The Mughal Dynasty - History

Study Materials

THE MUGHAL DYNASTY (1526-1540 AND 1555-1857)

Mughal Dynasty

Babur (Founder) 1526-1530 CE

Humanyun
Sura (1539-1554 CE &
(1530-1539 CE & 1564-1566 CE) Shershah Suri (1539-
1545 CE)
Akbar (1556-1605 CE)

Jahangir (1605-1657 CE)

Shahjahan (died in 1628 CE)

(1628-1657)

Aurangzeb (1658-1707 CE)

Later Mughais (1707-1657 CE)

Bahadur Shah I (1707-1712 CE) Algmgir II (1754-1759 CE)

Jahandar Shah (1712-1713 CE) Shan Alam (1759-18069 CE)

Farrukhsair (1713-1718 CE) Akbar II (1806-1837 CE)

Muhammad Shah (1719-1747 CE) Bahadur Shah II (1837-1857 CE)

Ahmed Shan (1748-1754 CE)

In the early years of Sixteenth century, the Mughals, the command of Zahir-ud-din Babur. Babur was the
the descendants of the Mongol, Turkish, Iranian and great-grandson of Timur, who had invaded India and
Afghan invaders of South Asia, conquered India under plundered Delhi in 1398. Babur’s Empire extended

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from Punjab to Bengal including Jaunpur and Bihar. It

western to include Kabul in the northwest, Kashmir in
the, north, Sindh; Multan, Ajmer and Gujarat in the
west Malwa and Benar in the south and Orissa and
Bengal by the time Akbar died. The empire extended
from Kabul, Kandahar and Peshawar in the north to
Kaveri in the south by the close of the seventeenth
Century.

THE EARLY MUGHALS (1526-1556)

Babur (1526-1530)
Zahir-ud-din Babur was the founder the
Mughal Empire. He was forced to leave Samar-kand
and initially established his rule in Kabul in 1504.
Thereafter, he invaded India and became the first
Mughal ruler (1526-1530). He tried to expand towards
Punjab, for which he had to make a number of forays. MAP 2.2 Babru’s Kindom
Then he received aninvitation from an opportunistic
Afghan chief in Punjab which offered him the Humayun (1530-1540 and 1555-1556)
opportunity to come to the very heart of the Delhi Nasir-ud-din Humayun, who was the son of
Sultanate. At that time the Delhi Sultanate was being Babur and his successor, ascended the throne in 1530.
ruled by Ibrahim Lodhi. Babur, who was a brave and His brothers Kamran, Hindal and Askari along with
experienced military commander, came to India in the Afghans challenged his succession. He lost
1526 with a well-trained army of 12,000 to face the completely against Sher Shah Suri in the Battle of
sultan’s large disunited army of more than 1,00,000 Chausa (1539) and Battle of Kanauj (1540) He had
men. He inflicted a defeat on Ibrahim Lodhi in the to flee to Persia, where he had to spend 10 years of his
First Battle of Panipat on 21 April 1526. This victory life as an embarrassed guesl at the Safavid court. After
made him the emperor of Delhi. Babur could achieve the death of Sher Shah Suri, he invaded India in 1554
this resounding victory because of gun carts, moveable and defeated his brothers and the Afghans. These
artillery, and superior cavalry tactics. Babur achieved a victories once again made him the ruler of India. In
resounding victory. In 1527, he defeated Rana Sanga at 1555, he invaded Lahore and later defeated the
Khamva, in the Battle of Khanwa and captured Agra. Afghans at Machivara. He also defeated Sikander Sur
In 1529, Babur defeated the combined armies of the in the Battle of Sirhind in the same year. He was
Afghans and the Sultan of Bengal, in the Battle of killed in an accident in 1556, barely two years after he
Ghagra. This victory made him the undisputed regained his kingdom.
‘master of India". In 1530 he died at age of 48, before
he could consolidate his military gains. In his Sher Shah Suri (1540-1545)
autobiography Tuzuki-i-Badri he has given an
excellent account of India and his empire. He left Sher Shah was an Afghan ruler who ruled the
behind, as legacies, his memoirs, Babur Namah, kingdom for a small period, from 1540 to 1545,
several beautiful gardens in Kabul, Lahore and Agra. after dethroning Hurnayun, He caused a brief
His descendants fulfilled his dream of establishing an interruption in the Mughal rule. His empire
empire in Hindustan. expanded from the Brahmaputra in the east to the
Indus in the west, from the Himalayas in the north

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to the Narmada in the south. During his 5 years of Akbar (1556-1605)

rule he introduced a significant administrative The untimely demise of Humayun in 1556 left
system, land revenue policy and several other the task of consolidation of the empire to his 13-year-
measures to improve the economic conditions of his old son, Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar (1556-1605).
subjects. He introduced the coin called rupia and After a decisive military victory at the Second Battle
fixed standard weights and measures all over the of Panipat in 1556, Akbar’s regent Bairam Khan
empire. He also improved transportation by followed a vigorous policy of expansion on his behalf.
constructing many highways. He got the Grand As soon as Akbar became mature, he started freeing
Trunk Road (GT Road) constructed that connects himself from the influences of ministers, court
Peshawar with Kolkata. He also introduced many factions, and harem intrigues and showed his own
military reforms; he recruited and paid the soldiers capability for judgement and leadership. He was a
directly and every soldier had his chehra (face) ‘workaholic’ who seldom slept for more than 3 hours a
recorded and his horse branded with theimperial day. He personally supervised the implementation of
sign, dogh. He set up cantonments in various parts his administrative policies, which formed the backbone
of his empire and a strong garrison was maintained of the Mughal Empire for over two centuries. He
in each cantonment. followed the policy of conquering, annexing and
Highpoints of Sher Shah's Rule consolidating his empire. It was bound by Kabul in the
north-west, Kashmir in the north, Bengal in the east,
Sher Shah remained the ruler of Delhi for not more and beyond the Narmada River in the south—an area
than 5 years. However, his rule proved to be excep- that can be compared in size to the Mauryon territory.
tional in the subcontinent. He designed a solid
Imperial administration that was Inspired by the
AKBAR’S ADMINISTRATIVE STYLE
Safavid, regime in Iran. SherShah had a strong
Akbar introduced a bureaucracy and a system
army, comprising 1,50,000 horses, 2,50,000 foot
of autonomy for the imperial provinces to govern them
soldiers and nearly 5,000 elephants. He personally
with efficient administration. He appointed military
inspected, appointed, and paid the soldiers, thus
governors, or mansabdars, incharge of each region.
making him the focus of loyalty and subduing the
Each governor was responsible for the provincial
jealousies between clans and tribes. To check fraud,
military management. Abuse of power and
he revived the custom of branding horses.
mistreatment of the poor or weak were severely dealt
Introduced first by Ala-ud-din Khilji. The main
with and could lead to punishments and death.
reforms for, which Shar Shah is, Still known are
those associated with revenue administration. He
established a revenue collection system based in the
measurement of land. He also introduced finely
minted silver coins known as dam. During his
lifetime, Sher Shah commissioned the construction
of tombs for his father, Hasan Khan Suri, and for
himself. He died in 1545, in a gunpowder explosion
and left his empire to his two sons and grandsons
who were incompetent and succumbed to old
Afghan rivalries.This led to the decline of theSuri
dynasty.

GOLDEN PERIOD OF THE MUGHALS

(1556-1707)

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Rajputs by inducting Rajgut kings into Mughal

service and treating them equal to Mugnal nobility.
He married Rajput princess Jodha Bai, daughter of
Raja Mal of Jaipur in 1562, and displayed his
secular policy towards Hindus. Most Rajput kings
accepted his supremacy, barring Rana Pratap Singh
and his son Amar Singh, of Mewar.
Battle of Haldighati This battle of Haldighati was
fought in 1576, between Rajput Rana Pratap Singh
of Mewar and the Mughal army led by Man Singh
of Amber. Rana Pratap Singh was defeated in the
battle but he continued his struggle and did not
submit. Akbar constructed a walled city near Agra,
known as Fatehpur Sikri, However, he had to shift
his capital to Agra again because of many
administrative and political reasons.

Din-i-Ilahi
MAP 2.3 Akbar’s Kingdom Akber performed his role as a spiritual leader of his
people quite seriously. He devoted much of his time
Notable facts about Jalal-ud-dinAkbar and resources to find out the common truth In the
religions he ruled over. Keeping this in his mind, he
Akbar was the eldest son of Humayun, and he developed a new religion known as Din-i-ilahi, or
ascended the throne at the young age of 113 in the ‘The Religion of God'. Suggesting that every faith
year 1556. His tutor Bairam Khan was appointed as have the essenial truth that God is unified and one,
regent. he tried to find the unifying aspects of all religions.
The Second Battle of Panipat The battle was He had begun this project much longer before he
fought introduced Din-i-Ilahi. He conducted a series of
between Hemu or Hemchandra and Bairam Khan debates at his court among spiritual leaders of the
Bairam Khan defeated Hemu on 5 November 1556, different religions, including Christianity, Hindus,
and as a result Hemu was captured and slained by Zoroastrians and joins. Finally, he included
him. This battle put on end to the Mughal-Afghan members of the Ulema, but the debates could not go
contest for the throng of Delhi forever. smoothly bedause of the intolerant behaviour of the
Expansion of Akbar's Empire Akbar put an end to Jesuits whotried convert Akbar, and did not wish to
the regency of Bairam Khan at the age of 18 and discuss the creation of universel religion. Akbar was
assumed the authority. He conquered various, towns a devout orthodox Sunni Muslim; still, aspects of
and forts such as Gwalior, Ajmer and Janapur had his belief were in part derived from Shi’a Islam.
also annexed the kingdom of Malwa. This brought Din-i-Ilahi, which expected to synthesise the wold’s
him close to the Rajput kingdom. The Rajput religions into a single religion, was chiefly based on
kingdom of Mewar put up a powerful defence under Islam. It was rationalistic and was based on one
Rana Uday Singh and his son Rana Pratap. Akbar overriding doctrine, the doctrine of tawhid—God is
invaded Gujarat (1572-1573), Bengal (1574-1576) one, singular and unified. Akbar also elevated the
and by 1595, he conquered, Kashmir, Sindh, Orissa, notion of wahdat-al-wujud, or unity of the real’, to a
Central Asia and Kandahar (Afghanistan.) central religious idea in his new religion. The world,
Akbar and the Rajputs Akbar tried to win over as a creation of God, is a single and Unified place

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that reflects the singularity and unity of its creator. Hindus. He consolidated relations with many Hindu
There is little doubt that Akbar accepted Abu’l states by marrying the daughters of the kings. It is said
Fazl’s notion that he was the Divine Light and was a that during this process he had over 5000 wives,
Perfect Man. He adopted the little, 'Revealer of the almost all of whom he married were for political
Internal and Depictor of the Real' which defined his reasons. However, his favourite wife was a Hindu who
role as a disseminator of secret knowledge of God gave birth to his successor, Jahangir.
and his function of fashioning the world in the light
of this knowledge. Apart from Islam, however, Din- Highpoints of Akbar’s Reign
i-Ilahi also involved the characteristics of Jainism, Humayun's heir, Akbar, was born in exile and was
Zoroastrianism and Hinduism. Din-i-Ilahi deeply only 13 years old when his father died. Thanks to
disturbed the ulema; they regarded it as outright his exceptionally capable guardian, Bairam Khan,
heresy. The idea of divine kingship would last he survived to demonstrate his worth. Akbar's reign
throughout the history of the Mughal Empire. holds a certain prominence in history; he was the
ruler who actually fortified the foundations of the
Dagh and Chehra Mughal Empire, After a series of conquests, he
managed to subdue most of India. The areas, not
Horses were usually provided with a special imperial under the empire were designated as tributaries. He
mark known as Dagh. It was done to distinguish the also adopted a conciliatory policy towards the
horses of high breed from low breed horses. Chehra Rajputs, hence reducing any threat from them.
was a descriptive roll of the soldiers. It was done to Akbqr was only a great conqueror, but a capable
make sure that the nobles recruited experienced and organiser and great administrator as well. He set up
well mounted sawars. It would also check any kind of a host of institutions that proved to be the
proxy in the battlefield. foundation of an administrative system that operated
even in British India. Akbar's rule also stands out
Collection of taxes was the most important
because of his liberal policies towards non-Muslims,
responsibility of the bureaucracy. Akbar made many
his refigious innovations, the land revenue system
innovations in this regard. Like all the other states his and his famous Mansabdari system. The last became
tax was a land tax. He also collected one-third of the
the basis of Mughal military organisation and civil
value of the crops produced on a piece of land each
administration.
year. He made the arrangements that the tax was
assessed equally on every member of the empire. It
His most successful administrative coup,
was a radically innovative idea as no other states in the
however, was allowing Hindu territories to retain a
sixteenth century taxed their nobility. He also
large degree of autonomy. In all other Muslim
eliminated the tax collected from non-Muslims.
kingdoms, non-Muslims came under the same law, the
Traditionally Islamic states had been imposing a
Shari’a, as all Muslims. Akbar, however, allowed the
special tax called Jizya on non-believers.
Hindus to remain under their own law, called the
All non-muslim communities bitterly resented this tax
Dharmashastra, and to retain their own courts. This
in India. Moreover, non-Muslims had to pay
loose style of government, in which territories, were
Pilgrimage tax for travelling to various Hindu
under the control of the emperor but still largely
pilgrimage sites. Akbar eliminated this tax in 1564. He
independent, became the model that the British would
used most of his administration in an effort to please
emulate as they slowly built the colonial model of
the Hindu population. It made a calming effect on
government in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
Rajput states who had never fully accepted Islamic
THE POLITICAL THEORY OF AKBAR’S
supremacy. Akbar also involved large number of
STATE There was considerable disagreement during
Hindus in the bureaucracy. By the end of Akbar’s rule,
the reigns of Babur, Humayun and Akbar over the
nearly one-third of the imperial bureaucracy were

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nature of monarchy and its place in Islamic society. Akbar organised the nobility and his army by means
Many Islamic scholars under Babur and Akbar of the Mansabdori system. Under this system, every
believed that Indian monarchies were fundamentally officer was assigned a rank or mansab, divided into
un-Islamic. At the heart of the problem was the fact and Sawor. Zat indicated the personal status of a
that none of the invading monarchs were approved by person and the salary due to him, whereas Sawar
the Caliph, but rather were acting solely on their own. meant the number of cavalryman a person was
The majority of Islamic scholars, however, concluded requited to maintain.
that the monarch was divinely appointed by God to
serve humanity and that the Indian Sultanate or the Fatehpur Sikri
Mughal Padshah was acting in the place of the Caliph.
The political theorists and Islamic scholars Akbar's closest and most beloved religious advisor
surrounding Akbar were deeply influenced by Shi’ite was an Islamic Sufi mystic, Sheik Salim Chishti.
Islam. In particular, they subscribed to the Shi’ite After years of having not son and heir, the birth of
notion that God had created a Divine Light that is Jahangir seemed to fulfil one of Salim Chishti's
passed down in an individual from generation to prophecies. In gratitude to his former religious
generation; this individual is known as the Imam. The advisor, and to Allah, Akbar set about building what
central theorist of Akbar’s reign was Abul Fazl, who he theorised as the h perfect city—one that would
joined Akbar’s court in 1574, and is considered one of represent the power of his empire, fthe meaning of
the greatest political theorists in Islamic history. He God's, message to humanity, and would ensure
believed that the Imamate existed in the form of just perfect Harmony. Above all, the city would
rulers. The Imam, in the form of a just ruler, had secret represent Islam.
knowledge of God, was free from sin, aud was He completed his new city. Fatehpur Sikri, in 1578.
primarily responsible for the spiritual guidance of The city contains a mosque, a palace, a lavish and
humanity, This, to a certain extent, made the padshah huge garden a worship hall for Din-i-Ibnl, and,
superior to flip SharKa, or Islamic law, and the Islamic finally, a tomb for Sheikh Salim Chishtiin the great
scholars who interpreted it. Needless to say, orthodox mosque itself. The city served for a while as Akbar'a
Islamic scholars bitterly opposed, this political theory, capital and lavish court. It was, however, placed for
and instead advocated a close.partnership between the from any flouron of water and the perfect city, and
ulama, or Islamic religious and legal scholars, and the the perfect symbol of Islam was abandoned forever
Sultan or padshah. Abu’l Fazl was alsd deeply shortly alter Akbar's death.
influenced by Plato’s philosophy, as it had been
handed down by Muslim philosophers. In particular,he SOCIAL REFORMS
argued for Plato’s concept of the philosopher-king, An astuto ruler who genuinely appreciated the
who, by virtue of his talent, wisdom and learning, challenges of administering so vast an empire, Akbar
deserved to be obeyed by all others. He saw Akbar as introduced a policy of reconciliation and assimilation
the embodiment of the perfect philosopher-king. From of Hindus (including Maryam al-Zamani, the Hindu
a religious standpoint, Akbar's state was built on the Rajput mother of his son and heir, Jahangir), who
principle sulahkul, or universal tolerance. All religion represented the majority of the population. He
were to be equally tolerated in the administration of recruited and rewarded Hindu chiefs with the highest
the state hence the repeal of the jizya and the ranks in government; encouraged intermarriages
pilgrimage taxes. In Akbar’s theory of government, the between Mughal and Rajput aristocracy; allowed new
ruler’s duty is to ensure justice for all the people in bis temples to he built; personally participated in
care no matter what their religion. celebrating Hindu festivals such as Dipavali, or
Diwali, the festival of lights; and abolished theJizya
Mansabdari System (poll tax) imposed on non-Muslims. Akbar came up

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with his own theory of ‘rulership as a divine arts and In his court, scholars and statesmen like
illumination’, enshrined in his new religion Din-i-Iluhi Abul Fazl, Faizi, Tadar Mai, the witty administrator
(Divine Faith), incorporating if the principle of Birbal and great musicians like Tansen flourished.
acceptance of ail religions and sects. He encouraged Tulsidas, the great Hindi poet, who wrote
widow remarriage, discouraged child marriage Ramcharitmanas also lived during Akbar's period,
outlawed the practice of sati and persuaded Delhi Sikandra When Akbar died, he was buried at
merchants to set up special market days for women Sikandra, near Agra.
who otherwise were secluded at home. By the end of Significance of Akbar's Reign Akbar is considered
Akbar’s reign,the Mughal Empire extended throughout as the real founder of the Mughal Empire in India
most of India, North of the Godavari River. The because Babur and Humayun could not consolidate
exceptions were Gondwana in Central India, which the empire as Akbar successfully did He was the
paid tribute to the Mughal and Assam, in the north- first Muslim ruler who divorced religiom from
east. politics. His attitude towards Hindus was very
Jahangir (1605-1627) conciliatory.
By the beginning of the seveteen century the Mughal
Empire had acquired unparalleled military strength and Soon after he came to throne in 1605, his son
economic prosperity. Jahangir was an educated and Khusrau revolted against him with the help Hussain
able administrator. He continued Akbar’s policy and Baig of Agra and Diwan Abdul Rahim of Lahore. But
earned respect from all spheres of the society. The the revolt was crushed by Jahangir's strong army at
Mughal rule under Jahangir was noted for political Lahore, in 1606. Jahangir liked Hindu festivals but
stability, brisk economic activity beautiful paintings promoted mass conversion to Islam; he persecuted the
and monumental buildings. followers of Jainism and even executed Guru Aijun
Dev, the fifth guru of the Sikhs, in 1606. This made the
Notable Facts about Jalal-Ud-Din Akbar Sikhs hostile towards the throne. Jahangir married the
Persian princess—whom he renamed Nur Jahan (Light
II
of the World)—who emerged as the most powerful
Fatehpur Sikri A place near Agra. It is said that individual in the court besides the emperor. As a result,
Akbar did not have a son for a long time. Shaikh Persian poets, artists, scholars and officers—including
Salim Chisli of fatehpur Sikri, a Sufi Saint, blessed her own family members—lured by the Mughal
Akbar with a son. He was named Salim (Jahangir) court’s brilliance and luxury, found asylum in India.
in honour of Sheikh Salim Chisti. Akbar shifted his The number of unproductive, time-serving officers
court from Agra to Fatehpur Sikri, the cily he had mushroomed, as did corruption, while the excessive
created to commemorate Chisit. Persian representation upset the delicate balance of
Din-i-Ilahi As a revolt against the orthodoxy and impartiality at the court.
bigotry of religious priests, Akbar proclaimed a new Jahangir’s son Khurram, was pivotal in most
religion, Din-i-Ilahi, in 1581. The new religion was of the Jahangir’s conquests. Jahangir’s conquest in the
bosed on a synthesis of values taken from several south was stubbornly resisted by the independent
religions like Hinduism, Islam, Jainism and kingdoms of Ahmednagar and Asirgar. It was
Christianity. It did not recognise the Prophet Birbal Khurram, who conquered Mewar (in 1614) and the
was the only Hindu among the 18 persons who Deccan states of Ahmednagar and Asirgar for
followed this new religion. Din-i-Ilahi, however, did Jahangir. Jahangir conferred the title of Shahjahan
not become popular. upon Khurram in appreciation of his bravery. Nur
Architecture, Art and Literature Akbar built Jahan had four sons from Jahangir-Khusrau, Pervez,
Fatehpur Sikri, forts a Agra, Lahore and Allahabad Khurram and Shahriyar-and one daughter, Ladilee
and Humayun's tomb at Delhi. He was patron of the from her earlier husband. Ladilee was married to
Shahriyar. Nur Jahun’s abortive schemes to secure the
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throne for Shahriyar (her son and son-in-law) led Nur Johan's and his own name.
Shahjahan (Khurram) to rebel in 1622. The revolt was Relations with the Foreigners In 1608, Captain
curbed by Nur Jahan with the able support of Mahobat William Hawkins, a representative of the East India
Khan. Company come to Jahangir's court. In 1615, Sir
Highpomts of Jahangir's Reign Thomas Roe, an ambassador of King James of
England, also came to his court. Though initially
Jahangir was renowned for administering impartial Jahangir resisted,he later on granted permission to
justice to his people, irrespective of their religious the English establish a trading post at Surat.
faith. Around this time, European traders had started Revolts His reign was marked by several revolts.
coming to India. The English were able to find Guru Arjan Dev was martyred aurmg his period,
favour with Jahangir and cultivated him through thus alienating the Sikh community.
works, of art, of which Jahangir was a connoisseur. Political Success A political triumph during
The first English ambassador to the Mughal court Jahangir's reign was the Submission of Rana Amor
was Sir Thomas Roe. He was able to secure many Singh of Mewar (1615). Jahangir captured the fort
trading facilities for his countrymen. The Mughal of Kangra (1620) after a long siege A part of
rule reached its climax during Jahangir's reign. In Ahmednagar was also annexed. Malik Ambar ceded
tne history of Mughal architecture, Jahangir's reign to the Mughals the terrifoty of Balaghal to the
marks the period of transition between its two grand Mughals.
phases, namely, the phase of Akbar and that of his Shahjahan was expelled but Mahobot Khan backed
grandson, Shahjahan. The most important feature of Prince Pervez for the throne. When attempts were
this period is the substitution of red sandstone with made to sideline Mahobat Khan from the active affairs
white marble. Jahangir had a deep love for colour. of the empire, he revolted in 1626. He arrested
The system of pietra dura, that is, the inlaid mosaic Jahangir and Nur Jahan and released them on promises
work of precious stones of various shades, gained in favour of Prince Pervez.
popularity towards the end of his reign. He was also However, in 1627, Prince Pervez died of excessive;
fond of laying gardens. One of the most famous alcholism and Mohabat Khan joined Shahjahan.
gardens laid by him was the Shalimar Bagh in Jahangir died in 1627, and this was the moment
Lahore. The Mughal style of art was greatly Shahjahan was waiting tor. He rushed to Delhi with his
developed during as reign. The most important forces to claim the throne. In the same year, the
feature of the paintings of this era was the decline of Persians took over Kandahar in southern Afghanistan,
the Persian and enhancement of the Indian cultural an event that struck a serious blow to Mughal prestige.
influence. Mughal paintings lost much of their
glamour and refinement after Jahangir's death in Art and Culture under Akbar
1627.
The reign of Akbar was a period of renaissance of
Notable Facts about Jahangir Persian literature. The Ain-i-Akbari gives the
names of 59 groat Persian poets, of Akbar's court.
Salim, son of Akbar came to the throne after History was the most important branch of Persian
Akbar’s death, in 1605. He is known for his strict prose. Abul Fazhs Akbhmama and Ain-l-Akbari
administration of justice. were complementary works. Akbhar and his
Nur Jahan In May 1611, Jahangir married Mehr- successors, Jahangir and Shah Jehan greatly
un-nisa, widow of Sher Afghan, a Persian nobleman contributeds, to the developmenl of Indian-music.
of Bengal. Later on she was given the title Nur Tansen was,the most accomplished musician of the
Jahan. Nur Jahan took an active interest in matters age, Ain-i-Akbari gives the names of 36 first-rote
of the state and also ruled the empire for a long time musicians of Akbur’s court where Hindu’ and
when Jahangir was ill. Jahangir issued coins in both

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Muslim styles of music mingled freely. The Christians were forced to accept Islam and it is said
Munifiant architectural style began as a definite that more than 4000 of them were killed for denying
movement under his role. Akbar's most ambitious Islam.
and magnificent architectural undertaking was the
new capital city he built on the ridge at Sikri near Notable Facts about Shahjahan
Agra. The city was namad as Fatehpur to
commemorate Akbar's conquest of Gujarat in 1572. Death of Mumtax Mahal Three years after his
The most impressive creation of this new capital is accession his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal died, in
the grand Jamia Masjid. The southern entrance to 1631. To perpetuate her memory, he built the Taj
thejamia Masjid is an impressive gateway known as Mahal at Agra in 1632-1653.
Buland Darwaza. like most other, buildings at Extent of Empire In addition, to Jahangir's Empire
Fatehpur Sikri, the fabric of this impressive gateway Shahjahan annexed Ahmednagar into Mughal
is of red sandstone decorated by carvings and Empire and consigned Hussain Shah to life
discreet Inlaying of white marble. Of all the imprisonment (1633), ending Nizam Shahi's
Mughals, Akbar’s reign was the most peaceful and dynasty. The Deccan Sultanate of Bijapur and
powerful. With his death in 1605, ended a glorious Golconda accepted his Suzerainty in 1636. He
epoch in Indian history, reconquered Kandahar (Afghanistan) in 1638 and
routed the Uzbeks at Balkha in 1647. He also
Shahjahan (1628-1658) annexed-the. region of Kamarpura in Assam.
Shahjahan was Jahangir's son. He ascended the Significance of Shahjahan's Reign Shahjahan's
throne in 1628 after his father's death. He was best reign is said to have marked the pinnacle of the
known for his Deccan and foreign policies. He faced Mughal dynasty and empire. He is known for the
two major revolts during the early part of his rule. promotion of art, culture and architecture during his
First, the revolt by Khan Jahan Lodhi (1628-1630), and time. The Red Fort, Jama Masjid and Taj Mahal are
revolt by Jujhar Singh of Bundelkhand in 1630-1631. some of the magnificent structures built during his
During 1630-1632 he faced famine and plague in a reign.
large part of Gujarat, Khandesh and Deccan, in which Imprisonment Shahjahan's falling health set off the
thousands of people died. Shahjahan, with his brilliant war of succession among his four sons in 1657. His
administrative skills, came out successful against these son, Aurangzeb emerged the Victor and crowheel
adversities and went on to consolidate his empire. himself emperor in July 1658. Shahjahan was
Abdul Hamid Lahori described, in his accounts, the imprisoned,by his son Aurangzeb, in the Agra Fort
strategies adopted by Shahjahan to control situations of where he died in Captivity in 1666.
famine and plague.
Between 1636 and 1646, Shahjahan sent Mughal
armies to conquer the Deccan and the northwest,
Shahjahan loved his wife. Mumtaz Mahal
beyond the Khyber Pass. In the Deccan, he defeated
(daughter of Asaf Khan, brother of Nur Jahan) and was
Adil Shah of Bijapur and Kutub Shah of Golkonda and
devastated by her death in 1631. The world-famous
appointed his son Aurangzeb as Governor in charge of
Taj Mahal was built in Agra during Shahjahan’s reign
Deccan affairs. In 1658, Aurangzeb expanded the
as a tomb for his beloved wile, Mumtaz Mahal. It
empire by capturing Daulatabad, TclcngUna,
symbolises both Mughal artistic achievement and
Khandesh and Bidar. Shahjahan was ably supported by
excessive financial expenditure when resources were
his four sons who were also governors of important
shrinking. In 1632 he passed stern instructions to
divisions of the empire—Dara Shikoh of Punjab and
Kasim Khan, the Governor of Bengal, to suppress the
the north-west provinces; Shuja of Bengal and Orissa;
Portugal preachers who were preaching Christianity in
Aurangzeb of Deccan and Murad of Gujarat. Even
Hoogly and other Parts of Bengal. More than 5000
though they demonstrated Mughal military strength,

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these campaigns consumed the imperial treasury. As Mujaddid Alf Sani

the state became a huge military machine whose During the reign of Akbar, Islam faced
nobles and their contingents multiplied almost four- overwhelming threats. The infallibility Decree in
fold, so did its demands for more revenue from the 1579 and Din-i-Ilahi in 1581 were considered to be
peasantry. Political unification and maintenance of law grave threats to the religion by orthodox Muslims.
and order over wide areas encouraged the emergence The Din-i-Ilahi, as propounded by Akbar, was a
of large centres of commerce and craft—such as mixture of various religions. The new religion
Lahore, Delhi, Agra and Ahmedabad—linked by roads combined mysticism, philosophy and nature
and waterways to distant cities and ports. worship. It recognised no gods or prophets and the
emperor was its chief exponent. To believe in
Ibrahim Adil Shah revelation was considered as 'taqlid' (following
authority blindly) or a low kind of morality, fit only
Ibrahim Adil Shah II was the ruler of the Sultanate
for the uneducated and the illiterate. Akbar's Din-i-
of Bijapur and a member of the Adil Shahi dynasty.
Ilahi had literally made the orthodox Muslims
He reverted to the Sunni sect of Islam but remained
outcasts in the affairs of the state, Akbar was
tolerant of other religions including Christianity. He
actually influenced by the Bhakti Movement that
is known in Indian History as ‘Jagadguru Badshah’
had started during the Sutanafe period. This
and tried to create cultural harmony between the
philosophy propounded Hindu-Muslim unity. Many
shias and the Sunnis and between Hindus and
sufis, including Qozi Mulla Muhammad of Jaunpur
Muslims through music. He loved the art form,
and Qozi Mir Yaqoob of Bengal, condemned his
played musical instruments, song and composed
religious innovations. However, the man who took it
praises of Hindu deities Saraswati and Ganapati. He
upon himself to revive Islam was Sheikh Ahmad of
publically declared that all he wanted was Vidya or
Sarhind, commonly known as Mujaddid Alf Sani, or
learning, music and Guruseva. He was a devotee of
'the reformer of the second millennium'. Sheikh
Hazrat Banda Nawaz, the Sufi Saint ofGUlbarga.
Ahmad was born in Sarhind on 26 June 1564. He
He spoke Marathi, Dakhani, Urdu and Kannda
joined the Naqshbandlya Silsibh as the disciple of
languages fluently and like his predecessors,
Khawaja Baqi Bilbb. He gave the philosophy of
employed several Hindu in top posts. He also wrote
Wahdat-ush-Shuhud. Mujaddid Alf Sani wrote
the book kitab-e-Navras (Book of Nine Rasas) in
Itliba-af-Nubuwwah.
Dakhani to introduce the theory of nine Rasa, which
occupies an important place in Indian aesthetics,
Aurangzeb (1659-1707)
acquaint people who knew only the Persian ethos.
Aurangzeb had three rival brothers, who were
However, the economic position of peasants and well placed to stake their claim, so his accession to the
artisans did not improve because the administration throne was not smooth. But his growing popularity,
failed to produces any lasting change in the existing especially after his conquests in the Deccan, helped
social structure. There was no incentive for the him to put down his brothers’ claims. The wars of
revenue officials, whose primary concerns were succession in the ever growing Mughal Empire were
personal or familial gain, to generate resources beginning to show their ill-effects. After imprisoning
independent of dominant Hindu zamindars and village Shahjahan, his son Aurangzeb was crowned at Delhi
leaders, whose self-interest and local dominance and assumed the title of Atamgir. He ruled for 50 years
prevented them from handing over the full amount of till his death in February 1707, in Ahmednagar. During
revenue to the imperial treasury. In their ever- his 50-year reign, the empire reached its utmost
increasing dependence on land revenue, the Mughals physical limit, but also witnessed the unmistakable
unwittingly nurtured forces that eventually led to the symptoms of decline. The bureaucracy had bloated and
break-up of their empire. grown excessively corrupt, and the huge and unwieldy

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army demonstrated outdated weaponry and tactics. successors were strife filled. The Mughal Empire
Aurangzeb was not the ruler to restore the dynasty’s experienced dramatic reverses as regional gvernors
declining fortunes or glory. Awe-inspiring but lacking broke away many and founded independent kingdoms.
in the charisma needed to attract outstanding The Mughals had to make peace with Maratha rebles;
lieutenants, he was driven to extend Mughal rule over and the Persian and Afghan armies invaded Delhi,
most of South Asia and to re-establish Islamic carrying away treasures, including the Peacock
orthodoxy by adopting a reactionary attitude toward .Thorne in 1739 SIKH REVOLT In the fifteenth
Muslims whom he had suspected of compromising century, the Sikhs grew into a strong community.
their faith. Aurangzeb captured Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth
Aurangzeb was involved in a series of Guru of sikhs in 1675 and executed him when he
protracted wars—against the Pathans in Afghanistan, refused to embrace Islam. The Sikhs resented the
the sultans of Bijapur and Golkonda in the Deccan, and Mughals or their religious intolerance. Guru Gobind
the Maratnas in Maharashtra. Peasant uprisings and Singh, son of Guru Tegh Bahadur, organised his
revolts by local leaders became all too common, as did followers into a militant force called Khalsa to avenge
the Conniving ofthe nobles to preserve their own status the murder of his father. Guru Gobind Singh was,
at the expense of a steadily weakening empire. however, murdered in 1708 by an Afghan in the
Aurangzeb’s Empire extended from Kashmir in the Deccan. Banda Bahadur, the militant successor of
north to Jinji in the south and from Hindukush in the Guru Gobind Singh, continued the war against
west to Chittagong in the east; During the first 23 years Mughals but he too was put to death.
of the rule (1658-1681) Aurangzeb concentrated on
North India. During this period the Marathas, under WAR WITH SHIVAJI
Shivaji, rose to power) and were a force to reckon Shivaji was the most powerful Maratha king
with. As a result, Aurangzeb left the north and for the and an arch enemy of Aurangzeb. When Aurangzeb
next 25 years (1082-1707) made desperate bids to could not eliminate him, he conspired with Jai Singh of
crush the Marathas. The execution of Sambhaji in Ambar, a Rajput, to eliminate Shivaji. In 1665, on an
1689 saw the collapse of the Maratha Empire. assurance given by jai Singh, Shivaji visited
Aurangzeb’s Empire now extended from Afghanistan Aurangzeb’s court Shivaji was imprisoned by
to Bengal and from Kashmir to Karnataka. But in Aurangzeb but he managed to escape and in 1674
certain parts of South India (Mysore, Mabtuashtra, proclaimed himself an independent monarch. He died
etc.) he was not entirely successful in thwarting his in 1680 and was succeeded by his son Sambhaji, who
enemies. Aurangzeb never returned to the north and was executed by Aurangzeb. Sambhaji was succeeded
died in Ahmednagar in February 1707. by his brother Rajaram and after his death in 1700, his
The increasing association of his government widow Tarabai carried on the movement.
with Islam further drove a wedge between the ruler
and his Hindu subjects. Aurangzeb forbade the LATER MUGHALS (1707-1862)
building of new temples, destroyed a number of them, Mauzam, the second son of Aurangzeb,
and reimposed the jizya. He was a Muslim fanatic and ascended the throne, assuming the title of Bahadur
thus was an intolerant autocrat. Many Hindu temples Shah, after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707. He ruled
were demolished and religious festivals, idol worship for 5 years, till 1712. He was succeeded by his son
and pilgrimages were banned during his reien. A Jahandar. In 1714, lahandar was succeeded by
puritan and a censor of morals, he banned music at Farukhsiyar. He was helped by Abdullah Khan and
court, abolished ceremonies, and persecuted the Sikhs Hussian Ali, the two Syed brothers of Barah, known
in Punjab. These measures alienated so many that even in Indian history as kingmakers. Muhammad Shah
betoie he died challenges for power had already begun succeeded Farukhsiyar. He also claimed the throne
to escalate. Contenders for the Mughal throne fought with the help of Syed brothers. Muhammad Shah Alam
each Other, and the shortlived regins of Aurangzeb’s
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I (1719-1748) ruled for 28 years. The Mughals who Decline of the Mughal Empire
came after him were Ahmed Shah (1748-1754);
Alamgir II (1754-1759); Shah Alam II (1759-1806); Alter Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire declined
Akbar II (1806-1837) and Bahadur Shah II (1837- rdpidiy. The important causes for the decline were;
1862), the last Mughal Emperor who was made 1. Aurangzeb’s Rajput, Deccan and religious
premier during 1857 revolt. He was deported to policies;
Rangoon, Burma (now Myanmar) in 1858. He died in 2. Stagnation in agricultural production,trade and
1862. manufacturing;
3. Rapidly rising demands of the ruling classes,
Invasion of Nadir Shah leading to attempts to realise more from jagirs,
In 1739 during the reign of Muhammad Shah, causing peasant and zamindari discontent.
a Persian king, Nadir Shah invaded India, Muhammad 4. Jagirdari crisis in which Nobles tried to corner the
Shah at the Battle of Karnal and later mercilessly most profitable jagirs; leading to corruption;
massacred the people of Delhi. Nadir Shah, however, 5. Factionalism among nobility after Aurangzeb's
reinstated Muhammed Shah and went back to Persia. death; development of powerful Irani, Turani,
Nadir Shah’sinvasion broke the back of Mughal Deccani, Hindustani blocs in the court who vied for
Empire. As a result the Marathas became very power in order to destabilise the central
powerful in the Deccan. Sadat Ali Khan, Governor of administrative machinery;
Awadh, and Alivardi Khan, Governor of Bengal and 6. Rise of independent kingdoms;
the Rohillas in the Ganges valley also became 7. Rise of European power in India;
independent. 8 . Nadir Shah's invasion in 1739.
The empire of Muhammad Shah’s successor
MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION
Ahmad Shah (1748-1754) only consisted of the lands
The nature of Mughal administration was a
adjoining Delhi and some districts in Uttar Pradesh.
combination of Indian, Persian and Arabic systems.
Imalul-mulk became Ahmad Shah’s wazir after
Military power was the foundation and the emperor
terrorising him, and ultimately placed his son
was the centralised authority. Many emperors (like
Muhammad Azim Uddaulah on the throne as Alamgir
Babur and Humuyun) appointed an advisor or prime
II. He was later on murdered and another Mughal
minister called vakil to advise them in matters of
prince was installed on the throne.
significance. Bairam Khan was vakil to the throne
The heir apparent. Prince Shah Alam, sought
when Akbar was a minor.
refuge with Nawab Wazir of Awadh. Shah Alam was
recognised as the emperor by Abdali, the successor of
Nadir Shah. He lived under the protection of the
English, after his defeat at their hands at the Battle of
Buxar in 1764. In 1771, he returned to Delhi at the
invitation of the Marathas, who placed him on the
throne. Shah Alam II was succeeded by Akbar Shah II
(1806-1837). The last Mughal ruler, famous as
Bahadur Shah Zafar. ruled between 1837 and 1858 as a
titular king under the British. The Mughal emperors
ruled only in name until 1857-1858 as the real political
power in the eighteenth century had shifted to new
kingdoms.

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MAP 2.4 Successor Provinces of the Mughal founder of the Mughal Empire improved the
Empire during 1830s organisation of the government immensely The
Mughal Architecture autocracy, or absolute power of the Badshah. was
Shahjahan's Reign maintained but power was related to the wazir (similar
to vakil) and between the heads of the departments. He
The Mughal Empire reached its peak,during the rule created different departments with written regulations
of Shahjahan. This was a result of nearly a century within which the officials functioned, independent of
of unprecedented prosperity and peace. As a the central government. The emperor also chose to
consequence, during his rule, the world saw, the transfer or dismiss his officials without respect for
distinct development of arts and culture of the rank, race or creed Every considerable official
Mughal Empire During his rule, Mughal exercised general administrative and judicial powers,
architecture reached its peak. He chose marble as especially in criminal cases. Civil disputes ordinarily
the major medium for all his architectural works. were left to the qazis, to be settled under Quranic laws.
Extensive ornamentation, pietra dura and formation Akbar divided his empire into 20 provinces called
of exclusive landscape settings are some important sttbahs 14 in North India. 1 in Afghanistan and 6 in
characteristics of the buildings of this era. At Agra, South India. The number of subahs were later
Shahjahan constructed marble edifices like the increased to 21. when the Bijapur and Golkonda
Diwan-i-Aam, Diwan-i-Khas, Shish Mahal and kingdoms were added to the empire. The
Moti Masjid, which have been termed as the most administration was framed on military lines. The
graceful buildings of their class to be found subedar maintained a court modelled on that of his
anywhere. However Shahjahan's all other sovereign, and possessed full powers as long he
architectural creations are nothing when compared maintained his office. Later, in 1596. Akbar bifurcated
with the exquisite conception of the mausoleum of the governing authority and the office of provincial
his wife, Anjurnan Bano Begum (Mumtaz Mahal). diwans was introduced in the system. The permanent
The Taj Mahal is the ultimate glory and culmination regular army was very small. The greater part of the
of Mughal architecture. Its construction started in imperial forces consisted of contingents furnished by
1631 and was completed in 1653. Gulbadan the rajas and mansabdars, each under its own chief.
Begum's Humayun Namah, Jahangirs autobiography Faujdars (chief assistant fa subadar), kotwal (the police
Tuzk-i-Jahangiri,Abdul Hamid Lahori's Padsahrima officer), bakshi (paymaster to the army, and
and Inayat Khan's Shahjahannama are the examples government officials) and bayutal (the keeper of
of literature in the latter period of Shahjahan's rule. government property in each subah)ywere the other
important officials in his set-up. Within his
Administrative Set-up administrative system, the warrior aristocracy
Before Akbar, the empire had a different (naansabdars) held ranks i mansabs) expressed in the
outlook and divided into many Jagirs headed by the number of troops and indicating pay, armed
mansabdars. The system of mansabdars belongs to the contingents and obligations. The warrior aristocracy
Central Asian empires of that time. Many important was generally, paid, front, the revenue of non-
officials and nomenclature can be divided as Mir hereditary and transferrable jagirs (revenue villages).
Baksh (the main military administrator), Sadr-e-
saaman (Chief Justice) TABLE 2.3 Some Major Famines during the Mughal
Muhataib (ecclesiastical officer who regulated the lives Rule
of the people). Diwan-e-tan (minister who looked after
jagirs and mansabdars), Mirtuzuk (minister of
Period Location Ruler
1555-1556 Punjab and Sind Humayun
ceremonies in the court), and Mir-e-mal (chief of
treasures in the palace) Akbar, who was the real 1573-1574 Gujarat Akbar

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1575 Bengal Akbar The most important source of revenue was

1595-1598 Kashmir Akbar Farm land. But significant revenue was also received
from custom duties, inland transit duties, tributes and
Agra/Delhi gifts from the feudal rajas. There was a strict vigil and
1617-1624 (famine and plague) Jahangir duty system prevalent on ports under the Shah Bandars
1630-1632 Gujarat and Deccan Shahjahan (the head of sea ports or bandargahs'). Cash
1641 Kashmir Shahjahan transactions were the mainstay of the financial system
1646 Punjab Shahjahan but payments were also made in kind. The coinage
system was advanced. Gold and silver coins
1659 North India Aurangzeb
represented high denominations and copper coins for
1 670-1672 North India. Aurangzeb lower ones.
1702-1704 North India Aurangzeb

Expansioni of the Mughal Empire

under Aurangzeb Socio-economic System
Akbar followed two different but effective
Aurangzeb was a staunch Muslim. However, he
policies for ruling a large territory: and involving
gave many grants for the restoration of Hindu
various ethnic groups into the service of his empire. In
temples during his rule. He also appointed Hindus to
1580, he gathered local revenue data for the previous
high positions in his government. His major
ten years to understand the details of productivity and
architectural accomplishment is the Badshahi
price variations in different crops. Assisted by Todar
Mosque at Lahore. It was the iargesf mosque in the
Mal. a Rajput king, Akbar prepared a revenue schedule
world at the time if was constructed, During his
that the farmers could accept while depositing
reign of 50 years, Aurangzeb tried to realise his
maximum profit with the state. Revenue demands,
dream of bringing the whole of the subcontinent
settled as per the local traditions of cultivation and
under one rule. In 687, Bijapur and Golkanda,
quality of soil, varied from one-third to one-half of the
which were the last two Shia states surrendered to
crop. The revenues were paid in cash.
the Tuughqls. The Marathas tried to struggle against
Aurangzebfor some time. The last 26 years of
Zamindari System
Aurangzeb were devoted to his relentless. Deccan
Akbar depended heavily on the Zamindars.
campaign, He had to shift his court for Decean
They used their exclusive local knowledge and power
Under Aurangzeb's reign, the borders of the Mughal
to collect revenue and to transfer it to the treasury.
Empire expanded out farther than ever before. But
They used to keep a part in return for services they
because of undeveloped means of communication
rendered. The Zamindars controlled the land in the
and poor infrastructure, it was difficult to keep the
villages during the Mughal period. They were not
empire united. When the court was in the north,
essentially the owners of land but were pivotal in
there was rebellion in the south, vice versa. though
controlling the land revenue system. They were a
he ruled longer than any of his predecessor he could
powerful class and they freely bought and sold
not stop the fall of the Empire. The decline speeded
zamindaris to increase their domain. They headed the
up after his death. None of his sons was capable
peasants class and were obliged to pay land revenue to
enoughhto rule Consequently, in 1858, India came
the state. In the social set-up there were three classes
directly under the control of the British government.
of peasants: khudkasta (peasants owning land and
implements), pahis (peasants who got land, and
Fiscal System sometimes implements too, on rent and then cultivated
it), and muzaruyams (those who depended upon

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khudkahtas for spare land and implements, or worked MUGHAL ART, ARCHITECTURE AND
for them). The government officer who controlled the LITERATURE
information about the cultivators and past and
Painting
projected revenue was called the patwari. His record
Humayun appreciated the collection ot
book, bahi held accounts of many zamindars in a
illuminated manuscripts. He saw the artists working
particular region. The different bahis were source
when he was staying at the court of the Persian ruler.
books for the Amil or Amalguzarkar who maintained
When he was at Tabriz, met two young painters. Mir
the Sarkar (an office at district level). His office
Sayyid Ali and Abdus Sarnad, Later on, both these
included different clerks, known as karku and
artists met him in Kabul. Abdus Sarnad taught Akbar
khazanadars, who maintained land registrations and
the art of drawing. Though Akbar himself illiterate, he
revenue collection and assessment records. The
had great respect for knowledge. He commissioned the
officials surveyed the fields regularly and on harvest
illustrations of many literary and religious texts. He
claimed a rightful portion of produce under the system
invited a large number of artists to his court. The
called batai or galla-bakshi. Other systems that were
majority of these artists were Hindus. This made
used for land revenue administration were: Kankut (a
Akbar the original founder of the Mughal school of
general estimate of the whole region was made and
painting
accordingly revenue was fixed per unit of land area
The famous painters in Akbar’s court were
cultivated by the peasant); Nasaq (revenue fixed on the
Mir Sayyid Ali, Abdul Samad and Baswan, a Hindu.
basis of past record of a peasant); Dastur Ulama or
Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdul Sapad (rained the artists in
Jama figures (revenue fixed as per three classes of
all the technical details of Persian art. Many Hindus
lands—good, bad and average lands). During the
like Baswan, Misldtu and Daswant achieved great
15thyear of Akbar’s rule, the old Jamas were replaced
positions in his court as artists. Abul Fazi in his Ain-i-
by hew Jamas, based on the findings of Raja Todar
Akbari has praised them very high. Out of 169 full
Mal who used Qanungos figures that were based on
page illustrations of Razm (Mahabharatat Baswan has
the paragana (taluq) level. Later, Akbar brought in the
been mentioned in 12 of the best miniatures
most significant system for fixing land revenue, known
illustrations. In the Persian version of the Ramuyana
as Karon system. In this, the land was marked into
too. India artists could showcase some of their dream
circles which were to provide a revenue of one karor to
figure types and details of landscape. Under the
the state exchequer. This experiment gave favourable
guidance of Mix Sayyid Ali and Abd-al-Samad, the
results and it developed into the Bandobast system (or
royal atelier of painters and calligraphers got training.
Zabti). Under this, all the land was measured afid then
They first tried to complete the pictures for the earliest
classified into four classes: polaj (annually cultivated);
Mughal illustrated manuscript known as Dastani-Amir
parauti (fallow land that was cultivated every 1 or 2
Hamza.
years); chachar (fallow land cultivated everyhafter 3-4
years) and banjar (uncultivated land that was'not Loosening of the Mughal
cultivated in at least last 5 years). All these reforms Grip over India
(collectively known as Ain-e-Dahsala) were aimed at
bringing a new Jama that could give the per bigha The destabilised Mughal Empire witnessed
revenue rates for different regions. Todar Mai destruction at the hands of the Persian king Nadir
introduced a uniform unit of measurement of land, Shah, in 1738-1739. He ordered a general massacre
called lldhi gaz, in which now land was not measured of the residents of Delhi, it resifted into the death of
with ropes but with ‘tanabs’ (which were bamboo nearly 30,000 people. Another threat to the Mughal
sticks joined with iron rings). It was in the 24th year of Empire emerged from the Afghons of Rohilkhand,
the Akbar’s rule that a permanent Jama or Dastur to north-east of Delhi. By the middle of the 18th
Ulama was finally put into place. century, the Rohillas declared their independence
from the Mughal rule. The Jats also revolted against

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the centrel rule. Taking full advantage of this combination of Persian components meshed with
unstable situation, the East India Company started original Indian (Hindu and Buddhist) architecture.
consolidating its military capabilities. They plotted Many tombs, mausoleums mosques, palaces and forts
with the Hindu traders and money lenders against are testimonies to the grandeur and grace of Mughal
the Nawab Sirajuddullah of Bengal to take control architecture. The architecture generally followed
over his province. The Battle of Plassey which was erecting complete buildings of stone and marble and
fought in 1757, is regarded as a major turning point then decorating the walls and ceilings with pietra dura
for the British in the subcontinent, made the way for (style of decorating walls and ceilings with carved
the British rule in Bengal. Gradually, the entire floral designs set in the semi-precious stones).
India finally came under the company's rule. In the
19th century Muslims like Syed Ahmad Brailvi and IMPORTANT BUILDINGS
Shah Ismail carried out jihad against the Sikhs, as Fatehpur Sikri, with a magnificent 176 ft high
did Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan in the Deccan Buland Darwaza (grand entry door). Jami Masjid
against the British. They were unsuccessful in their (Mosque), Jodha Bid’s Palace, Diwan-e-aam, Diwan-
attempts to slop the decline of the Muslim rule. The e-khas Panch Mahal, Jama Masjid (Delhi)-Akbar: Moti
final blow came after ihewar of 1857, when the Masjid (Agra)-Shahjahan; Mosques at Sambhal, Kabul
Mughal rule was officially ended and India came Bagh and Agra-Birbal; Red Fort and its Diwan-e-aam,
under the direct rule of the British crown. Diwan-e-khas and Rang Mahal (Delhi)-Shahjahan;
where they received intelligent patronage from the Agra Fort-Akbar,Lahore Fort-Akbar, Allahabad Fort-
emperor The an and architecture of this period arc a Akbar; Humayun’s

TABLE 2.4 Treatise and Sources of the History of the Mughal

Name of Treatise Author Contents

Tuzuki-i-Baburi Babur Describes military tactics and administrative
organisation during Babur’s reign
Humayun Nama Khwand Amair Describes Humayun’s administration, festivities
and buildings of thatperiod
Danun-i-Himayun Gulbadan Begum
Akbar Nama Shaikh Abul Fazal Gives a history of Akbar's reign
Tabaqat-i-Akbari Khwajah Nizamuddin Gives a history of Akbar’s reign
Ahmad Baksh
Muntakhabut Abdul Qadir Gives a history of Akbar’s reign
Tawarikh Badauni
Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri Jahangir Memoirs of his own reign
Iqbalnama-i-Jahangiri Muhammad Khan History of Jahangir’s reign
Chahar Chaman Chandra Bhan Brahman History of Shahjahan’s rule
Alamgirnama Munshi Mirza Muhammad Gives an account of the first 10 years of
Kazin Aurangzeb’s rule
Massir-i-Alamgiri Saqi Mustaid Khan Official history of Aurangzeb’s reign, written
after his death
Ain-e-Akbari Abut Fazl History of Akbar's reign
Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh Badauni History of Akbar's rule
Tawarikh-e-Alfi Mulls Daud History of Akbar’s rule
Nuriyya-e-Sultaniyya Abdul Haqq Theory of kinship during Mughal period

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 The Mughal Dynasty - History
Study Materials

Waqt-e-Hyderabad Nimat Khan Ali Aurangzeb’s Golconda conquest

Futuhat-e-Alamgiri Iswar Das Aurangzeb’s history
Naskha-e-Dilkusha Bhimsen Analysis of Aurangzeb’s rule and character
Khulasat-ut-Tawarikh Sujan Rai Khatri History of Aurangzeb’s rule
Padshah Namah Abdul Hamid Lahori History of Shahjahan’s reign
Padshah Namah Mumahad Waris History of Shahjahan’s reign
Shahjahan Namah Muhammad Salih History of Shahjahan’s reign
Shahjahan Namah Inayat Khan History of Shahjahan’s reign
Hamlai-Haidri Muhammad Rafi Khan History of Aurangzeb’s rule
Tamah-e-Alamgiri Aquil Khan Zafar Salinat-ul- History of Aurangzeb’s rule Dam Shikoh Urdu
Auliya translation of Upanishads
Safinat-ul-Auliya Salinat-ul-Auliya Biographies of Sufi saints
Vajma-e-Alagiri Salinat-ul-Auliya Discussion of philosophical ideas
Raqqat-e-Alamgiri Aurandzab A compendium of his letters
Hasmat-ul-Arifin Dara Shikoh Discussion of religious ideas

The Later Mughals

1. Bahadur Shah I: 1707-1712
2. Johandar Shah: 1712-1713
3. Farrukhsiyar: 171 3-1719
4. Rafi-ud-darajat: 1719
5. Rafi-ud-daula: 1719
6. Muhammad Shah: 1719-1
7. Ahmad Shah: 1748-1
8. Alamgir II: 1754-1759.
9. Shah Alam II: 1759-1806
10. Akbar II: 18061837
11. Bahadurshah 2afar: 1837-1858

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