[ Teacher training ]

On reflection 1: the
importance of reflection
in teacher training
T
Matthew Gordon he importance of reflection central to affecting teaching practice.
I would have counted myself among that
in teacher education is well-
encourages the development acknowledged in both the ELT number until a colleague asked me to do
of reflective skills in teacher and general education literature. a presentation at a teacher conference on
This importance is reflected reflective practice. Once I started delving
training. in the prominence it is given on entry- into reflection, I realised that there is a
level TESOL Certificate qualifications wide body of literature on the subject
such as the Cambridge CELTA and containing many practical ideas for its
Trinity CertTESOL and more advanced successful implementation. Employing
qualifications such as the DELTA and some of these ideas on CertTESOL courses
DipTESOL. Nevertheless, reflective practice which I have run has let me see first-hand
can sometimes seem a somewhat abstract the impact effective reflection can have
concept and difficult to link with teaching on teachers’ ability to analyse their own
practice. Perhaps due to these difficulties, lessons and use this analysis to improve
it has been my experience that many their teaching.
teachers and teacher trainers, while being
aware of its importance, see reflection as The purpose of this article is to make
more of a box to be ticked than something reflection a more concrete idea by

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looking at how it is defined, outlining the reasons of this development as an explicit learning outcome
for its importance and looking at practical ways in on TESOL Certificate courses. The limited time and
which it can be made more effective. The suggested scope of such courses means that, while they are
methods include clearly defining the development of able to equip teachers with basic teaching skills
specific reflective skills as a learning aim, following and knowledge, they are not able to prepare them
a process which allows opportunities for this for the multitude of different teaching situations
development and creating an atmosphere conducive in which they may find themselves post-course.
to the experimentation and open questioning of The importance of teachers being able to develop
ideas necessary for genuine reflection to take place. independently is further emphasised by the lack of
In a separate article in the next issue of MET, I will support for professional development in teachers’ first
outline the findings of practitioner research which jobs (Higginbotham 2019: 3–6) and the limited effect
I conducted into the effectiveness of these methods. that on the job training can have when it does exist
(Richards and Lockhart 1992: 2).
Defining reflection
Overall, then, the importance of the development of
One issue with reflection is that it is difficult to define. reflective skills on teacher training courses lies in
This is especially true with regards to teacher training the way in which these skills empower teachers to
since, as Jay and Johnson (2002: 73–4) note, in this develop their own teaching styles and skills according
context, a definition must be detailed enough to to their own needs and priorities.
capture the complexity of reflection but simple enough
to be clearly understood by trainees.
How can reflective skills be
Two influential definitions come from Dewey developed?
(1933) and Schön (1983). Dewey focuses on the
This article will now consider how training courses
importance of critically examining one’s own
can support teachers in developing their reflective
beliefs because of the way those beliefs affect one’s
skills. It will first look at how setting an appropriate
actions. The implication is that beliefs not based
aim can help to guide trainers and trainees as
on proper evidence may lead people to the wrong
well as introducing an influential rubric which can
course of action. Schön’s definition is focused on the
inform these aims. It will then outline a process
relationship between reflection and practice. In this
which can support the development of reflective
definition, reflection is important in guarding against
skills before looking at how trainers can create
repetitive and unthinking practice.
an atmosphere conducive to the development of
reflective skills.
It is easy to see why these two definitions remain
influential so many years after their publication and
their relevance to teaching. A teacher who is reflective Setting an appropriate learning aim
is able to question their beliefs and practice through
evidence and use their findings to change the way Drawing on Hattie (2012: 131–2), I would like to
in which they teach. Thus, a useful definition within suggest that in order for teachers to develop their
teacher education, combining these two perspectives, reflective skills, they need to know what skills
can be posited as: specifically they are aiming to develop, to get
feedback on their level of achievement with regards
the questioning by a teacher of their own to those skills and to receive advice on how they can
pedagogical beliefs and practice with a view to get closer to the aims. In other words, as with any
altering that practice. other learning, they need clear aims and effective
feedback and feed-forward. In my experience, this
This definition is, in my experience, complex enough can be contrasted with the reality of some courses,
to be useful to teachers and simple and concrete where trainees sometimes receive comments such as
enough to be understood and used by them. ‘can you go a bit deeper?’ or ‘can you write more?’
as feedback on their reflections.

The importance of reflection This situation is unsurprising given the

Being able to reflect effectively gives teachers the aforementioned difficulty with defining reflection,
ability to develop their teaching independently. This let alone knowing the individual skills which effective
is vital since, as Xu et al (2015: 50) perceptively point reflection entails. To this end, taxonomies for effective
out, there is no one teaching methodology suitable reflection exist in the literature and one of the most
for every teacher or every teaching context. As well influential comes from Ward and McCotter (2004) who
as emphasising the importance of the development break reflection down into four levels. These levels
of reflective skills in teacher training in general, this help identifying what deeper reflection is and how it
is one of the strongest arguments for the inclusion can be described.

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[ Teacher training ]

The lowest level, routine reflection, involves teachers what the difference between them was? My tutor
describing rather than evaluating what happened suggested that I ask questions which only focus on the
in class with a focus on themselves and without areas that students might get confused with. I will try
any personal response. An example of this type of this out in the next lesson and see what the results are.’
reflection would be ‘I asked instruction-checking
questions before the task.’ The highest level of reflection, transformative
reflection, has a focus on, not only pedagogical, but
In technical reflection, teachers focus on the also moral, ethical, and cultural questions; ongoing
improvement of specific teaching skills, engage in enquiry focuses on the synthesis of information from
enquiry related to these skills and respond personally different sources and there is a fundamental change in
to what happened in class but without any change in beliefs and practice. Given the complexity of this level
their overall perspective on teaching. For example: of reflection, an example is not possible here.
‘I asked instruction-checking questions before the
task but these were not effective. I wonder how these As with any learning aim, the level of reflection
questions could be made more effective?’ which trainee teachers are expected to reach must be
appropriate and achievable. The complex nature of
Dialogic reflection occurs when teachers focus transformative reflection makes it difficult to achieve
on students, show signs of ongoing enquiry and/ on a short course such as the CertTESOL. However,
or integration of other perspectives and use their in ongoing in-service professional development
reflection to discover new insights into teaching and/or programs this level may be possible. On the other
to change their practice. An example would be ‘I asked hand, on a short course for beginner teachers, an
instruction-checking questions before each task, some appropriate aim might be that all trainees reach
of them were effective but others weren’t, I wonder a level of technical reflection. On my own courses,
the level which I set as an end-of-course aim was
dialogic reflection. This level encompasses many of
the features of reflection given in Dewey and Schön’s
definitions. The focus on students and ongoing
enquiry enables teachers to collect evidence about

  Being able to reflect effectively

the effect of their teaching approach, the integration
of other perspectives and discovery of new insights
gives teachers the ability to develop enable a change in beliefs and there is an emphasis
on a change in teaching practice.
their teaching independently. 
Whatever the specific aim, clearly defining the
elements which make up the level of reflection
expected on a course will guide trainees in attempting
to reach that aim and enable trainers to give useful
feedback on how trainees can get closer to it.

A process which supports the

development of reflective skills
Once an appropriate aim has been set, it is important
that the process of reflection supports the achievement
of that aim. Courses such as the CertTESOL typically
feature an initial reaction from teachers to their
teaching practice lessons – often termed a ‘hot’
reflection – followed by a spoken feedback session and
then a delayed ‘cold’ written reflection.

This process is very close to Jay and Johnson’s

(2002) influential reflection model. This model
sees three levels of reflection as parts of a process.
Descriptive reflection refers to the formulation of
a problem by a teacher, comparative reflection is
where they get other perspectives on this problem
and, in critical reflection, they reach conclusions
based on consideration of these perspectives. It is
easy to see how these three stages correspond with
the process of reflection outlined above. In the first

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stage, something surprising may lead the teacher to

formulate a problem – for instance students may not The teacher reacts to the behaviour of Encourages: focus on students,
respond well to their concept checking questions. In students and identifies areas for further ongoing enquiry.
the second, they get input from tutors and peers on discussion.
this problem – they may offer opinions on why the
questions were not appropriate or alternative types of
questions. In the third stage the teacher synthesises
their prior knowledge and beliefs, initial reaction and
the perspectives of their peers and tutors to conclude
something new to them – and they may reach a The teacher discusses the areas identified Encourages: integration of other
new understanding about the nature and purpose of with their peers and tutor. perspectives.
concept checking questions.

It can be seen from the above examples that this

process creates the opportunity for the integration of
some of the features of higher level reflection from
Ward and McCotter’s rubric. Teachers are engaging The teacher draws conclusions, sets
personal aims and identifies areas for Encourages: new insights, change
in enquiry and focusing on students by formulating
further enquiry. in practice, ongoing enquiry
a problem based on student behaviour in class,
integrating other perspectives by seeking the opinions
of tutors and peers and gaining new insights (and, Figure 1 A reflective process with the possible benefits for the development
hopefully, thereby altering practice) by drawing of higher level reflective skills.
conclusions in their written reflection. If, further
to conclusions, they also identify areas they would
■ Forms which have a space for ‘questions to peers
like to explore further, ongoing enquiry can also be
and tutors’ can help in the integration of other
encouraged at this stage.
perspectives.
In order for these opportunities to be maximised, ■ A space at the end of the form for teachers to write
however, it is desirable for this process to be focused their personal aims for the next lesson helps to link
on the development of these reflective skills. First and reflection to a change in practice.
foremost, it is important that teachers have a say in
■ Similarly, a space for teachers to write ‘questions
the focus of the spoken feedback sessions and that
I want to answer in the next lesson’ can lead to
these sessions allow for open and nuanced discussion
ongoing enquiry based on the reflection from the
of the advantages and disadvantages of different
previous lesson.
approaches. This will ensure their engagement in
the process but it also allows teachers to develop the
ability to observe students and use that observation An atmosphere which supports
for the problem formulation necessary to begin genuine reflection
the process and for the critical examination of
alternatives. Directive feedback, on the other hand, Another important consideration for trainers
may lead to disengagement, a lack of opportunities to looking to create conditions for teachers to engage
develop independence in the formulation of problems in genuine reflection is that there is an atmosphere
and will not lead to the critical examination necessary which supports this. It has already been argued
to draw conclusions based on other perspectives. above that feedback which is nuanced and allows for
critical examination of alternative approaches will be
The way in which written reflection forms are beneficial for reflection. The way in which assessment
organised is also important. Forms which are too is conducted will also have a big impact on the
directive and force trainee teachers to focus on likelihood of teachers engaging in genuine reflection.
particular topics will not allow them the freedom to
focus on their own priorities, formulate their own There is general agreement across the literature
problems and may lead to what Atkinson (2012) that summative assessment of reflection will have a
calls strategic compliance – when trainees say what negative impact (e.g. Atkinson, 2012). Since reflection
they think tutors want to hear regardless of their requires deep thought about ones’ own practice
own beliefs or perspectives. I have also found that and beliefs with a view to altering that practice and
reflection forms can aid the process of reflection in the those beliefs, it is an incredibly personal process.
following ways: It is understandable how such a process could be
negatively affected when the teacher feels that they
■ Asking teachers to note down examples of student are being judged on what they are writing. This is also
behaviour and attainment can help them to develop where strategic compliance may affect reflection; with
a focus on learners. teachers telling tutors what they want to hear in order

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teachers questioning their beliefs and practice

  Another important consideration

based on evidence and using this to change their
teaching practice. It suggested that a dialogic level
for trainers looking to create of reflection allows teachers to engage in this type
of reflection as they collect evidence by observing
conditions for teachers to engage in students, use this to discuss their teaching with
peers and tutors and draw conclusions which will
genuine reflection is that there is an affect the way in which they teach. Tutors can
atmosphere which supports this.  increase the possibility of teachers reaching this
level of reflection by setting clear learning aims
and giving trainees formative feedback on their
achievement, allowing for the nuanced discussion
of alternative approaches in feedback, using open-
ended written forms which focus on the learning
aims and by emphasising the formative nature of
teaching practice.
to get a higher grade rather than being genuine in
their reflection.
In the next issue of MET, I will discuss how these
methods worked in practice by outlining some of
I would also like to argue that summative grading
the results of practitioner research I conducted into
of teaching practice (or indeed evaluative in-
their effectiveness.
service observations based on specific criteria) can
negatively affect reflection. In order for genuine
learning to take place through reflection, teachers References
need to feel that they have the freedom to experiment Atkinson BM (2012) Strategic compliance: Silence, ‘faking it’,
with different approaches and techniques and and confession in teacher reflection. Journal of Curriculum
Theorizing 28 (1).
reflect on the effectiveness of those approaches and
techniques in a supportive and non-judgmental Dewey J (1933) How We Think: A Restatement of the Relation
of Reflective Thinking to the Educative Process. Lexington: DC
environment. If teaching practice is graded, their Heath and Company.
focus will likely shift from seeing a lesson as a
Hattie J (2012) Visible Learning for teachers. Maximizing
learning opportunity and they will, rather, stick to impact on learning. Abingdon and New York: Routledge.
tried and tested methods in order to boost their Higginbotham C (2019) Professional development: life or death
chance of getting a higher grade. I have always after pre-service training? ELT Journal 73 (4) 396–408.
emphasised the practice in teaching practice to my Jay JK & Johnson KL (2002) Capturing complexity: A typology of
trainees. One of my proudest moments as a trainer reflective practice for teacher education. Teaching and teacher
education 18 (1) 73–85.
was when a teacher told me she had shifted her
perspective throughout her six teaching practice Richards J and Lockhart C (1996) Reflective Teaching in Second
Language Classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
lessons from trying to teach a perfect lesson to
Schön D (1983) The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals
experimenting and seeing what she could learn.
Think in Action. New York: Basic Books.
Ward JR & McCotter SS (2004) Reflection as a visible outcome
The CertTESOL, with low stakes classes taught to for preservice teachers. Teaching and teacher education 20 (3)
volunteer learners, is a perfect context for such 243–257.
experimentation to take place. It could be argued Xu J, Li B & Curtis A (2015) Validating an English language
that, in other contexts (perhaps most notably teaching reflection inventory in a Chinese EFL context. System
49 50–60.
state school teacher education where the stakes
are much higher for students), such an approach
may be less appropriate. However, I would argue
that teachers who are willing to experiment with Matthew Gordon has worked as
different approaches are going to have a more a teacher of General and Academic
positive impact on students than those who play it English, academic manager and
safe, regardless of the context. The link between teacher trainer in China for over 12
years. His areas of interest include
teacher reflection and student performance
logical argument in academic
(Ward and McCotter 2004: 244–5) adds weight to writing, reflective practice in teacher
this argument. training and discourse level aspects
of spoken and written English. He

The development of reflective skills currently works as a Lecturer of

EAP and as a freelance Teacher Trainer on the Trinity College,
in teacher training London CertTESOL and DipTESOL. He has a Master’s degree in
Applied Linguistics and TESOL, a PgCert in Teaching English for
This article has drawn on two influential definitions Academic Purposes and a DipTESOL.
of reflection to suggest a definition focused on

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