one noun.
a)Personal–
subject/object/possessive
b) Reflexive and Intensive
c) Relative
Pronoun d) Interrogative
e) Demonstrative
f) Indefinite

a) Personal Pronouns: Subject-Object-Possessive

SINGULAR PLURAL
1st Person I, me We, us
(Speaker) My, mine Our, ours

2nd Person You You

(Person Spoken to) Your, yours Your, yours

3rd Person He, him, his They, them

(Person or thing She, her, hers Their, theirs
spoken about) It, its

Possessive forms.

b) Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

Myself Ourselves
Yourself Yourselves
Himself, herself, itself Themselves

Personal Pronoun combined with –SELF, -SELVES may be used in two ways:
1. They may be used reflexively.
Example: Carmen hurt herself.

2. They may be used intensively for emphasis.

Example: Carmen herself was not hurt.

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c) Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns are used to introduce Relative Clauses: Who, Which,
Whose, Whom, That.
Example:
The people who live there are on vacation.
Do you know the woman whose car was stolen?
The copy that I read was from the Library.

d) Interrogative Pronouns
These Pronouns are used in questions: Who, whom, which, whose, and
what.
Example:
Who borrowed my pen?
What was the name of the book?
e) Demonstrative Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns are used to point out people, animals, places or things:
This, These, That, Those.
Examples:
That is an excellent question.
This seems to be my lucky day.

f) Indefinite Pronouns
Pronouns that do not fall into the classifications above are called Indefinite
Pronouns. Most indefinite pronouns express the idea of quantity: All, few, none.
Examples:
All of us are here.
Few of the cars were new.

Most commonly used Indefinite Pronouns

All Each Most Other
Another Either Neither Several
Any Everybody Nobody Some
Anybody Everyone None Somebody
Anyone Few No one Someone
both Many One Such

Research Point: Find out how indefinite pronouns are conjugated: Singular or
plural? Refer to a Subject-Verb agreement section in a grammar and composition book.

III. THE VERB (States action or being)

A verb is a word that expresses action or otherwise helps to make a statement.
Without a verb, a group of words cannot be called a sentence.

a) Action Verbs:
An Action Verb tells what action a subject is performing. To find an action verb,
first find the subject of the sentence. Then ask yourself, “What is the subject
doing?

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Some action verbs show physical action.

Physical Action:
The frog swallowed a fly.
(The subject is Frog. What did the frog do? Swallowed is the action verb).
Examples:
Hit, Play move and run.

 Some action verbs show mental action.

Mental Action:
I forget his name.
Example:
Think, know, imagine, believe, etc.

 Others show ownership or possession, example: Jeffrey has a new bicycle.

b) Transitive and Intransitive Verbs:

Action Verbs may or may not take an object –a noun or pronoun that completes
the action by showing who or what is affected by the action.

Transitive Verbs:
They are verbs that have an object.

Examples:
- The catcher dropped the ball. (What did the catcher drop?)
- The people believed the politician. (Who did the people believe?)
- The waiter ignored the customers.

Intransitive Verbs:
They are verbs that express action without objects.
Examples:
- The catcher shrugged.
- The people chuckled.
- The waiter quit.
- My dog died yesterday at night time.

 Note: Although some verbs are transitive only (ignore, complete) and some
intransitive only (arrive, sleep), most verbs in English can be either. The same
verb can be transitive o intransitive according to the sentence
environment:

Examples:
- The Judges explained the contest rules (transitive).
- Patiently, the judges explained (Intransitive).
- The contestants still misunderstood them (Transitive).
- The contestants still misunderstood (Intransitive).
- I study English grammar. (Transitive)

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- I study hard every day. (Intransitive)

- I study English. (Study is a transitive verb.)
- I study very hard. (Study is an intransitive verb

In Dictionaries : Transitive (V.T.)

Intransitive (V.I)

c) Linking Verbs:
Some intransitive verbs help to make a statement not by expressing an action,
but by expressing state or condition. These verbs link to the subject a noun, a
pronoun or an adjective that describes or identifies it. They are called Linking
Verbs.
Examples:
- The Author is our guest.
- This is she.
- She looks serious.

Commonly Linking Verbs

Be..... Being, been, can be, is being, could have been
Appear Grow Seem Stay
Become Look Smell Taste
Feel Remain Sound Turn

Many of the verbs in the preceding list can also be used as action verbs – that is,
without a subject complement.

Linking : The detectives looked puzzled.

Action : The detective looked for clues.

In general, a verb is a linking verb if you can substitute for it some form of the
verb “seem”.
Examples:
- Hank Aaron looked (seemed) pleased.
- Everyone in the stadium felt (seemed) happy.
- All of the passengers remained (seemed) calm.

d) Helping Verbs and the Verb Phrase:

Sometimes an action verb or a linking verb is part of a verb phrase that includes
helping verbs, or auxiliary verbs. A verb phrase is a main verb plus one or more
helping verbs (sometimes called auxiliary verbs). A main verb may have one or
more helping verbs.
Examples:
- The acrobats are practicing somersaults.
Verb Phrase
- The actors have been rehearsing all evening.
Verb Phrase

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One or more words may interrupt a verb phrase. Not and its contraction n’t, for
example, often interrupt verb phrases.

Your train is not leaving for 20 minutes

Verb Phrase Elements

I am working in the garden.

V. V. Main
Helping Intransitive

I have been working in London.

V. V. V. Main
Helping Auxiliary Intransitive

Mary could not have been passed this exam.

Noun V. Adverb V. V. V. Main Dem. N
#1 Helping Auxiliary Auxiliary Transitive Adj. #2
Modal

IV. THE ADJECTIVE (Describes, limits)

An adjective is a word used to modify a noun or pronoun. To modify means “to
limit”, or to make more definite the meaning of a word. Adjectives may modify
nouns or pronouns in the following different ways:

1. By telling what kind?

Blue eyes, large city, capable student

2. By pointing out which one?

This woman, that suggestion

3. By telling how many?

Several reasons, ten players

4. By telling how much?

Little space, great relief

Usually an adjective comes right before the noun or the pronoun it modifies.
However, an adjective can follow the word it modifies. It can also follow a linking
verb.

Before a noun:
The quiet, patient child sat an hour in the doctor’s office.
After the noun:
The child, quiet and patient, sat an hour in the doctor’s office.
After a Linking verb:
The child was quiet and patient.

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NOTE:
The words “a”, “an” and “the” form a special group of adjectives called “Articles”

Example: Ravi dropped a letter into the mailbox.

ORDER
Sometimes there are two or more fact adjectives. Very often (but not always) we put
fact adjectives in this order.

1 2 3 4 5
How  How  What  Where  What is it  NOUN
Big? Old? Color? From? Made of?

Examples:
1 3 5
 A small black plastic bag.
2 3 5
 An old white cotton shirt.
1 5
 A large wooden table.

1 2
 A tall young man

2 4
 An old Russian Song.

 Fact Adjectives:
They give us objective information about something (age, size, color, etc).
Examples:
New, large, round, wooden

 Opinion adjectives:
They tell us what someone thinks of something.
Examples:
Nice, beautiful

RULE:
Opinion adjectives usually go before fact adjectives.

Examples:
Opinion fact
A nice sunny day
Delicious hot soup
An intelligent young man
A beautiful large, round, wooden, table

Research point: Look for more complex forms to classify fact adjectives.

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 Proper Adjectives:
France is a proper noun; French is a proper adjective; it is formed from the
proper noun France, but it is used to modify a noun or a pronoun. A proper
adjective always begins with a capital letter.
Proper Nouns  Proper Adjectives
The South  Southern hospitality
America  American trade
Queen Victoria  Victorian furniture

Adjective or Noun?
Noun : The narrow street was crowded

Adjective : Street cleaners are working near our apartment building.

Noun : Winter is my favorite season.

Adjective : Winter winds in Chicago are very severe.

Adjective or Pronoun?
Adjective : This volleyball needs air (This modifies volleyball).
Pronoun : This needs air (This takes the place of the noun volleyball).

Adjective : Which card did you send?

Pronoun : Which did you send?

Adjective : I like this picture.

Pronoun : I like this.

The following pronouns can be used as adjectives in a sentence.

Words used as pronouns or adjectives

DEMOSTRATIVE INTERROGATIVE INDEFINITE
That What All Many
These Which Another More
This Whose Any Most
Those Both Neither
Each Other
Either Several
Few Some

Note: Please try to remember about adjective degrees. Let’s discuss a bit about
them:

A) Positive
B) Comparative: Equality, superiority and inferiority
C) Superlative: Superiority and Inferiority

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Examples:

 My brother is as tall as I am. (Comparative of equality)

 I am taller than my brother is. (Comparative of superiority)
 I am the tallest in my family. (Superlative of superiority)
 I am tall. (Positive degree)
 Stanley is the least young in the Grammar II class. (Superlative of inferiority)
 (Comparative of superiority) She is smarter than me.
 (Comparative of inferiority) She is less tall than me./ He is less handsome than
Michael.
 (Comparative of equality) You are as smart as me.

V. THE ADVERB (Describes, limits)

An Adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. The
adverb is used most commonly as the modifier OF A VERB. It may tell how, when,
where or to what extent (how often or much) the action of the verb is done.
Example:
- She drives carefully (Carefully tells how she drives).
- She drives early and late (early and late tell when she drives).
- She drives everywhere (Everywhere tells where she drives).
- She can almost drive (almost tells to what extent she can drive).
- She drives daily (daily tells how often she drives).

Some adverbs, such as really, actually, truly, indeed, are used mostly for emphasis.
Classify these as adverbs of extent.
Examples:
- Ramona can really cook.
- He can actually drive.
- She is indeed a fine player.

 An adverb may modify an adjective.

Example:

She is a really good driver.

 An adverb may modify another adverb.

Example:

He behaved very well.

Note: The word “not” is classified as an adverb.

Many adverbs end in “–LY”.

Example:

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English Composition I Unit # 1 Stanley Oviedo

Hold the rope tightly as you lower the bucket slowly.

The common adverbs in the following list, however, do not end in –LY:

Common Adverbs

Again Even How Somewhat

Almost Ever Often Somewhere
Alone Everywhere Outside Soon
Already Here Quite Still
Also Just Rather There
Always Late Seldom Too
Away Never So Very
Down Not Sometimes Yet

NOUNS USED AS ADVERBS

Some nouns may be used adverbially.
Example:
I called her yesterday.
She is leaving tomorrow. Adverbs
We expect them Monday.

ORDER with a series of adverbs:

Manner  Place – frequency – time – purpose

VI. THE PREPOSITION (Relates)

A preposition is a word used to show the relation of a noun or pronoun to some

other words in the sentence.
Prepositional phrases formula: Prepo.+0,1,2.etc Modifiers + a Noun or a Pronoun

Example:

Both of us bought the same gift for you.

A preposition always appears in a phrase, usually at the beginning. The noun or

pronoun at the end of a prepositional phrase is the OBJECT of the preposition that
begins the phrase.

Example:
prep. Obj.
Prepositional Did you speak with them?
prep. Obj.
Phrase The ice on the lake is safe.
prep. Obj. Obj. Obj.
Compound object Boxes of uniforms, hats, and boots filled the band room.
of a preposition

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Commonly Used Prepositions

About Between Over
Above Beyond Past
Across But (“meaning except”) Since
After By Through
Against Concerning Throughout
Along Down To
Amid During Toward
Among Except Under
Around For Underneath
At From Until
Before In Unto
Behind Into Up
Below Like Upon
Beneath Of With
Beside Off Within
Besides On Without

A group of words may act as a preposition: “On account of”, “In spite of”. A
sentence can have more than one prepositional phrase:
Example:
prep. Obj. prep. Obj.
After the game we walked to the pizza parlor.
prep. Obj. prep. Obj. prep. Obj.
During the winter some beetles go into hibernation under the ground.

Preposition or Adverb?
Some words can be a preposition in one sentence and an adverb in another
sentence. Around, for example, is a preposition when it is part of a prepositional
phrase. Around is an adverb; however, when it stands alone, and it is not part of a
prepositional phrase.

Preposition:
The skaters sped around the rink (around the rink is a prepositional phrase).

Adverb:
Albert drove around (around is an adverb that tells where he drove. It is not part of
a prepositional phrase, and it has no object).

VII. THE CONJUNCTION (Connects)

A conjunction is a word that joins words or groups of words.
Examples:
 Bring your lunch and one dollar.
 You must pass every subject and maintain a good average.
 We placed an ad, but no one responded.
 I can see the truck or the jeep.
 You can either stay here or come with us.
 I will let you know when I hear from him.
 She succeeds because she works hard.

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a) Coordinating conjunctions/ “fanboys”

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
3 kinds of (No further explanation).
Conjunctions
b) Correlative conjunctions.
c) Subordinating conjunctions.

Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative Conjunctions are always used in pairs.
Either............. or
Neither........... nor
Both............... and
Not only......... but (also)
Whether......... or

Examples:
The work is not only profitable but also pleasant.
Do you know whether Sara is coming alone or with her parents?

Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinate Conjunctions are used to begin subordinate clauses, usually adverb
clauses.

Examples: Subordinate Clause

There is no use arguing, since you have already made your decision.
Subordinating Conjunction
We stayed indoors until the storm abated
Subordinate Clauses

You may stay where you are

Subordinating Conjunction

NOTE:
Subordinate Conjunctions do not need to come between the sentence parts that they
join. They may come at the beginning of the sentence.
Subordinating Conjunctions

Although speed is important, accuracy is more important.

Subordinate Clause

Subordinating Conjunction

When I take an examination, I become frightened.

Subordinate Clause

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* Commonly Used Subordinating Conjunctions

NOTE
Some of these words may be used as prepositions: After, before, since, until;
others may be used as adverbs: how, when, where. That is often used as a relative
pronoun.

After Before Provided Unless

Although How Since Until
As If Than When
As much as In order that That Where
Because In as much as though While

VIII. THE INTERJECTION (Expresses strong feelings)

An interjection is a word that expresses emotion and has no grammatical relation to
other words in the sentence.
Example:
Oh!, My goodness!, Hurry!, Ah!, Ouch!, Alas!, Surprise!, etc.

An interjection usually comes at the beginning of a sentence. It is followed by an

exclamation point or a comma.
Examples:
 Ouch! That water is hot.
 Surprise! We were waiting for you.
 Oh, I just remembered the rehearsal for the dance troupe tomorrow.

NOTE:
Do not use interjections too often. They lose their force when you use too many of
them.

The same word as different Parts of Speech

You have already learned that there are many words in English which can be used as
more than one part of speech. For example, THESE may be an adjective (these
books) or a pronoun (I want these); BLUE may be an adjective (the blue car) or a
noun (blue is my favorite color); TUESDAY can be a noun (Tuesday is my birthday)
or an adverb (come Tuesday). There are thousands of words like these which can be
classified by part of speech only when you see them in sentences.

Examples:
- The plant was growing in a terrarium.
noun

- We usually plant tomatoes in the spring.

verb
- Bacteria cause many plant diseases.
adjective

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EXERCISE: Classify each word into its correspondent part of speech. Then, you
must sub-classify each part of speech if there is a way to do it.

1. Have you met the German exchange student?

Have you met the German exchange student?
Helping Pronoun/Subject Main Adjective/Article Proper Adjective N# 2
Verb Verb/Transitive Adjective

2. The explorers climbed steadily up the mountain.

The explorers climbed steadily up the mountain.
Adj/Art N#1 Verb/Intransitive Adverb Prepo. Adj./Art. N# 3

3. The area of the United States would fit into the Continent of Africa for
three and a half times.
The area of the United would fit into the
States
Adj./Art. N#1 Prepo. Adj./Art. N# 3 Modal Aux. Main Prepo. Adj/Art
Verb Verb/Intras.

continent of Africa for three and a half times.

N#3 Prepo. N#3 Prepo. Adjective Coord. Adj/Art Adj. N#3
Conjunction

4. Wow! the runner was heading for a sure touchdown but stumbled on
the five –yard line.
Wow! the runner was heading for a sure

touchdown but stumbled on the five yard line.

5. A bee colony consists of a queen bee, drones, and workers.

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A bee colony consists of a queen bee, drones, and workers.

6. Lisandro is in love with Maria, Marta, and Margarita.

Lisandro is in love with Maria, Marta, and Margarita.

7. That is the home of a squirrel.

That is the home of a squirrel.
Demonst.Pronou Main Adj/Art N#4 Prepo. Adj/Art N#3
n Verb/Linking

8. Quickly she stuffed the papers into her briefcase.

Quickly she stuffed the paper into her Briefcase.

9. That team has two left-handed pitchers.

That team has two left - handed pitchers.

10.The woodchuck is a member of the squirrel family.

The woodchuck is a member of the squirrel family.

11.The panda has a black patch over each of its eyes.

The panda has a black patch over each of its eyes.

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