Winch 9780195529098 SC
Winch 9780195529098 SC
Winch 9780195529098 SC
Common noun
A common noun is the name of any ordinary thing you can see and touch.
Here are some examples of common nouns:
dog hat ball
water apple car
The toy dog is made of metal.
Common noun
Proper noun
A proper noun is the special name of a person, place or thing. Proper nouns start with
capital letters.
Here are some examples of proper nouns:
Mia Canberra Sydney Opera House
Captain Cook China
The Sydney Opera House is big.
Proper noun
Collective nouns
A collective noun is the name given to a group of persons or things.
Here are some examples of collective nouns:
team herd swarm
litter bunch flock
A litter of puppies.
Collective noun
Concrete nouns
A concrete noun is a noun that you can see or touch, like tree, hat or nose. It is the opposite
1
Word level: the parts of speech
Technical nouns
A technical noun is a noun that is used in a specific area of study. We only tend to use
technical nouns when we are speaking or writing about particular topics.
Here are some examples of technical nouns:
fraction oxygen galaxy triceratops
Non-technical nouns are also called everyday nouns.
A bear is a large mammal.
Technical noun
Terms-of-address nouns
A term-of-address noun is a noun we use when we are talking or writing to someone. It is a
special type of proper noun.
Here are some examples of terms-of-address nouns:
Mrs Chin Alex Your Honour Sir
REMEMBER
Running is good exercise. In this sentence, running is a verbal noun. It looks like
the verb to run, but acts like a noun. It is the subject of the
verb is.
I like eating. In this sentence, eating is a verbal noun. It looks like
the verb to eat, but acts like a noun. It is the object of the
verb like.
I am good at dancing. In this sentence, dancing is a verbal noun. It looks like the
verb to dance, but acts like a noun. It is the object of the
preposition at.
I went on a walking tour. In this sentence, walking is a participle. It acts as an
adjective, describing the noun tour.
Modal nouns
A modal noun shows a degree of possibility, certainty or obligation. That is, something that
is possible, certain, or that you should do.
Here are some examples of modal nouns:
probability certainty necessity chance
Compound nouns
A compound noun is made up of two or more words. These words may be joined together,
as in teabag or snowman; or hyphenated, as in self-control or brother-in-law.
These are compound nouns:
bookshelf thumbnail goldfish
knife-edge half-brother sister-in-law
Sometimes when a group of words has a special meaning, we call them compound nouns,
even though they are not joined together and do not have a hyphen. Baked beans and human
being are compound nouns.
Noun group
A noun group is a word or a number of words based around a noun. It can consist of a single
noun, a single pronoun, or a single noun with words built around the noun. A noun group
can also include a clause. (See Groups, p. 38, Clauses, p. 42.)
In the following sentences, the noun groups are highlighted:
REMEMBER
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. Pronouns include words like he, she, I, me, you,
they, them.
Dogs bark.
They bark.
Those dogs bark.
Those big dogs bark.
Those big dogs that live next door bark.
Noun groups are sometimes called nominal groups or noun phrases.
Noun phrase
A noun phrase is a phrase that does the work of a noun. (See Phrases, p. 38.)
These are noun phrases:
eating apples
going fishing
playing tennis
Playing tennis is fun!
Noun phrase
Noun clause
A noun clause is a subordinate clause that does the work of a noun. It can be either the
subject or the object of a verb. A noun clause contains a subject and a verb of its own,
but does not make sense by itself. (See Clauses, p. 42, Finite verbs, p. 20, Subject and
object, p. 6.)
REMEMBER
A principal clause is a group of words that makes sense on its own. A subordinate clause is a group of
words that gives meaning to the main clause of a sentence, but it cannot stand on its own.
What I saw at the In this sentence, What I saw at the movies is a noun
movies was scary. clause. It contains a subject (I) and a verb (saw), but it
does not make sense on its own.
You must see the game In this sentence, the game that is on TV tonight is a noun
that is on TV tonight. clause. It contains a subject (the game) and a verb (is), but it
does not make sense on its own.
Number
A noun has number. It can be singular or plural. Singular means one. Plural means more
than one.
apple singular apples plural
Gender
Nouns can be masculine (male) or feminine (female).
Some nouns are neither masculine nor feminine. These are called neuter. Masculine,
feminine and neuter are a noun’s gender.
Some nouns can be either masculine or feminine. These nouns are said to be common gender.
EXAMPLES OF NOUNS AND THEIR GENDER
Nominalisation
Nominalisation is the process of making nouns from other parts of speech. For example,
the verb lose becomes loss; the adjective high becomes height; the verb dwell becomes dwelling.
Some words can be nouns or verbs, depending on what their job is in a sentence. For
example, the word jump can mean ‘a jump’ (noun) or ‘to jump’ (verb).
I did a huge jump on a trampoline. I like to jump on a trampoline.
Noun Verb
Case
Nouns and pronouns have case. Case refers to the relationship between nouns (or pronouns)
and verbs. (See Pronouns, below.)
There are three main cases:
• The subjective case refers to the subject of a verb. The subjective case is sometimes called
the nominative case.
• The objective case refers to the object of a verb or preposition.
The objective case is sometimes called the accusative case.
• The possessive case shows ownership of something.
Ahmed borrowed In this sentence, Ahmed is in the subjective case. It is the subject
Stephen’s book. of the verb borrowed. Book is in the objective case. It is the object
of the verb borrowed. Stephen’s is in the possessive case. It tells
us who owns the book.
REMEMBER
The subject is the person or thing who performs the action of the verb.
The object is the person or thing who has the action of the verb done to them.
Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun.
Personal pronouns
Personal pronouns are used instead of the nouns that name people, places, things and ideas.
Like the nouns they represent, personal pronouns may be the subject or part of the subject of a
clause or sentence. They can also be the object or part of the object of a clause or sentence.
Personal pronouns have a lot in common with nouns:
• They have case—subjective, objective or possessive.
• They can be singular or plural.
• They have person—first person, second person or third person.
To find the subjective case, find the subject! Ask who or what in front of the verb.
He found the book and It is a personal pronoun and is the object of the verb give.
gave it to her. As the object, it is objective case. Her is a personal pronoun
and is governed by the preposition to. Because of the
preposition, it is objective case.
REMEMBER
To find the objective case, find the object! Ask who or what after the verb.
Ali gave me the book. This sentence really means, Ali gave the book to me. So, the
direct object is book, because it is the thing that has the
action done to it. The indirect object—the person affected
by the action—is me.
The teacher gave the pencils In this sentence, the personal pronoun her is the
to her. object of the preposition to.
Personal pronouns in the possessive case are also called possessive pronouns.
REMEMBER
Possession tells us about ownership. To find the possessive case ask whose.
Possessive adjectives
There are some words that seem like pronouns, but are only used with nouns. They are
called possessive adjectives. (See Possessive adjectives, p. 13.)
That dog is mine. This is my dog.
Personal pronoun, Possessive adjective
possessive case,
first person.
Relative pronouns
A relative pronoun is a pronoun that is used to link a subordinate clause to a noun or
personal pronoun. This noun or pronoun is called an antecedent.
REMEMBER
A principal clause is a group of words that makes sense on its own. A subordinate clause is a group of
words that gives meaning to the main clause of a sentence, but it cannot stand on its own.
The relative pronoun has to agree with the antecedent in person and number. If the
antecedent is first person, singular, the relative pronoun must also be first person, singular.
If the antecedent is third person, plural, the relative pronoun must also be third person,
plural.
David, who is eight years old, In this sentence, who is the relative pronoun and David
is playing in a band. is the antecedent. David is third person, singular, so who
must also be third person, singular.
Here are some common relative pronouns:
who whom which that
When we speak, we often replace whom with who. Writing is usually more formal, however,
so we should use who and whom correctly.
Interrogative pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun that is used to ask a question. Interrogative
pronouns are sometimes called question pronouns.
REMEMBER
Demonstrative pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that refers to a specific noun. Demonstrative
pronouns are often used when we can point to the people or things we are talking about.
The demonstrative pronouns are:
that this those these
If one of these words is followed by a noun, it becomes a demonstrative adjective or a
pronominal adjective.
Indefinite pronouns
Indefinite pronouns are pronouns that we use when we don’t want to refer to any particular
person, place or thing.
No one is to blame for this mess.
Indefinite pronouns that end with -one or -body refer to persons, while those ending in -thing
refer to places or things.
Here are some examples of indefinite pronouns:
one none anyone someone
no one nobody anything nothing
Indefinite pronouns are usually followed by a singular verb.
Distributive pronouns
A distributive pronoun is a pronoun that refers to individual members of a group separately,
rather than to the group as a whole.
Each had a carrot.
Distributive pronoun
The distributive pronouns are:
each every either neither
If these words are followed by a noun, they become distributive adjectives or pronominal
adjectives. (See Distributive adjectives, p. 14.)
Each lamb had its wool clipped. Distributive adjective
Number
Pronouns have number. Some are singular and some are plural.
If the noun it refers to (the antecedent) is singular, the pronoun is also singular. If the noun it
refers to is plural, the pronoun is plural.
In the examples that follow, the nouns/antecedents are highlighted in bold, with an S for
singular or a P for plural placed above each.
Gender
In English, there are four genders. They are:
• masculine (male)
• feminine (female)
• common gender (can be either male or female)
• neuter (neither male nor female) (See Gender, p. 5.)
Examples of pronouns and their gender
Masculine Feminine Common gender Neuter
he she he or she it
him her him or her
Nouns have gender, and so do pronouns. A pronoun has the same gender as its antecedent,
the noun it replaces.
In the examples that follow, the antecedent is in brackets following the pronoun. It has
an M for masculine gender, F for feminine gender, N for neuter gender and C for common
gender written above it.
F M She is feminine and him is
She (a girl) sat next to him (a boy). masculine.
N
It (a building) will have to be demolished. It is neuter.
M N I is masculine and nothing is
I (Fred) have nothing (money) left to give. neuter.
C
Anyone (man and woman) who knows him Anyone and us are common
C gender.
will join us (men and women) today.
REMEMBER
A complement is a word that is needed to give meaning. Prepositions such as with and under, and verbs
such as be and feel need a complement to make sense: with me, under it, be happy, feel hungry.
This rule is gradually changing, because many people feel that it is very old-fashioned.
However, it is still important in formal writing.
Adjectives
An adjective is a describing word. It describes or adds meaning to a noun or pronoun.
Possessive adjectives
A possessive adjective shows possession.
This is my bike.
Possessive adjective
Possessive adjectives have to match the person and number of the nouns and pronouns that
they modify.
Singular Plural
First person my our
Second person your your
Third person his, her, its their
Possessive adjectives must be followed by a noun. Possessive adjectives are sometimes called
pronoun adjectives or pronominal adjectives.
Demonstrative adjectives
A demonstrative adjective is an adjective that demonstrates or points out a specific noun.
In the following sentences, the demonstrative adjectives point out a noun:
This hat is mine. This points out the noun hat.
That hat is yours. That points out the noun hat.
These shoes are mine. These points out the noun shoes.
Those shoes are yours. Those points out the noun shoes.
Demonstrative adjectives are sometimes called pointing adjectives or determiners.
Distributive adjectives
A distributive adjective is an adjective that refers to individual members of a group
separately, rather than to the group as a whole.
Each cat was howling.
Distributive adjective
The distributive adjectives are:
each every either neither
Remember that distributive adjectives refer to individual things, so each is singular in
number and requires a singular verb.
Neither Bill nor Jane is here.
Each bird catches a worm.
Interrogative adjectives
An interrogative adjective is an adjective that asks a question. In the following sentences,
the interrogative adjectives are highlighted:
Which animal made that sound?
What make of plane is that?
Whose friend is waiting?
Modal adjectives
A modal adjective shows an amount of probability or certainty.
a possible event
a definite result
Words like certain, likely, unlikely and probable are modal adjectives.
Indefinite adjectives
Indefinite adjectives refer to number but do not give the exact number.
Some, few, many and most are examples of indefinite adjectives in the following sentences,
because each modifies a noun:
Some people are very kind.
Few parents would come to the show.
Many children are swimming.
Most cars are shiny.
When an indefinite adjective is not followed by a noun, it is called an indefinite pronoun.
(See Indefinite pronouns, p. 10.)
REMEMBER
There is no degree between the comparative and the superlative. We should never say that something is
‘more bigger’ or ‘more stronger’!
Many adjectives take the endings -er for the comparative and -est for the superlative. Here
are some examples:
Sometimes, the spelling of the adjective changes when -er and -est are added. Always check
your dictionary if you are unsure!
Some adjectives seem clumsy if you add -er or -est. They form their comparative and
superlative forms with the adverbs more or most instead. Here are some examples:
REMEMBER
The superlative is the highest degree of comparison. We should never say that something is ‘the most
biggest’ or the ‘most beautifullest’!
Absolute words
Some adjectives do not have a comparative or superlative degree. They are sometimes
called absolute words. For example, if something is empty, it cannot be more or less empty.
(See Making sense, p. 121.)
Here are some absolute words:
full dead correct perfect whole equal
REMEMBER
Verbs
A verb is a doing, being or having word.
Doing verbs
There are four different types of doing verbs: action verbs, saying verbs, sensing verbs and relating
verbs.
The bird flew!
Verb
• Action verbs involve an action—something that is done.
Run, jump and flew are action verbs.
• Saying verbs involve speech—something that is said.
Shout, whisper and scream are saying verbs.
• Sensing verbs involve thought and feelings—something that is sensed or felt.
Love, remember and imagine are sensing verbs.
• Relating verbs involves linking or relating—how pieces of information are linked.
Be, have and become are relating verbs.
Action verbs
In the following poem, the action verbs are highlighted:
Me—Moving
I dart and dash, I leap and lurch, I turn and trip,
I jig and jump, I crawl and creep, I skid and skip,
I scamper, I rove and romp And now and then—
skate and scramble. and ramble. I gambol.
I strut and stride,
I slip and slide,
And frequently I amble.
Gordon Winch
Saying verbs
Here are some examples of saying verbs:
ask demand explain agree suggest
reply shout whisper murmur say
Sensing verbs
Here are some examples of sensing verbs:
Relating verbs
Some verbs do not show actions, thoughts or feelings. These verbs simply link pieces of
information in the text. They tell us how one piece of information relates to another. That is
why they are called relating or linking verbs.
Here are some examples of sensing verbs:
Being am is mean
Having has possess include
I have read all In this sentence, have is the auxiliary verb and read is the verb
of my books! that it helps.
I am going for In this sentence, am is the auxiliary verb and going is the
a walk. participle that it helps.
Auxiliary verbs are very important, because they make it possible for us to give a clear sense
of time. We use auxiliary verbs to form the different tenses of verbs. (See Tense, pp. 24–6.)
REMEMBER
An auxiliary verb is a verb that is used with other verbs or participles to complete a verb. For example,
‘I have seen that movie’. Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs.
Modal verbs
Modal verbs give us information about the amount of possibility or certainty being
expressed. They are usually auxiliary verbs.
• Some modal verbs express low modality or certainty—things that might happen.
• Some modal verbs express medium modality or certainty— things that can or should
happen.
• Other modal verbs express high modality or certainty— things that will or must
happen.
Here are some examples of modal verbs:
Modality
Modality can be expressed with other parts of speech, not just with verbs.
Finite verbs
Verbs can be finite or non-finite.
A finite verb has a subject, and can stand alone in a clause or sentence. It does not need
another verb to make sense. Every clause or sentence must have a finite verb.
The tree crashed to the In this sentence, crashed is the finite verb and the tree is
ground. the subject.
To find the subject of a finite verb, you ask Who? or What? before the verb.
Question: What crashed?
Answer: The tree. So tree is the subject and crashed is a finite verb.
REMEMBER
Non-finite verbs
A non-finite verb cannot stand alone as the main verb in a sentence. It needs another verb
to make sense. (See Sentences, p. 46, Clauses, p. 42.)
to see the movie This phrase does not make sense. To see is not a finite verb.
We need to add a subject and a finite verb to turn this phrase
into a sentence.
We went to see This is a complete sentence, because it has a subject and a
the movie. finite verb.
Infinitives
The infinitive is the basic form of a verb. It has no subject, and is usually preceded by the
word to.
Here are some examples:
to dance to eat to hear to walk to swim to stay
An infinitive can appear without the word to:
I did not dare ask. In this sentence, ask is in the infinitive form. It is a much less
clumsy way of saying I did not dare to ask.
Participles
There are two kinds of participles: present participles and past participles.
Present participles
The present participle of a verb is made by adding the ending -ing to the infinitive. It
combines with an auxiliary verb to make a complete verb.
(See Compound and Auxiliary Verbs, p. 18.)
Past participles
The past participle of a verb is usually made by adding the ending -ed to the infinitive. It
combines with an auxiliary verb to make a complete verb.
I had walked on the The complete verb is had walked. The auxiliary verb is had and
footpath. the past participle is walked.
The man sailed In this sentence, the action passes over from the verb, sailed, to
the yacht. the object, yacht.
To find out if a verb has an object, ask Who? or What? after the verb.
Question: Sailed what?
Answer: The yacht. So yacht is the object and sailed is a transitive verb.
An intransitive verb does not have an object.
The rain stopped. This sentence has no object, because the action does not pass over
from the verb, stopped, to something else.
Question: Stopped what?
Answer: There is no answer, because there is no object.
So the verb stopped in this sentence is intransitive.
Person
Pronouns have three persons:
First person: I like ice cream.
Second person: You like ice cream.
Third person: He likes ice cream.
Nouns are always in the third person.
Ciara likes ice cream.
Children like ice cream.
Verbs must change in order to agree with the ‘person’ of the subject.
First person: I like ice cream.
Second person: You like ice cream.
Third person: Ciara likes ice cream.
Irregular verbs, like the verb to be, have more changes.
First person: I am on holidays.
Second person: You are my friend.
Third person: He is my brother.
(See Nouns pp. 1–6, Pronouns pp. 6–13, Agreement, p. 42.)
Number
Nouns and pronouns have number. They can be singular (one) or plural (more than one).
If the subject of a clause or sentence is singular, the verb must be singular.
If the subject is plural, the verb must be plural. That is, the verb must agree with the
subject in number. (See Clauses, p. 42.)
Here are some examples:
This horse jumps fences.
Singular subject Singular verb Object
Singular or plural?
Sometimes, it can be difficult to work out whether the subject of a verb is singular or plural.
Here are some common situations that often cause confusion:
• When using words that end in -s but are singular:
The news is good.
Maths is easy for some people.
• When using words that look singular but are plural:
The police work hard to protect the community.
Cattle are herbivores.
• When using subjects with and:
The verb is plural if there are two persons or things:
My sister and brother are good fun.
The verb is singular if the subject refers to one person or thing:
Lemon and lime is my favourite flavour.
• When using either ... or; neither ... nor:
If both parts of the subject are singular, use a singular verb:
Neither he nor I is going.
She or I is playing.
Either of my friends is invited.
Neither of my parents likes rock music.
If one subject is singular and one is plural, the verb agrees with the nearer subject:
Neither John nor they are going.
Neither they nor John is going.
The subjunctive mood requires you to change the usual rules of subject/verb agreement
in terms of number (singular or plural) with subjects that are in the singular. You would
usually say I was… or He was… (See Subjunctive mood, p. 26.)
Present perfect continuous tense: She has been helping many people.
Past perfect continuous tense: She had been helping many people.
Future perfect continuous tense: She will have been helping many people.
REMEMBER
The verb must agree with the subject in person and number!
TENSES
Mood
Mood refers to the way the process or action is expressed by the verb. There are three
moods: the indicative mood, the imperative mood and the subjunctive mood.
In the examples above, you will see that the verb were is plural, even when the subject is
singular. This is because the subjunctive mood changes the usual rules about subject/verb
agreement.
I wish I were a movie star.
Voice
Voice tells us who is doing the action. Usually, the subject is the person or thing doing the
action of the verb, but sometimes the subject actually has the action done to it.
There are two voices: active and passive.
•Active voice
In the active voice, the subject does something to some person or thing.
John climbed the fence. Climbed is a verb in the active voice because the subject
(John) did something (climbed) to something (the fence).
•Passive voice
In the passive voice, the subject receives the action. The passive voice is made up of a
form of the verb to be plus the past participle of the main verb.
The fence was climbed Was climbed is a verb in the passive voice because the
by John. subject (the fence) had something done to it (was climbed)
by someone (John). It is the subject, (the fence), that receives
the action.
Verb phrase
A verb phrase is a group of words that contains a verb and any auxiliary, or helping, words,
that it might have. It can be described as an expanded verb. A verb phrase can consist of a
single word or number of words, such as run or has been running. (See Phrases, p. 38.)
Another type of verb phrase is a phrasal verb, which includes another word called a particle,
such as on or up. The phrasal verb could be jump on or catch up.
Remember that verb phrases are still verbs. They tell us what is happening.
Verb group
A verb group is a word, or number of words, that does the job of a verb. Like noun groups,
verb groups can be expanded.
In the following sentences, the verb groups are highlighted:
Jodie runs.
She is running.
Pierre has not been running.
They could not have been running .
The terms verb groups and verb phrases are sometimes combined under the term group/phrase.
(See Groups, p. 38.)
The verb to be
The verb to be is a special verb. It has a number of meanings of its own (to exist, to take place,
to stay in the same place or condition, etc.). It is also a very important auxiliary, or helping, verb.
The verb to be can show present, past and future tenses. It has more forms than any other
verb in the English language.
The verb to be can be an auxiliary verb, combining with other verbs to form the continuous
tenses.
Present continuous tense: I am riding my bike.
Past continuous tense: He was eating his lunch.
Future continuous tense: She will be going home soon.
The important thing to remember is that the past tense and the past participle usually add
the ending -ed to the infinitive. This ending may sometimes be shortened to -d or -t:
Sometimes the past tense of the verb is the same as the past participle:
Irregular verbs
Some verbs change their spelling in the past tense and past participle. These are called
irregular verbs, because they do not follow the normal pattern. Irregular verbs are also
called strong verbs.
REMEMBER
Don’t confuse the past tense with the past participle! It’s easy to get it right because the past participle is
preceded by a part of another verb, usually the verb to have.
Adverbs
An adverb adds meaning to, or modifies, verbs, adjectives and other adverbs.
REMEMBER
There are other types of adverbs, too. It is important to learn how to recognise them.
• Interrogative adverbs
An interrogative adverb is an adverb that asks a question. In the following sentences, the
interrogative adverbs are highlighted:
When did you get here?
How are you?
Where did she come from?
Why are you laughing?
• Negative adverbs
Negative adverbs are adverbs that make sentences negative. In the following sentences,
the negative adverbs are highlighted:
I do not agree.
I will not do it!
Never do that again!
Negative adverbs are often expressed as contractions. (See Apostrophes, p. 54.) The verb and
the negative adverb are joined to make one shorter word:
do not don’t
will not won’t
is not isn’t
have not haven’t
• Modal adverbs
A modal adverb is an adverb that shows the amount of probability, certainty, ability or
obligation in a sentence.
We will probably fly to the beach.
Modal adverb
Yes, probably, possibly, certainly and definitely are examples of modal adverbs. They are used to
agree or to express doubt.
(See also Modal adjectives p. 15 and Modal verbs p. 19.)
• Numerical adverbs
Numerical adverbs tell how often something took place:
He called her twice.
• Adverbs of degree
An adverb of degree tells us to what extent something happens:
The train almost crashed.
The plane flew extremely fast.
Words like almost, hardly, enough and extremely are adverbs of degree. They also tell us how, so
they can be called adverbs of manner, too.
REMEMBER
Adverbs add meaning to verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. They do not add meaning to nouns.
You will always be able to tell the difference between adverbs and adjectives. Adverbs add
meaning to verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. Adjectives only add meaning to nouns and
pronouns.
REMEMBER
Some words can be adverbs and adjectives—it just depends on the job that they do in the sentence!
Prepositions
A preposition is a positioning word, such as in, on, and near. It tells you the position of
something.
I gave the skateboard The preposition to is followed by the pronoun him. Him is
to him. in the objective case.
Dad shared the lollies The preposition between is followed by the noun Mark and
between Mark and me. the preposition me. Me is in the objective case.
Be careful with prepositional phrases involving the pronoun me. A lot of people make the
mistake of saying or writing I when they should say or write me.
Don’t say: Mum gave the toys to Sarah and I.
Say: Mum gave the toys to Sarah and me.
In the sentence above, the pronoun me is the object of the preposition to.
A good way to work out whether to use I or me is to take out the other people involved. If we
take out Sarah and, we are left with:
Mum gave the toys to [Sarah and] me.
Prepositions are usually short words, although some, like underneath, are long.
Here are some common prepositions. There are many more.
across beneath into over before
after between like past in
among during near to on
around from of up with
You know which preposition to use in most cases because it sounds right when you say it.
We are pleased with things; we rely on things and we bring things under control.
Some special prepositions need special attention.
We say:
different from between two among three (or more)
Not:
different to among two between three (or more)
different than
Another useful point to remember is that the preposition usually has a noun or pronoun
after it.
Note that the whole phrase, up the hill, does the job of an adverb and is called an adverbial
phrase. It contains the preposition up.
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a joining word. Conjunctions help to hold texts together.
Coordinating conjunctions
A coordinating conjunction is a conjunction that links words, phrases or clauses that are
grammatically ‘equal’. That is, they are equally important to the meaning of a sentence.
I wore a hat and scarf to the snow.
I went skiing but didn’t go tobogganing.
Coordinating conjunctions usually join the same or similar parts of a text together:
wet and cold tired but happy apple or pear
Coordinating conjunctions also join compound words and phrases:
Mary Jones and Pablo Lopes on the beach and in the water
Coordinating conjunctions can also join separate sentences into a single sentence:
Without a conjunction: This is his book. That is her book.
With a conjunction: This is his book and that is her book.
Here are some common coordinating conjunctions:
and but for nor
or so yet
My aunt gave me a shirt but I didn’t like it.
Coordinating conjunction
Subordinating conjunctions
Some conjunctions join parts of sentences called clauses. A subordinating conjunction is a
conjunction that introduces a subordinate clause. (See Clauses, p. 42.)
A subordinate clause is dependent upon the main clause. It cannot exist without it.
I want to be a pilot when I grow up.
This sentence contains two clauses, I want to be a pilot and when I grow up.
The clause when I grow up is subordinate to, or dependent on, the clause I want to be a pilot.
When I grow up doesn’t make sense by itself. The word that joins the two clauses is when.
This is called a subordinating conjunction.
Here are some common subordinating conjunctions:
after before though
whenever although once
unless where as
since until because
than when while
REMEMBER
A clause is a group of words that contains a finite verb and its subject. There can be more than one
clause in a sentence.
Correlative conjunctions
Some conjunctions exist in pairs. These conjunctions are called correlative conjunctions.
The most common correlative conjunctions are:
both … and either … or
neither … nor not only … but also
whether … or not … but
35
Word level: the parts of speech
Articles
An article describes a noun and is a special kind of adjective.
Definite article
The is the definite article. It is called definite because it refers to a particular thing or
things.
The video game is really hard to complete!
I would like the steamed dumplings, please.
Indefinite article
A and an are indefinite articles. These articles refer to general, rather than particular,
things.
Wear a coat, as it is very cold.
An owl is in the tree.
A coat refers to any coat, not a particular or special one. An refers to any owl, not a particular
or special one.
A is used in front of a consonant: a coat
An is used in front of a vowel. an owl
Interjections
An interjection is a word that is ‘thrown in’ to interrupt the flow of conversation or
writing. Interjections usually express a strong feeling about something.
Parsing
Parsing means to break down a sentence into each of its separate parts.
The word parsing comes from the Latin word pars meaning ‘part’. When you parse a
sentence, you identify the name and function of each word. That is, you state the job that
each word is doing.
Here is an example of parsing:
The hungry tiger watched them closely.
1. Start by naming each part of speech in the sentence:
The hungry tiger watched them closely.
article adjective noun verb pronoun adverb
Today, we are more interested in the functions of words in a text as a whole, and how texts
work in real-life situations.