I I

I
M US C N O T AT O N
AN D T ERM N O L O G Y

B Y KA R L W GE H R K EN S , A M
I I
-
. . .

ASSOC AT E P ROF ES S O R O F S C H OO L M U S
I SI
C

OB ERL N C O N S E R VA T O RY OF MU C

N E W Y O R K AN D C H I CA G O
T HE A . S . B A R N ES C O M P A N Y
1 92 1
 CO PYR I
GHT , 1 9 1 4, B Y

A S B ARN ES COM PANY

. .

AR

196 5

O F T 0

9 9 6 48 4
 P RE FAC E
fl

T he stu dy of music n ota tion and term inol ogy by Cl asses in

c o n servator ies and in mus ic d epartm e n ts o f Co l l eges an d n orma l

school s is a c omparative inn ovatio n one reason fo r the non

,

existenc e oi su ch courses in t h e past b e ing the l a ck o f a suitab l e

t ext book in whi ch might be found in rel ate d groups Cl ear an d
-

a ccurate d e finition s o f the reall y e ssen t ial terms But with the
.

c on sta n tl y inc r e as in g in t e re st in mus ic stu dy ( both private

an d in the pub lic s choo l s ) an d w ith t h e prese n t pers iste n t
,

d e ma nd that music t e a ching shall be c ome more systematic

an d there f ore mor e e ffi c ie n t in tur nin g out a more intel l igent

c l ass o f pup il s it has b e c om e inc r e as in gl y n e c essary to estab

,

l ish c ours e s in whi c h t h e prospe c t iv e tea ch e r o f mus ic (a ft e r

havin g h ad c on sid erab le exp e rien c e w ith music its el f) might
a cq u ire a c oncise and a cc urat e kn owl e dge o f a fa irly l arge
n umber o f t e rms ,
most o f whi c h he has probab ly al re a dy
e nc ou n t e r e d as a stu d e n t
,
a n d ma n y o f wh ic h h e k n ows t h e

ge neral meaning of but n one of wh ich he perhaps kn ows

,
“

a cc urat ely enough to en ab l e h im to impart h is kn owl e d g e

cl e arly and e c o n om ic a ll y t o others .

To m ee t t h e n e e d o f a text book fo r this pu rpose in hi s ow n

-

Cl asses the author has bee n f or s e ve ra l years gatherin g ma te ria l

f rom all ava il ab l e sour c es an d it is hop e d that the arra n ge

,

men t of thi s mat e rial in rel ate d groups as h e re pres en te d will

se rve to give t h e stu den t n o t onl y some in sight into t h e pres en t
meani n g of a goo dl y number of t e rms but will al so en able h im
,

to see more Cl early why ce rta in t e rms have t h e m e a ning whic h

at prese n t atta ch e s to them To th is l atte r end the de rivatio n s
.

iii
iv P R E FAC E

of many of the terms are given in c o nn e ction with their d efi

nit io n .

The aim has n o t been to presen t an exhaustive list an d the ,

s el e c t ion o f t e rms has of c ourse be en influenc e d l argely by the

’
author s ow n indi vidual exp e rienc e h enc e many tea ch e rs wil l
,

probab ly fee l that importa n t terms have b e en omitt e d that

shoul d have bee n incl u d e d F or this state of a ff a irs n o apol ogy
.

is o ff ere d ex c ept that it wou l d probab ly be impossib l e to write

a book on this subje c t whic h wou l d satisfy everyon e in either

I
t h e sel e c tio n or a c tual d e fi n itio n o f terms
n f ormu l at in g the d efi n it io n s themse l ves an attempt has

been ma d e to use su ch wor d s as n ote ton e e t c et e ra with at l east

.

, ,

a fa ir d egree o f a cc ura cy and whil e the attitu d e o f the author

,

o n th is po in t may be c ritic iz e d as be in g purist ic an d pe d a n t ic ,

it is n everthel ess h is op inion that the n ext ge n erat io n o f mus ic

stu d en ts an d tea c hers will be profite d by a more a ccurate use
o f c erta in terms that have bee n in a cc urate l y use d f o r so l o n g

that t h e pre sen t ge neratio n has to a l arge exten t l ost s ight o f

t h e f a c t that the use is in a cc urate The author is well aware
.

o f the f a c t that re f orm is a matter O f growth rather tha n o f

e di c t but he is a l so o f t h e b elief that be fore reform can a c tually

,

begin to c ome the need o f re f orm must be fel t by a fa irl y l arge

,

n umber o f a c t ivel y in ter e ste d p e rso n s It is pre cisely be c ause

.

so few musician s realiz e the n ee d of any cha nge in music termi

n ol o gy that t h e c ha n g e s r e c omme n d e d by c omm itt e es who

have g ive n t h e matt e r carefu l thought are so sl ow in b e ing

a dopte d It is hope d th at some few po in ts at whi ch reform
.

in the term in ol ogy of music is n e c essary may b e brought

to the atten tion O f a few a dditional musicia n s thru this
vol ume an d that the cause may thus be h elp e d in some s light
,

d egree .

It is sugge ste d that in u sing t h e book fo r cl ass room pur -

poses the tea c h e r e mphasiz e n o t only t h e d efin itio n an d d eriva

tio n of all t e rms stu d ie d but the spellin g and pronunciatio n as
,
 P R E FAC E v

wel l F or this l a tter purpose a pronouncing index has been

.

app end e d .

It is impossib l e to give cre dit to all sources from which

id eas have b e en d raw n but esp e cial m e n tio n shoul d be ma d e
,

o f the e min en tl y cl ear an d beaut iful ly wor d e d d efinit io n s c o m

p il e d by P ro fe ssor Wald o S P ratt for the Ce n tury D ic tionary

.
,

an d t h e e x c ee din gl y val uab l e articl e s o n an a l most al l in cl us ive

—

range o f top ic s fou nd in t h e n ew e di t io n o f Grove s D ic t io nary ’

.

Esp ec ial thanks for val uabl e suggestion s as to the arrangemen t

o f the mater ial e t c are a l so du e to Dr Raymon d H Stetson
,
.
,
. .
,

P ro fessor o f P sy cho l ogy Oberlin Co llege ; Arthur E Hea c ox

,
.
,

P rofessor of Theory Oberl in Co n s e rvatory o f Mus ic ; an d

,

Charle s I R ice Superv isor of Mus ic Worc ester Mass as

.
, , ,
.
,
’
well as to various memb e rs of t h e Music Tea chers Natio nal
Asso c iation who have o ffere d val uab l e a dvic e al ong c erta in
spe cifi c lin es .

K W G
IC ER
0 0 0

OB ER L N O NS V ATO RY OF M U SI C ,
ja w ,9I
3 1
 C ON TENT S

C HAPTE R I S o me Pr i i pl es o f C o rrec t No t at i on

IN
. nc

. ot e .
, 3 2 . Ru les fo r t u rn
4 Use O f c ross s t ro ke i ng s t em s . .
-
.

5 . Res t . 6 G C le .
7 F C le and C C le 8 f
h arp and d o u le
. . f f . . S b
s h arp .
9 F l a t
.
, d o u l e fl a t a n d n a t u ral 1 0 T ie b
1 1 D o t a t e r a no t e
-
. . . . f .

C HAPTE R II . Sy
m bo l s o f M u s c D e n ed i fi .

1 2 . St aff and Gre at St afi . 1 3 . L eg er L i ne s . 1 4 .S t ff a deg rees . 1 5 .

C le f . 1 6 . Tre b le a nd b ass C le f s . 1 7 . M o vab le C Cl f e . 1 8 . Sh arp

/
.

1 9 Fl a t
. . 20 . D o u le sh arp b -
and do u le fiat b -

C AP E R III
H T M u si c De fined (cont inued )
. Sym b o ls o f

2 1 N at ural .2 2 , 2 3 Key s i gn at u re ; h o w d e t e rm ine w h e t h er a m aj o r o r

. .
-

m i no r key 2 4, 2 5 Ac c i de nt als ; wi t h t ie acro ss bar

. 26 Rul e s co n . . .

ce rn in g a l t e red s t aff d eg rees 27 E nh armon i c 28 N o t es ; p i t ch and . . . .

l eng t h o f t on es 2 9 Re s t s 3 0 L i s t s o f no t es and rest s 3 1 E ng lish

. . . . .

n am es fo r .
3 2 L ess . co mm o n f o rm s .
33 . Wh o le res t , p ec ul i ar u se o f .

3 4 B ar . .
3 5 D o u l e
.bb ar -
.

VCHAP T E R IV . Abb vi t i re a on s , Sign s, et c . .

3 6 — 0
4 . Sign s fo r rep e t t ii on .
41 . Co n t in ua t o n i .
4 2 Res t
. .
43 . Pause .

44 . Hol d .
45 4 7
—
. Al t erat i on o f P t ch i .
48 . O ct a ve nam es .

/C HA
y
l
P T ER V .
— .
A bb re v a t o ns , i i Sig ns , et c .
(continued ) .

49 5
— 1 . Dot s a ft e r no t es .
5 2 D o t s o ve r o r u nd e r n o t e s
. .
5 3 D as h . o ve r

no t e .
5 4 T ie . .
55 . Sl ur .
56 l ur o r t ie . S
t h do t s wi .
5 7 D as h . o ve r

not e .
5 8 D as h . and do t o ve r no t e 5 9 Acc ent m arks
. 60 m d . . . . .
, mg . .
,

et c . 6 1 . Arpe g g i o . 6 2 . M essa di voce 63 ol n bo w s g ns . . Vi i i .

( IC H APT E R VI . E m bell i sh m ent s .

64 De fi it i n on and k i nd s 65 T r i ll 66 6 8 —
M o rdent —
69 72

/ IVII
. . . . . . .

T urn .
7 3 , 7 4 Appo gg . i at ura .
75 Acc . i acca t u ra .

'
C HAP
’
ER . S ca les .

76 . De fi it i
n on , and ol d f o rm s .
77 . Org i i n .
78 . Key .
79 . Th ree
g ene ral c l asses . 80 . D i at o n c , i de fi ned . 81 . M aj or di at oni c . 82 .

Tet ra ch ords . 8 3 T he. fif t ee n po s t ii o ns .

u C HAPT E R VIII S l ( ntin d ) . ca es co ue

8 4 M in d i t ni c
. 8 5 O ig i n l f m 8 6 H m ni
or a o . . r a or . . ar o c m in or . 87 .

M l d ic m in
e o 8 8 El v n p i t i n 8 9 R l t i v m in or . . e e os o s . . e a e or .
90 . Toni c
min 9 D i t
or n i l n m
.
9 Sy l l b l n m 1 . a o c s ca e a es . 2 . a e -
a es .
9 3 C h rom a t
. i c

le
s ca 9 4 N i ne p i t i n 9 5 Wh l t p cal os o s o e s e s e
-
. . . . .
 C ON TENT S
CH APTE R IX . Au x l ar ii yW ords an d E nd i ng s
CHAPTE R X . M easure .

97 . De fin i t i on . T wo es s e n t al i h c a ra c t e r s t cs i i . Rh t h m y vers m eas
ure .
98 Syn . co p at on i .
99 . Si m p l e an d com p o un d m easure s . 1 00 .

C o mm o ne s t var et es i i . 101 . O t h e r var et i i es . 1 02 . Rare var e t es i i . 1 03 .

ig n
T he s s, C an d
35
C HAP TE R XI . T e m po .

1 04 . Mi s uses o f the w o rd t me i .
7 Ho w t o c orre c t t h ese :
1 0 5
—
1 0 . by
sub t it t i g
s u n
“
rh yt h m ,
” “
m eas ure , an d
“
t e m po
”
108 Th ree a s . . wy of

find i g t h n e co rrec t t emp o . 1 09 . A conven en t i g ro up ing of t em p o

t e rms .

1 1 0 —1 1 9 Tem po t erm s
-
. .

of f o rm . 1 3 4 D ifi ere n ce
. b tw e ee n

fo m r 35 nt ro d u c t o r
an d 1 36 st yl
T w o s t l es e . 1 . I y . . y . 1 37 . M on o
p h oni c m us c 1 3 8 P ol p h on c m u s c i
1 3 9 C o un t e rp o n t
. . y i i .
'

. i . 1 40 . Im i t a

t on i 1 41 C anon
. 1 42 ch o o l ro u n d . 1 43 F u g u e
. . . S . .

CHAP T E R XV
Te rm s Re l at ng t o Fo rm s a n d t l es (continu ed )
. i Sy .

1 44 . Ph rase -
sec t on i . 1 45 . P er o d i . An t e ce d e n t . C o nseq u e nt . 1 46 .

Pri m ary form s . 1 4 7 Th em e . . 1 48 . Th e m a t i c d e v e l op m e n t . 1 49 Ro n .

do . 1 50 . S it u 5 1 D an ces in s u t e
e . 1 . i . 1 52 . S ch e r o z . 1 53 . S o na a t .

1 54 . Tri o .
Q ua rt e t C h am er M us c . b i . 1 55 . C o n ce rt o . 1 56 . Sy m :
p h o n y . 1 57 . S f m
on at a 58 S t in -
or . 1 . on a a . Grand S o nat a . 1 59 .
i

P ro g ram m u s i c . 6 Sym p h n i
1 t e p
0 m . o c or on oe .

C HA T P E R XV I . Ter m R l t i ng t V al M i
s e a o oc us c .

1 61 . An t h em . 1 62 . A cap e ll a . 1 63 . M ot et . 1 64 . C h o ral . 1 65}

M ass . 1 66 . C an t at a . 1 67 O . rat o r o i . 1 68 . O p e ra . 1 69 L . ib re t t o .

1 70 . Recit at l ve . 1 71 . Ar i a . 1 72 . L i ed . 1 73 . B al l a d . 1 74 . Fo lk
ng
so 75 M. d i g l 1 7 6 G l .
7 7 P t a g r a . 1 . ee . 1 . ar -
son .

C HAP T E R X V II Rh y t h m M l d y H . m y d I t l ,
e o ,
ar on an n erva s

7 8 T
1 h f l m
. t f m e i 7 9
o ur e e R h y t h m 8 M l d yen s o 8 ; us c . 1 . . 1 0 . e o . 1 1

H m y ar 8 Tim bon . 83 I t v l 1 h m 2 i d m l di
. 84 re . 1 . n er a ar on c an e o c . 1 .

N mb u m nd p ifi
er n a m 8 5 P im
e a 86 S d s 87 ec c na e . 1 . r e . 1 . ec on . 1 .

Th i d r 88 F . th 89 1 Fi f t h .
9 Si t h o ur 9 S v th . 1 . . 1 0 . x . 1 1 . e en .

9 1 O 2t .v 9 3 N i n
c a et h 9 4 M . j m i n p 1 f t d i m. i i h d d . 1 . a o r, o r, er e c ,
n s e an

aug m t d i n t v l
en e 9 5 I v t d i t v l s
er a s . 1 . n er e n er a .

CHAP TER X VIII Ch d C d t . or s , a e n ces , e c

9 6 1 C h d .
T i d R t 9
or 7 M j . m i d i m i
r a i h d g . oo . 1 . a o r, no r, n s e ,
au

m t d t i d en e 9 8 T h C
r a mm n h s d .
9 9 F d 1m t l p i
. t i n e o o c or s . 1 . un a en a os o .

Fi t i rs i S d i nv i
n ve rs o n F ig . d b e co n S v th ers o n . 200 . u re ass . 20 1 . e en

h d
C or Ni t h h d . C d n 3 A th c ti or d .
4 202 . a e n ce . 20 . u en c ca e nce . 20 .

P f t e r ec t h nt i Imp f t t h t i
au e 5 Pl g l c . d 6 er ec au en c . 20 . a a ca e n ce . 20 .

H lf d a -
ca 7 D p
en ce t i v d .
8 Sq 20 9 M d
. ece e ca e n ce . 20 . e u e nc e .
-
20 . o u

l tai h m
on , o n i d m l
ar d i D m i t S v t h
c an S p i e o c: o n an e en . 21 0 . us e ns o n .
 M
”
C ON TENTS
21 1 . Re t ardat i on . 21 2 . Ant i ip t i
c a on . 21 3 . P ed al po i nt . 21 4 . C lo se
Trans os o n
2 1 5 .
p i ti .

cel l an eo u s T e rm s

(continued)
AP PE ND X A I . T he Hi st ory o f M us i c No t at ion

m en t s
1 . T wo
use d
cl as se s

for
. 2 .

bl
P i ano .
—

yi ng
3 , 4 . O rg an , reed and p ip e .
5 . I ns t ru

ensem e p la . 6 . B an d .
7 . O rch es t ra 8 T he . .

i
s t r n g ed i nst rum en t s .
9 . W oo d -
wi nd . 1 0 . B ra ss . 1 1 P e rc u s s o n
. i .

1 2 . P rop ort i i
on o f n s t rum e n t s in an o rch es t ra . 1 3 B o o ks
. re co mm e n d e d .

1 4 . Vi li n o . 1 5 . Vi ola . 1 6 Vi l
. o on cell o .
7 D o u le
1 . b b -
as s . 1 8 Fl u t e
. .

1 9 Pi . c co lo . 20 . O b oe f m i ly
a . 21 . C l ar ne t and i b a ss c l ar ne t i ; s ax o

p h o ne . 22 . French h o rn . 23 . Trum p e t . 24 . C o rne t . 25 . Tro m bo ne .

26 T ub a K e t t le drum 28 H arp
APP ENDI
2 7
-
. . . . . .

X C . Aco u s t i cs

of
1 .

t rav el
De

i
fi it i n

.
on

5
.

. I
i
2 . S
n t ens ifi c at ion
o un d , p ro d u c t o n o f

I
of .
i
ity
6 .
.

C l ass
3 t ran sm
.

ifi t i n ca o
i i
ss on o f

of .
.

7 .
4 Rat e
T on e s
.

p rop e rt es o f . 8 P t ch
. .
9 . n t e ns . 1 0 .
Q lit y ua . 1 1 . O vert o n es .

1 2 . E q u al t e m p e ra m en t . 1 3 . St and ard s o f i
p t ch .

II
AP END X E Anal yi s s of B ee t h o ven S O p 31 NO 3
I
. o n at a , .
, .

R
P O N O UNC N G
 C HAP TE R I
S O ME P RIN C IE SPL OF C O RRE CT N O T AT IO N
The note (from nota
1 Latin a mark o r s ign) c o n s ists
o f e ither o n e two or three parts , a a d
,
th e se b e in g re f erre d ,

to respe ct ively as hea d stem an d hook The hook is o ften , ,

.
.

c a ll e d tail or c ross stroke The stem appears on the right sid e

-

o f the hea d whe n turn e d up but o n the l e f t s id e whe n turn e d ,

d own J r The hook is always on the right sid e

1 2
5
I
. .

n w i t i ng m i wi t h p t h h d nd h k b t m d wi t h h vy p
r us c en e ea a oo are es a e a ea ressu re

on th p n p
e i nt b t
e in w i t i g
o t t,
h b du t h y m t r il
n y m d
a by i g e o ar e a re os ea s a e us n a

p i f
ec e o h l k b t c n i nah l ng t u
a oun d n ita i d c o r e o s s e

I
.
,

When onl y one part (or vo ic e) S wri tten on the sta ff

2 .

t h e f o l l owin g rul es f or t urning s tems apply : (1 )

hea d is bel ow the third line t h e stem must turn up (2 ) f
f the n ote I I .
,

I
the n ote h e a d is above the third lin e the stem must turn d own
-
.

(3 ) f the n ote h e a d is o n the th ir d lin e the stem-

is turn e d
e ither up or d own w ith d u e r e gar d to the symmetr ic a l appea r

a nc e o f the measure in whi ch the n ote oc curs The f oll owing .

exampl es will illustrate these poin ts

I
.

F ig . .

1
I t sh o u l d be no t e d a t t h e o u t se t t h at t h i s st a t e m en t reg ardi n g t h e do wn t u rn ed

I
-

st e m o n the le tf id s e of t h e no t e h ead , an d al so a n u m b er of s im il ar pr in i p l
c es h e re
cit f ifi y
m ore sp e c ca l l t o m us c as it appea rs o n t h e p r nt ed p ag e
ed , re e r i
n the i . ca se o f

i i w
h and Cop ed m us c t h e d o n t urn ed s t e m appe ars o n t h e r g h t s d e o f t h e no t e , t h us
.
i i
I f ii yI i i
-

d eal ng
i
i wi i
b
T h s s do ne e caus e o f g rea t e r ac l t n wr t ng , and fo r t h e sa m e reaso n o t h er sl g h t
ifi i
t h ch l d ren it is es t u s u all t o o l lo
i
m od ca t o ns o f t h e no t a t o n h e re reco m m en d ed m a y so m e t m es b e e nco un t e red
as cl ose l b y f w
as p o ss y
i
ib
n
le t h e p r n c p l es i
.
i
i
I
acco rd ng t oi w i i
h ch printed m u s c is n ot a t ed , in o rd e r t o a vo d t h os e no n sa t s i ng and -
i fyi
f i w i wi
O t e n em baras s ing exp l anat on s o f difi e re nces h ch ll o t h e r se be un avo d a le wi i b .

2
i i
An ex cep t o n t o t h s rul e oc c u rs in t h e cas e o f no t e s o f un eq ual val ue st ro ked
t og e t h e r, wh en t h e h oo k a pp n th l ft i d t h
ea rs o e e s e, us
2 MUSIC NO TATI O N AND TE R M I N O LO G Y

3 W .h e n two parts are wr itte n o n the same sta ff the stems ,

o f the upper part all turn up an d those o f the l ower part turn ,

d own in or d e r that the parts may be cl early dist ingu ishe d

,
.

( g
F i . But in mus ic f o r p ia n o a n d other in strum e n ts on

which c ompl ete chord s can be so un d e d by one perf orm e r and

al so in simpl e f our part vo ca l mus ic in wh ic h al l voices have
,
-

approx imate ly the same rhythm several notes O fte n have o ne ,

stem in c ommo n as in Fig 3 . .

F ig . 3 .

F ig . 2 .

4 Notes
. o f s m a ll d e n omin at io n (e ighths an d sma ll er ) are
o f ten written in groups o f two o r more all stems in the group
bein g then c o nn e c te d by one cross s troke n su c h a c ase all

the stems must of c ourse be turn e d the same way the d ire c tio n
-
,

. I
,

bein g d etermin e d by the positio n o f the majority of n ote

hea d s in the group Notes thus s troked may be of the same
.

o r o f di ffere n t d e n o m in atio n See Fig 4 . . .

F ig . 4 .

I nvo cal music n otes are n ever thus stroke d when a syllab le
is give n to ea ch n ote (See p 1 9 S ec 55 .C ) .
,
.
,
.

5 .R es ts like n otes
,
are best ma d e w ith a heavy
, p e n stro k e
or by usin g a pie c e o f chalk on it s side (See n ote und er Sec . .

The d oub l e whol e rest whol e rest an d half rest o c cupy the
-

, ,

third spa ce unl e ss for the sake of Cl eam ess in writing two parts
o n the same sta ff they are wr itte n higher or l ower The rests .

o f small er d e n omin at io n may be p l a c e d at any po in t o n the

staff the hook s bein g al ways pl a c ed on the spa c es The hook

,
.
 S OME P R I N C I P LE S O F C O RR E C T NOTATI ON 3

of the eighth rest is usually pl a c ed on the third spa c e Rests .

are sometimes d otte d but are n e ver tie d ,

.

6 The G cl ef shou l d be begu n at t h e se con d l in e rather than

.

bel ow t h e sta ff Experim en ts have shown Cl e arly that be

.

ginn ers l earn to mak e it most easily in this way an d the pro ,

c ess may be furth e r S imp l ifi e d by d ividin g it in to two parts ,

thus ,
The d e sc en din g stroke c rosses the as cen din g
c urve at o r n e ar the f ourth lin e The circul ar part of the .

c urv e o c c up ies approx imat e ly the first an d s e c o nd spa c es .

7 . The F cl ef is ma de ei
ther thus ,
or thus , Q ,
the d ots
bein g pl a ce d on e on either side of t h e f ourth lin e o f the sta ff ,

which is t h e particul ar poin t that the cl ef marks The C cl ef

’

has a l so two forms , lg ! fi an d .

8 The s harp is ma de with two light vertica l strokes and

.
,

two heavy sl an ting ones the Sl an t of the l atter bein g upward

,

f rom l ef t to right it The sharp shou l d n ever be ma de thus ifi

,
. s ,

T h e doubl e s harp is ma d e e ith e r thus x or x the first ,

form being at presen t t h e more c o m mo n .

9 T. he fl at is b e st ma d e by a d own stroke retra c e d part

way up the c urve b e in g ma d e without lifting p en f rom paper
,
.

T h e d oubl e fla t c o n s ists o f two flats l

M) The natural o r

I
.
,

can cel is ma d e in two strok e s d own right and right d own ,

- -

I
t huS L1 } .

A
1 0 usually c onn ec ts the heads O f n otes thus
T h e tie ' '
l
. .
,

T h e d ot after a n ote a lways appears on a spa c e wheth e r

I
1 1 .
,

the n ot e h e a d is on a lin e or spa c e (Se e Fig

-
n the c ase . .

o f a d o t a ft e r a n ote o u a lin e the d o t usua l l y appears o n the

-

spa c e above that line if the n ext n ote is higher in position and
o n the spa c e be l ow it if the f o ll o win g n ote is l ower

I
.

1
t fi b
is t o be h op ed t h at t h e g u re fo r t h e d o u l e fl at s ugg es t ed by M a t t h eso n
-

w
(wh o al so s ug g es t ed t h e St An d re s c ro ss X) for t h e d o u l e s h arp ) m ay s o m e t m e
’
. b -
i
be read o p t e d i fi
Th s g u re w as t h e G reek l e t t er B , m ad e t h u s , B, an d it s use oul d
. w
i if
m ake o ur no t at o n o n e d eg re e m ore u n orm t h an it is a t p resen t .
4 MUSIC N O TATI O N AND T E R M I N O L O G Y
F ig . 5 .

Note . C o rrec t no t a t o n i m u s t be m a d e a ha bi t ra t h e r t h a n a t h eo r y ,
a nd in ord e r

to f o rm bi t
t h e ha of w iti
r n g co rrec t l y ,
drill is n ecessar y . Th i s
m ay p e rh ap s b e es t b
s e cure d by ki g as n s t u d en t s to w it
r e (at the b o ard o r o n rul ed p a p e r) f
ro m ve r al d c t a b i
t i o n, t h us : T each e r sa ys ,
“
Key of i
B b, t h ree q ua rt e r m eas ure : F rst m ea s ure , D O a q u art e r no t e , RE a
-

q ua rt e r, a nd Mi a q u art e r . S
e co nd m ea s ure , SO L a q uart er, LA a q uart er, a nd SO L

a q ua rt e r . Th i d m
r ea s u re , LA, T l DO , RE, MI ,
RE , eig h t h s , s t ro ked in pa i rs . Fo u rt h
i
m e as ure , h g h D O a d o t t ed h al f . P up ls i respo nd by w i t i r ng t he e x e rc se i i
d c t a t ed ,
f
a t er w i i
h ch m s t ake s in t h e t u rn i g f t m
n o s e s, et c .
,
are co rrect ed . T h e pitch names
y b di t t d i yl l b l i f d i ill f i
'

ma e c a e n s t ead o f t he s a es es red , and s t u rt h e r p rac t ce ma y be

p ro vi d ed by aski ng t h at t h e exe rc i b t np
se e ra s osed to o t h er ke y s .
 C HAPTE R I
I
S YM B O L S OP
$3
I I
M U S C D EF
O J“;
NED ~

3» l
“

A s taj is a coll e c tio n of parall el lin e s together with the

1 2 .
,

spa ces bel on ging to them The mo d e rn sta ff has five line s and .

Six spa c es th e se be in g or din aril y r e f erre d to as first lin e se c o n d

, ,

l in e th ird l in e f ourth l in e an d fif th l ine (b e g inn in g w ith the

, , ,

l owest) ; an d spa c e b e l ow spa ce be l ow t h e first lin e) first ,

Spa ce s ec o n d spa ce thi rd spa c e fourth spa c e an d spa ce above

, , , ,
.

The d efinition and dis cussion above re fe r more sp ec ific al ly

“ ”
to on e o f t h e port ion s o f t h e great staff t h e latter term being ,

o ften appli e d to the c omb inat io n o f treb l e and bass sta ff s

( w i th o n e l e ger lin e betwee n ) S O c ommo n l y use d in p ia n o
mus ic e t c ,
.

1 3 The ex ten t of the s taj may be in crease d e ither above

.

o r b el ow by the a d dit io n o f short l in es c a ll e d l eger l ines an d

1
,

n otes may be written o n e ither these lin e s o r o n the spa c es

above and b el ow them .

1 4 T h e l ines and spa c es c on stitut ing the sta ff (inc l ud ing

.

l eger l ine s if any ) are O ft e n r e fe rre d to as s taj degrees i e ea c h

'

.
,
.
,
“
s eparate lin e an d spa ce is c o ns id ere d to be a d egre e o f the
”
sta ff The to ne s o f a s ca le are al so sometimes re ferre d to as
.

“ ”
d egrees o f the s cal e .

1 5 A cl ef is a S ign pl a c e d on the sta ff to d es ig nate what

2
.

pit ch e s are to be r epre sented by it s lines and spa ces Thus .

,

e g . t h e G c l e f shows u S n o t o nl y that the s e c o n d line o f the

.
,

sta ff r epresen ts G but that the first lin e repr e s e n ts E the fi rst
, ,

spac e F et c The F cl ef S imilarly Shows us that the fi fth lin e

,
.

1
T he w
l eger is d er ved ro m t h e Fren ch
o rd i f
o rd LEGER, m ea n ng l g h t , a nd w i i
i
t h s us e o f t h e w f
o rd re ers t o t h e a c t t h a t t h e l e g e r l n e s , f
e ng ad d ed h an d , are i bi by
I
f
i
l g h t er
2
T he
i e , l es s so l d n co l or
.

ord cl ef S d er ved
.

w ro m GL A V S
f
i
t h an t h e p r n t ed l ne s o f t h e s t a f t s el
I i a k ey f Ii
i
t h e re e ren ce e ng t o t h e
ac t t h at t h e cl e u n l o c ks o r m akes cl ear t h e m ean ng o f t h e s t af , as a key t o a p u le
i
f
f
fi f
bi
.

zz
b
ena les u s t o so l ve t h e p u z l e z .
6 M U SI C N O TA TI ON AND TE R M IN OL O GY

of the bass staff represen ts the first A bel ow middl e C , t h e

f ourth lin e the first F bel ow m iddl e C e t c ,
.

The stu d en t shou ld n o t e t h at these cl e fs are merely mo di

fie d forms o f the l etters G a nd F wh ic h (amon g others ) were ,

used to d es ignate the pit ches represe nte d b y c erta in l ines whe n
staff notatio n was first inaugurate d For a full er dis c uss ion .

o f this matter see Appe n d ix A p 1 0 1 ,

. .

1 6 Whe n the G cl e f is u sed t h e staff is usually re ferre d to

.
'

as the trebl e s taff and whe n the F cl e f is use d as the bass s l a 17

, ,
.

“
Su ch express io n s as S ing ing from the treb l e cl e f or s inging
” “
in the treb l e cl e f an d S in ging in the bass cl e f are still ire
,

q ue n t l y hear d but are pre f era bl

,
y rep l a c e d by S in gin g f rom
“
the trebl e sta ff and S in gin g from the bass sta ff
,
F ig 6 . .

shows the perma n en t names of lines and spa ces when the G
an d F cl e f s are use d
1
.

F ig . 6 .

7 1
fi
T he movabl e C cl ef E very c ommo n or formerly in
I
.
,

use is n ow ut iliz ed for onl y two purposes viz ( ) in music

, ,
.
,

written f or c erta in orchestral in strumen ts (c ell o viola e t c ) , ,

.

o f exte n d e d ra nge in or d er to avo id hav ing to use too ma ny

,

l eger lin es ; and (2 ) for in d ic at in g the te nor part in vo cal music .

This l atter usage seems al so to be disappearin g however an d ,

the tenor part is c ommonly written o n the treb le sta ff it being ,

u nd erstoo d that the ton es are to be su ng an o c tave l ower than

the n otes woul d in dic ate .

i
T h e G e rm an s u s e t h e sam e p t c h d es g na t o n s as we d o
1
i i t h t w o e x cep t o n s wi i
viz , o u r B is call ed
. t h em by , a
H
nd o u r B b is ca lled B T h e s cal e o f C t h ere o re read s
. f
C , D , E , F , G , A, , C ;
H
t h e s ca l e o f F read s F , G , A, B , C , D , E , F T h e s g n at u res i
I by
.

a re in a l l C as es wi
r t t e n e x ac t l as w e y
r t e t h em wi .

n F ran ce an d t al I yw
h ere t h e
“
x ed DO
”
fi y
s s t e m is in vo g ue , p t ch es are u s u all i y
f
re erred t o y b
t h e s l la l e na m es ; e g , C is re erred t o as D0 (o r
. . f T) , D as RE, et c U .
 C H AP T E R III
S YM B O L S OF M U S I C D EF IN ED (C ontinued )

The natural (sometimes ca ll e d cancel ) a nnul s the ch e e t

'
1
21 .

i
o f prev ous S harps flats d oub l e S harps an d d oub l e fl at s w ith in
—
, , ,
-

the measure in which it o ccurs A fter a d oubl e Sharp or .

-

d oub l e fl a t the c omb inat io n o f a n atura l w ith a sharp or a

-

n atura l with a flat is o f te n fou nd : in th is c ase o nl y o n e sharp

or flat is a nnulle d (Somet imes al so the S ingl e sharp or fl a t
.

will be f ou nd by itsel f ca nc elling the d oub l e sharp or d o ub l e ,

-

fia t ) The n atural is o fte n use d wh en a c ompos itio n Cha nges

.

key as in Fig 1 1 where a Cha n ge from E to G is Show n

,
.
,
.

F ig . i i .

The g roup of sharps or flats (or abse nc e of them ) at the

22 .

beginning of a sta ff part ia lly indic ates t h e key in wh ic h the

c ompos it io n 1 8 e tte n They are c alle d c o ll e c tively the key .

s ign atu re .

23
_The sa
.
me k ey s ig n ature may sta n d f o r e ither o n e o f
-

two k eys the major key o r it s rel at ive m inor h enc e in ord er
, , ,

to d eterm in e in what key a mel o dy is one must n ote whether

tonic LA . I
the ton es are groupe d about the majo rto n ic DO or the m inor
n a harmo n iz e d c ompos it io n it is a lmost a lways

possibl e to d eterm ine the key by re ferring to the l ast bass not e ;
if the fi nal C hord is cl early the DO chord the c ompos it io n I S n I
the major key but if this fi na l Chord is Cl early the LA chor d
,

then it is almost c erta in that the e ntire c omposition is in the

1
I
b
t h as al read
is call ed , and o u r s ca ll ed
yb
(p 6 , No t e) t h at in t h e Ge rm an Scale o ur b fla t
bi
e en n o t ed

H
.

i if
F ro m t h s d f e re nc e in t e rm no l o g h as g ro n u p
. i y w
-

t h e c ust o m o f us ng t h e i H h w
(no w m ad e ) t o s h o t h a t a ny s t afl d eg re e is in na t ural -

ii
cond t o n , i e , no t s h a rped o r fl at t ed
. . .
 S YMBOL S O F MU SI C DE F I NED 9

m in
-

or key Thus if a fi nal chor d appears as that in Fig 1 2

. .

the c ompositio n is cl early in G major whil e if it appears as in ,

Fig 1 3 it is just as surely in E m inor

.
,
.

F ig . 1 2 . F ig . 13 .

Sharps flats natural s d oubl e sharps

d oubl e fl at s an d

I
24
- -

.
, , , ,

oc c urring n the course o f the c omposition a f ter the key

s ignature ) are call ed accid entals whether they a c tua lly cause ,

a sta ff degree to repres e n t a diff e re n t p it ch as in F ig 1 4 or .

s imply make cl ear a n otation about wh ich there might other

wise be some d oubt as in Fig 1 5 measure two The effec t of .
, .

su ch a cc id ental s term in ates at the bar .

F ig . 14 . F ig . 15 .

2 5 . the cIasenO f a t i e a cros s a ba r an a cc id e n ta l rema in s

I
in f or ce u ntil the c omb in e d val ue o f th e t ie d n otes expires
n Fig 1 6 first measure th ir d beat an a ccid en ta l S harp makes
.
,

the th ir d spa ce represen t t h e p it ch C Sharp By virtue o f the

,

.
‘
.

t ie a c ross t h e bar the th ir d spa c e c o n tin ues to represe n t C Sharp

thruthe first beat o f the se c ond measure but for t he rema ind er ,

o f t h e measure the th ir d spa c e will r eprese n t C u nless the S harp

is repeate d as in Fig 1 7 . .

F ig . 1 6 . F ig . 1 7 .

26 The foll owing rules fo r mak ing sta ff d egrees represe n t

.

pitches d iff ere nt f rom those of the diato nic sc al e will be fou nd
u seful by the beginner in the study of music notation Th ese .
10 MU SI C NO TATI O N AN D TE R M INOLO GY

rul es are q uote d f rom The Worc ester Musical Man ual
'

Charl es I Ric e . .

1 . To sh a rp a n at u ral d eg ree , u s e a sh arp . Fig . 1 8 .

2 . To sh a rp a sh arp ed d eg ree , u se a b
d o u l e sh arp . Fig . 1 9 .

3 . T o sh arp a fl at t ed d eg ree , u se a nat ural . F ig . 20 .

4 . T o fl at a na t u ral d eg ree , u s e a flat F ig . . 21 .

5 . T o fl at a fl at t ed d eg re e , u se a d o u l e fl at b
F ig 2 2 . . .

6 . TO fla t a sh arped deg re e , us e a nat ural Fig 2 3 . . .

F ig . 1 8 . F ig . 19 . F ig . 20 .

F ig . 2 1 . F ig . 2 2 . F ig . 2 3 .

27 . W he n t w o di ff ere n t n otat io n s represe n t the same p it c h ,

the word enharmonic is app lie d Thus we may say that F .

S harp and G flat (o n keyboard instr ume nts at l east) are e n

harmonic al ly the same .

This word enharmonic is use d in su ch expressio n s as e nh ar

monic c hange enharmonic keys e nharmo nic in terva l e nh ar
, , ,

mo nic mo d ul at io n e nharmon ic rel atio n e t c and in al l su c h

, ,
.
,

c omb inat io n s it has the same mea n ing viz a Cha nge in ,
.

n otat io n but no Cha n ge in the p it c h represe n te d .

28 . A note is a Chara c ter express ing rel ative d urat io n ,

wh ich when p l a c e d on a sta ff indic ates that a c erta in ton e is to

be sou nde d fo r a c erta in rel at ive l e ngth of time The p it ch o f .

the ton e to be sou nde d is shown by the positio n of the note o n

the sta ff while t h e l ength o f time it is to be pro lo nged is S how n
,

by the S hape o f the note Thus e g a ha lf note o n the se c ond . . .

,
-

l ine o f the treb l e sta ff ind ic ates that a spe cifi c p itc h (g ) is to be
'

pl aye d o r su n g fo r a p e rl o d o f t ime twic e as lo ng as would be

ind ic ate d by a q uarter not e in the sa m e c ompos itio n -
.

29 . A rest is a Chara c ter which indicates a rhythm ic s ilenc e

o f a c erta in rel at ive l e ngth .
 S YM BOL S OF MU S I C D E F NED I 1 1

3 0 .
The notes and res ts in common u se are as foll ows
0

Wh ol e n o t e
-
. An ope n not e -
h ead wi t h t t m ou s e .

Half -
no t e . An ope n no t e -
h ea d wi t h t m s e .

Q u art er no t e -
. A closed no t e -
h d wi t h t m
ea s e .

Eigh t h -
no t e . A clo sed no t e -
h d wi t h t m a d
ea s e n o ne h ook .

Si x t eent h no t e . -
A cl o s ed no e t h d wi t h t m
-
ea s e and t w o h oo ks .

Th irt y -
se co nd no t e -
. A cl os ed no t e -
h ea d wi t h s t em t h ree h ooks.

Wh o l e res t .
-

Half -
res t .

h Q uart er res t -
.

4 E igh t h -
res t .

!
L Si x t een t h res t . -

L
L
J
Th rt i y -
s e co nd res t -
.

The English names fo r these notes are

M L

Wh ol e no t e
-
s em i -

b reve .

Hal f -
no t e m i nim .

cro t ch e t
Q uart er no t e -
.

Ei g h t h t -
no e q ua ver .

Si t t h n x een -
ot e s em —q uaver. i
Th i rt y -
s e co n d no t e -
d em i —s em iq
-
uave r .

The c orresponding rests are referre d to by the same system

o f n ome n cl ature : e g semi breve res t e t c . .
-

,
.

S i t f u t h an d one h und red and twen ty ei h th notes

—
3 2 x y o r g
- - -
- -

are o c casionally f oun d but are no t in common use The

m
, .

dou bl e wh o -
l e n ote (br e ve) ma
-
d e Ha
ll or is st ill use d , ,

especially in English music whi ch freq uen tly emp l oys the half ,

n ote as the beat u nit Thus in four half measure the breve
-
.
-

woul d be n ec essary to in di c ate a tone having f our beats .

T h w h ol e r es t has a pe c ul iarity o f usage no t c ommo n

33 e -

to any of the other duration symbol s viz that it is o ften ,

.
,

empl oyed as a measure rest fil ling an en tire measure of beats -

, ,

n o matter what the measure s ign ature may be Thus n o t -

.
,

onl y in f our quarter measure but in two q uarter three

- -

,
-

uarter S ix e ighth and other variet ies the whol e rest fill s t h e
q
- -

, , ,
1 2 MU S I C NOTATI ON AND TE R M I NOLO G Y

en tire measure havin g a val ue sometimes greater sometimes

, ,

l ess t ha n t h e c orrespon din g whol e n ote -

. B e c ause of thi s
pe c uliarity of usage the whol e re st is term e d T akt p au s a
- -

( measur e r e st-

) by the G e rma n s
.

3 4 A. b a r is a vert ic a l lin e a c ross the sta ff d i v i d in g it in to

measure s The word bar is o ften use d syn onymously with
.

“
measu re by or c hestral c o n du c tors an d oth e rs ; thus ,
b e g in at
t he f ourt ee n th bar a f ter J
”
. This use of the word a l though ,

popul ar 1 8 Inc orre c t

,
.

35 A. d ou b l e bar-

c o n s ists o f two vert ic a l lin e s a c ross the

staff at l east one of the two bein g a heavy lin e T h e d oubl e
,
.

bar mark s the en d of a di vision moveme n t or en t ire , ,

c omposit io n .
 C HAP TE R IV
AB B REVIAT IS SIS
ON ,
GN ,
ET C .

3 6 . A ( or
dou bl e bar S in g l e heavy bar ) w ith e ither two

I
or four d ots indicat e s that a s e c tion is to be repeate d
f t h e rep e at marks o c cur at o nly o n e po int t h e e n t ire p re
c e din g part is to be r epeate d but if the marks o ccur twic e
.

( the first t ime at the r ight o f t h e bar but t h e se c o n d t im e at

t h e l e f t) o nly the se c t io n thus e ncl ose d by the marks is to be
,

rep e ate d .

37 Som
. e t imes a diff er en t c a d e n c e (o r e n d in g ) is to be

use d fo r the rep e tition and this is indic ate d as in F ig 2 4

,
. .

F ig . 2

3 8 .The Latin wor d bis is o c casional ly use d to indic ate

that a c erta in passage or se ction is to be rep eate d This use .

is be c om in g obso l ete .

39 .The wor d s d a ca p o mea n l itera ll y f rom the

”
hea d i e repeat f rom t h e beginn ing T h e wor ds dal s egno
,
. .
, .

indic at e a r ep e t it ion from the S ign or QR) in stea d

I
O f f rom t h e b e ginn i g
n .

n the c as e o f both D C an d D S the word .

fi n e
.
(
literall y the end ) is ordinaril y use d to d es ign ate the p om t at
mea
. nin g

whi ch the repeate d se c tio n is to terminate The fermata m ) .

was form erly in c ommon use fo r thi s same purpo se , but is

sel d o m so em lo e d at pr es en t
p y .

13
1 4 MU SI C N O TAT I ON AND TE RM I NOL O GY
D C (s in ) at fine m eans
. . repeat
1
f ro m t he b gin i e n ng t o t he w o rd
“
fine .

D C at m m ean s
. . rep ea t t o t h e f e rm a t a (o r h ol d ) .

DC . . z
s en a repetit ione , or D C ma
. . z
s en a re etitio n e, p both m ea n repeat from t h e
beginning , b u t
DC e poi I
wi t h
a coda
out o b
m ea ns
i
se rv ng o t h e r rep e at

rep ea t the fi
m ark s d u r ng t h e
rst se ct o n o nl i
i
yt o
rep e t

t h e m ark
it i on .

i
t h en sk p

I
. .

t o th e cod a .
(Se e p 7 4, Sec
. . 1 5 7 , for dis cu ss i on o f coda ) .

40 erta in c ases where the repetition o f chara c teristic

. n c

figures c an be indi cate d without c aus in g c onf usion it is the ,

pra c tice of c omposers (espe ciall y in or chestra l music) to mak e

use o f certain signs of rep etition Some of the c ommon est of .

these abbreviation s are Shown in the f oll owing examp l es .

F ig . 2 5 . F ig . 2 6 .

W ritt e n W ritt e n

Pl y d
a e .

I n Fig . 28 the repetition o f an en tire measure is ca ll e d for .

The word s imil ie (sometimes s egue) indicates that a

41 .

c erta in e ff e c t previous l y begun is to be c o n t inue d as e g ,

. .
,

sta ccato pl ayin g pe dalli n g styl e of bowing in vio lin music , , ,

et c .The word segue is al so o c cas ionally used to S how that an

a ccompanimen t figure (espe c iall y in orchestral music) is to
be c o n tinue d .
0

4 2 W h e n s om
.e p ar t i s to res t f or tw o or more meas u res

several me t ho ds of n o t ation are possibl e A rest o f two

I
.

measures is usuall y in dic ate d thus Thr ee measures thus

I
II
3 4
‘
Rests of m ore tha n
“
: Four measures thus E .

w i
T h e o rd s in is a Co n t rac t o n o f t h e t al an o rd s ino , m ea n ng as far a s o r
1 I i w i
un t il i b
in t h e t e rm g ven a o ve (Se e 3 9 ) it is reall s upe r uo u s as t h e ord al in . y fl w
s in t sel
cl ud e i fb
o t h p repo s t on an d art cl e , m ean ng
“
ii
t o th e
”
i i .
 6 M U S I C N OTAT IO N AND TE R M I N O L O G Y
'

the O c tave are ref erred t oby mean s of a u niform n omencl ature .

The f oll owing figure will make thi s system cle ar

F ig 2 9
h
. .

T re e

h
T is n o t e an d
a ll b l w i
e o t a re
sa id b i
to e n the C on t ra
Su b O -
c t ave . O ct ave .

c B c I‘
; c b
'

C1 b1 c2 b2 c3 bi! c bi

Thus e g g reat G (wr itte n S m. l

p y G ).is the G re p re I ,

sen te d by the first l in e of the bass sta ff Small A (written a) .

,

is r epres en te d by the fif th lin e o f the bass sta ff Two l ined .

-

G (written g) , 1 5 represen ted by the spac e above the fif th

,

lin e treb l e sta ff

,
Three lin e d C , (written C) is represe n te d
.
-

by the se c ond a dd e d l in e above the treb l e sta ff e t c T h e ,

.

one l ined octave may be d es c r ibe d as the o c tave f rom m iddl e C

-

to the B represen te d by the thi rd lin e of the trebl e sta ff and ,

“
any to n e wi th in that o c ta ve is re f erre d to as o n e lin e d -

Thus one l ined D one l ined G e t c

I
- -
.
, ,

n ci n t ifi w k n c t i cs t t h p i t ch in t h b t v ( b nt
s e c or s o a o us e c e es e su oc a e or su co ra
-

.
, ,

oct av it i f t n
e as ll d ) e f d t o as C D E t ; t h in t h n t
s o e ca e ar t v
re e rre 2, 2, 2, e c . o se e co ra o c a e
” ”
e t c ; in t h e sm al l oc t ave as C , d , e t c
1
as C 1 , D 1 , e t c ; in t h e g re at
. oc t a ve , as C
1
,
d ,
. .
 C HAPTE R V
AB B REVIAT IO N S S IGN S , ,
ET C .
, (Continued)
49 . A dot af ter a
shows that t h e va l ue o f th e n ote note is to
be half aga in as great as it woul d be without the d o t i e ,
. .
,
the
val ue is to be three halves that of the original n ote -

g n a w t a
u
5 0When two dots foll ow the note t h e se c ond d ot add s hal f
.

as mu ch as the first d o t has a dd e d i e the en tire value is ,

. .
,

seven fourths that of the original note

-

A =
Au v
J .

5 W 1 h en t.hree d ot s f ol l ow t h e note the thir d d o t a dd s o n e

half the value a d de d by the sec ond i e the e ntire val ue o f ,

. .
,

the tripl e d otte d n ote is fift een eighths that of the original
- -

n ote .

! N
a A A/at !
V
"

5 2 . A dot over or u nd er a n ote is

all e d the staccato mark
c

I
an d in d icates that the to ne is to be soun d ed and th en in stan tly
rel eased .

E n music fo r organ an d for some

other i n struments the sta ccato n ote is somet imes interpre ted
diff eren tly this d epe nd ing o n t h e Chara c ter O f the in strume n t
, .

O n t i ng d i n t m t
s r f t h vi l i n f m i l y t h
e s ru t
en s o t ff t i e lly o ed a e s a cca o e ec s u s ua s ec u r

by l g pi d t k f t h b w f
a on ,
ra h ts ro ; in t h
e o fh p
e o d d r m t h h nd
or ea c one e ca se o ar an u e a

i q i kl y b
s u c g h t in c t t wi t h t h vib t i g b d y t h
ro u o n ac t pp i g t h t n i te t lyra n o ,
us s o n e o e ns an .

O n th th t
e o r an
g i ft n p l ng ed t e o ne h lf t h v l
s o ef th p i t d n te
ro o o o ne -
a e a ue o e r n e o

b f th k y
e o re l
e d e s a re re ease .

w
.

53 p
. ed T he ed ge s ha -
dash over the note (sta cc at iss imo )
was forme rly empl oyed to indicat e a ton e still more d eta ched
I
7
1 8 M U S I C N OTATI O N AND TE R M I N O L O GY

th an that indi cate d by the dot but this sign is really super .

fl uou s , an d is sel d om use d at presen t .

54 . A tie is a c urve d lin e c onn e c tin g the h e a d s o f two

otes n

that c al l fo r the Same ton e It in di c ates that but on e to ne is to .

be soun d e d th is to n e hav in g a durat ion eq ual t o the comb ined

,

val ue of both n otes E g a half n ote tie d t o a q uarter n ote . . .

-
-

woul d indicat e a ton e e q ual in d uratio n l en gth to that shownby

'

a d otte d hal f n ote ; two half n otes tie d woul d indi cate a ton e
- -

e qual in d uration to that shown by a whol e n ote (See ex -

ampl es u n d er Sec tions 49 5 0 and , ,

Fig 3 0 ill ustrates the more c ommon variety of t ie whil e

.
,

Fig 3 1 S hows an examp l e o f the enharm onic tie

.
1
.

F ig . 3 0 . F ig . 3 1 .

55 T he s l u r
. i s use d i n s o ma n y di ffere n t ways that it is

impossib l e to give a ge n eral d efini t ion It c on sists of a c urve d .

lin e sometimes very S hort (in whi ch c ase it l ooks like the t ie )
, ,

but sometimes very l o ng c o nn e c ting t en fif teen or more , , ,

n otes Some of the more c ommon uses of the s l u r are

.

A T o indicate l egato (susta ined or c onne c te d) tones as

.
,

c o n traste d with sta cc ato (d eta c he d) o n es

I
.

n v i lin m i t h i i mp l i p l yin g ll t
o us c ths l d in n h w ; in m i
es a a on e s us s urre o e o us c

f t h v i and f wi nd i n t m t it i m p l i
or e o ce or i g i g p l yi g t h m i
s ru b th
en s es s n n or a n e n on e re a .

B As a p hrase mark in the in terpretatio n of whi c h the

.
-

fir st ton e o f the phrase is o f ten a cc e n te d slightly an d the l ast ,

o ne shorte n e d in va l ue .

Th i i n t p t t i n f t h ph
s i
er re a p i ll y mm n wh
o o t h ph
e i h t ( in
rase s es ec a co o en e ras e s s or as

th t w n t ph
e o -

) d wh n t h t
o e rase t i t t i g t h ph
, an f h t du t i n
e e o n es co n s u n e rase are o s or ra o ,

e g ,
. t h
.
p h gei v n in F ig 3 w
ras eld b p l y e d pp i m t l y .w ri t t
2 n in Fig 33
ou e a e a ro x a e as e . .

F ig . 3 2 . F ig . 3 3 .

1 For d efin t ii o n o f enh arm o n c see i p . 1 0, Se c . 2 7.

 ABB R EVIATI ON S SI GN S , ,
ET C . 1 9

B ut ii t h e
'

no t es are o f g rea t er val ue , es p e c al l i y in sl o w t em p i th

, e sl ur m erel y
i di
n ca t es l eg at o , i . e .
, su st a n ed i o r co nn ect ed ren di t i on . Fig .
34 i ll u t
s rat es such a

case .

F ig . 3 4 .

Thi s is a mat t er o f su ch d iv e rs e u sag e t h at it is d iff 1 cu l t t o g en eral

, iz e reg ard ng i it .

T h e t en d en c y s e em s at p res e n t t o b e in t h e d i i
re ct o n o f u s ng i the s l ur (in instru men tal
music ) as a p hras e m ark
-
e x cl u s vel i y it bi e ng u n d e rs t o o d t h at u nl es s t h ere is so m e

I
,

d i i
re c t o n t o t he co n t rar y ,
t h e t o n es a re t o b e p er f o rm e d in a co nn e ct ed m an ner .

C n vo cal music to Show that two

.
,
or more tones are to
be sung to one syll ab l e of text See F ig . .
35 .

F ig . 3 5 . M E N D E L S S O H N (S P a u l ) .

m em b e rs H is ch il

dica t ed
Iby
n not es o f s m all

s trokin g the
d e no m
s t em s
i i
n at o n

t o g e t h er
(ei g h t h s
as
and s m al l e r

in Fig 3 6 . . Th i s
) th i s sam e

ca n o n l yb
i
t h ng is o t en in
e do ne in
f
ca se s

wh ere t h e nat u ral g ro up ng of no t e s in t h e m ea surei will no t be d e s t y ro ed .

F ig . 3 6 .

er an d cv e r, fo r er an d

To mark spe cial n ote groups (tripl e ts

D . in whic h -

c ase the s l ur is a cc ompani e d by a figure indic at ing the number

o f n otes in the group See Fig 3 7 (a) . . .

Th m t mm n f t h
e i g los t g
co p i t h toip l t w h
o i h n i t f
ese rre u ar n o e -
ro u s s e r e ,
c co s s s o

th
o

rs
n t
ree

e
t

fi t t w f th th
b p f m d i t h t im
o es

S m t i m t h t ip l t
o o t
es
o

i t f ly t w ote

e
di
r

mp i g t h t i p l t
i ly g i v t t w f t h m v l
e er o r

in F ig 3 7 (b)
e co ns s s o
n

id d t b t i d
ree n o es co
h
e

th
n

on

os n
e e or

o n

e r
nar

e s as

e
'

are co n s
en

.
o

ere
o o

o
I e
suc
e sa

e .
e

a case
a ue

e
.

F ig . 3 7 .
 20 M U S I C N OTATI O N AND TE R M IN OL O G Y

Wh en i
th e t r plet form i s perf ect ly ob vi o us , t h e Fig 3 .
(as w el l as t h e sl ur) m ay be
o mit t ed .

O t h er exam p l es of i rreg ul ar not e -

g ro up s , t og et h er wi th t h e n am es comm onl y
ap p l ed ,i f
o ll o w .

Q uin t u p l e t x p
Se t u l e t S e pt o l e t
or or or

Q u in t o l e t S x l
e to et Se p im
t ole

The combination of slur or tie a nd d ots over the n otes

5 6 .

indic ates that the to n es are to be somewhat d eta che d but not ,

S harply so .

Th i s eff ec t is so m e t im es erro n eo u s l y t e rm ed portamento (lit . carrying ) but

, t his
t erm is m o re p rop e rl y res erv e d for an e n t rel i y d iff t ff ere n e e ct ,
viz .
,
wh en a s ing er, o r

p la y i
e r o n a s t r ng e d in s t ru m e nt , p asses f m h igh t t
ro a one o a lo w on e (or i
V ce vers a )
t ouc h i ng l ig h t l y o n so m e o r al l o f the d i t ni t b tw t h e t wo m el o dy t

I
a o c o nes e ee n o nes .

57 The . hor iz o n ta l das h ov e r a n ote in d ic ates that the .

ton e is to be Slightly a c cen te d and sustain ed T his mark is ,

.

a l so sometimes used a f ter a sta cc ato passage to S how that the

ton es are n o l onger to be performe d in d eta ched fashi o n but ,

are to be sustaine d Thi s l atter use is espe cially commo n in .

music for stringe d in strumen ts .

5 8 T he
. c omb in atio n o f das h and dot over a n ote in di

c ates that the to n e is to be S l ight ly a cc e n te d and s e parat e d

f rom it s n e ighbor in g t o n es .

59 A cce
. n t m arks a re ma d e in a var iety o f f ash io n s The .

most c ommo n forms f o ll ow A sf f z All in dic ate that a c er . .

ta in ton e or Chor d is to be diff eren tiate d from it s n eighborin g

I
ton es or Chord s by re c eiving a c ertain rel ative amou n t of stress .

60 n mus ic f o r keyboar d in strumen ts it is sometimes

.

n e c essa ry to indic ate that a c erta in part is to be p l aye d by a

c erta in ha n d The abbreviatio n s r h (right ha nd) m d

. . .
,
. .

( ma n o d estra a n d m d (ma
,
in d ro ite F d es ign ate that
. .
,

a passage or to ne is to be p l aye d with the right han d whil e ,

l.h .
(le f t ha n d ) m s (ma n o S in i
,
stra It )
. a n d
.
m g (ma in ,
. .

au c he F L ) S how that the l e f t ha nd is to be emp l oye d

g
.

, ,
 ABB RE VI ATI ON S S I GN S E T C , ,
. 21

6 1 . T he wavy line pl aced vertically beside a ch ord

indic ates that the tones are to be sound ed c on se cut ively in

ste a d oi Simul tan eously b eginning with the l owest to n e a , ,

ton es being sustain ed un til the duratio n value o f the chor d has -

exp ire d Thi s is c all ed arp eggio p laying When the wavy
. .

lin e exte n d s through the e n tir e c hor d (c overing both sta ff s ) as

in Fig 3 8 al l t h e to n es of the chor d are to be p l aye d on e a f ter
.
,

an oth e r begin ning with the l owest : but if there is a separate

,

wavy lin e fo r ea ch staff as at F ig 3 9 then t h e l owest ton e .

r epresen te d o n the upp e r sta ff i s t o be pl aye d S imu l taneously

with the l owest to n e represen ted on t h e bass staff .

F ig . 8 8 . F ig . 3 9 .

W ri tt e n Pl y d
a e

T he w o rd arp egg o i I t l i w d p (m n
(p l ural a rp eg g i) i
s a i
d e r va t i on o f the a an or ar a ea ;

ing h p )
ar d f m thi w d
,
an p ro d it p s di g v b
or p g gi
ar a an (t p l y n s co rre s on n er ar e are o a o

th h p)
e ar d i d l are mb f th
er ve t m mm nl y
a so a n u d i i t m t l
er o o er er s co o use n n s ru en a

m ius c . Am g t h p gg i m t
on p ggi
es e a re d p gg i t
ar et ll f t h
a e n o , ar e an o , ar e a o, e c .
,
a o ese

t m
er f i g t h p tyl f p f m
s re err n o a arth t b i g nd d
s eo ft
er o r than ce , e o n es e n so u e o ne a er ano er

i
n ra p i d i i t d f i m
s u ccess onl t l y
n s ea th pi o s u aneo u s as o n e ano .

The Sign
62 . ov e r a not e in di c at e s that t h e to ne

I
is t o be begun so f tly gra dually in c r e as e d in power and as , ,

gra duall y d ec reas ed aga in endi ng as so f tly as it bega n n , .

63
‘
. I
vo cal music this eff ec t is call e d mess a di voce
n music f o r strin ge d in strume n ts o f the Violin f a m

the Sign l l indi c ates down bo w an d t h e S ig n v u p bow

il y
-
.

-
,

.
 SA
V I
E MB E LL S HM E NT S I
64 Embell ishments( ) ) are o a (F agremen ts
’

. or rn graces r .

men tal to nes either represen te d in f ull in the s c ore or indi

,

ca t e d by c ert ain s igns The f oll owing are the e mbellishmen ts

.

most c ommonly f ou nd : Trill (or shak e) mord en t inverted ,

, ,

mord e n t (or prall trill ) turn (gruppetto ) inverte d turn , , ,

appoggiatura and a c c ia c c atura .

Usage varies greatly in the in t e rpre tatio n O f the S ign s

represe n ting these embelli shme n ts and it is impossib l e to give
examp l es of all the diff eren t f orms The foll owing d efini tion s .

represen t theref ore onl y the most c ommonly f oun d exampl es

an d the most ge n erall y a c c epte d in terpretatio n s .

6 5 The trill (or s ha ke) c on s ists o f t h e rap id a l t e r n at io n o f

. .

two to n es to the f ull val ue of the prin te d n ote The l ower o f .

these two to n es is represen te d by the prin te d n ote w hil e the ,

upper o n e is the n ext higher to n e in t h e diatonic s c al e o f the ,

key in which the c ompositio n is written The in terval betwee n .

the two to nes may theref ore be eith e r a half step or a who le -

step .

Wh t h t h t i ll i t b g in wi t h t h p i i p l t n ( p nt d by t h p i t d
e er e r s o e e r nc a o e re res e e e r n e

n t )
o e wi t h t h n b v i m t t f m d i p t m g t h i t nd p f m
or e o e a o e s a a er o so e s u e a on eo r s s a er or e rs ,

b t it m y
u f ly b i d t h t t h m j i t y f m d n w i t
a sa e e sa a n th e bj t w l d
a or o o er r e rs o e su ec ou

h v it beg i n n t h p i i p l t n b v F ig 4 ‘
a e o e th thr ncn th t
a o e ra er an o e on e a o e . . 0 .

Wh n t h p i n ip l n t i p d d by m ll n t
e e r c a o e s th d g b v it i f
re c e e a s a o e on e e re e a o e, s o

course u nd t d t h t t h t i ll b g i
ers oo an th t e b v Fig 4
r e ns o e one a o e . . 1 .

The tril l is in dicate d by the Sign t r m w m m

F ig . 40 .

W ritt e n Pl y d
a e
24 MU S I C NOTAT I ON AN D TE R M I N OLO G Y
F ig . 44 .

T he f i
co n u s o n a t p re s e nt at t e nd ng i the i n t erp re t at on o fi t h e l as t t w o em b ll i
e sh

m ent s d es cr ib d m i g h t b
e ,
e l arg el y b vi
o at ed if the i
s ugg es t o n o f a re ce n t w it
r er
1
to c al l

the on e t he u pward mordent , and t h e o t h er t h e downward mordent w ere t o be i

u n v ers all y
ad op t ed .

69 The turn c o n sists of four to n es ; first the d ia to nic

.
,

s c al e to n e above the princip al to n e ; se c o n d the principal

-

to n e itse lf th ird the to n e bel ow the prin cipal to n e ; and

,

f ourth the prin cipal to n e aga in

,
.

When the Sign o r N ) o c curs over a n ote o f sma ll va l ue

in rap id tempo (Fig 4 5 ) the turn c o n sists o f f our to n es o f .

e q ual val ue ; but if it o cc urs Over a n ote of greater va l ue or ,

in a s l ow tempo the to n es are usua lly p l aye d q u ick ly (lik e

,

the mor d en t) and the f ourth to ne is the n hel d u n til the t ime
,

val ue of the note has expire d (Fig . .

F ig 45 . . F ig .46
(a ) A ll eg r o b A d a g io
W ritt e n Pl y d
a e W rit t e n Pl y d
a e

7 0 . When pl aced a littl e t o the right of the

the tu rn -

s ign is
n ote the prin cipal to n e is sou n d e d first an d he ld to a l most it s

f ull t ime val ue the n the turn is p l aye d just be f ore the n ext
I
-

to ne of the mel o dy n th is c ase the f our to n es are o f e q ua l

.

l ength as in the first examp l e ( See F ig . .

F ig . 47
Pl y d
.

W rit t e n a e

T h e st ud en t s h o uld no t e theb twi

d ff eren ce e e en t h es e t wo f
ef ec t s ; in t h e ca s e o f a

t urn over t h e no t e t h e t urn m

co t th b gi i g
es a e e nn n ,
b u t in t h e cas e o f the ig
S n a f t er t h e
no t e t h e t urn co m e s a t the v y
er d B t i b th
en . u n o cas es the t im e t ake n by t h e efh bel

1 E lson D ct i i onar y of M usi c , art cl ei mordent .

 EMBELL I S HMENT S 2 5

l ishm en t is t ak en fro m i
t h e t m e val ue -
of i i
t h e p r n c p al no t e . Fo r f ur t h e r d e t a ls i see

Gro ve
’
s i i
D ct o nar y of M us i c and M ii us c ans , Vol . V , p . 1 84 . Al so E l so n ,
O p . Cit .

p 2 74

7Sometimes an a c cid e n tal o ccurs with the turn and

1 .
,

in this c ase whe n writte n above the sign it re f e rs to the highest

tone of the turn but w h en w rit t en bel ow to t h e l owest (Fig
, ,
.

Pl y d
a e

7 2 . I
the inverted turn the ord er of ton es is reverse d the
n

l owest o ne c o m in g first the prin cipal to n e n ext the highest

,

, ,

tone third and the prin cipal to ne aga in last

, ,
.

F ig . 49 .

W rit t e n Pl y d
a e

73 T he
. a pp o ggi a tu ra (lit l ea n i n g n ote) c o n s ists o f a n .

orn amen tal to n e in tro du ce d before a ton e o f a mel o dy thus ,

d e l aying the mel o dy to n e u n til t h e orn amen tal to n e has bee n

heard T h e t im. e taken for thi s orn amen tal ton e is taken
f rom that o f the mel o dy to n e .

Th p p gg i t
e a w
o f m l y l ifi d i t l g pp ggi t
a ura as or d h t pp g
er c ass e n o on a o a ura an s or a o

gi t b t m d
a ura , u w it o m t
ern ri d t h t m h t pp gg i t
e rs s ee t b
o co ns er e er
“
s or a o a ura o e

sy ym wi t h i t
no n ous d t v id
ac c a cca u ra f i t h w d i t wi ll b
1
,
an o a o c o n us on e or acc acca ura e

u sed i t hi
n d d fi d
s s en se , a n d it w he di g
ne un er s o n ea n .

Three rul es for the in terpretatio n o f the appoggiatura

74 .

are commo nly Cited via : ,

(1 ) W he n it is poss ib l e to div id e the pr in c ipa l to n e

in to hal ve s th en t h e appoggiatura re ce iv e s o n e half
,
-

t h e val ue o f t h e prin te d n ote ( g

F i

I
. .

1
i
m u s c t h e a cc ia c ca t u ra is s t l l t aken t o m ean t h a t t h e em
n o rg an i b lli h i g
e s n
y
t on e and t h e m el o d t o ne a re t o b e so u nd e d t o g e t h e r, t h e o rm e r e ng t h e n f bi i t t ly
ns an
rel eased , w
h i l e t h e l at t e r is h el d t o it s ul l t m e val ue f i -
.
26 MU SI C N OTATI O N AND TE R M I NOLO GY

() Whe
2 n the pr in c ipal ote is d otted (divisio n in to n

hal ves bei ng therefore n o t possib l e) the appoggiatura ,

re c eives two third s of the val ue (Fig -

. .

(3 ) W he n the prin c ipa l n ote is t ie d to a n ote o f sma ll er

d en ominatio n the appogg iatura re c e ives the va l ue
'

o f the first o f the two n otes ( g

F i . .

F ig . 5 i
Pl y d a e W ri tt e n

F ig . 5 2 .

W rit t en Pl y d
a e

75 T he acci
. accat u ra (or S hort appoggiatura ) is w ritte n

like the appoggiatura ex c ept that it has a l ight stroke a c ross

it s stem . It has no d efinite d uratio n -

value but ,

is sou nd e d as q u ickl y as possib l e takin g it s time f rom that o f ,

the prin cipal to n e The appoggiatura is al ways a cc e n te d .

,

but the a ccia cc atura n ever is the stress always f alling o n the ,

mel o dy to n e (See Grove O p cit Vol I p .

,
. . .
,
.

Th e u se o f m b ll i h m n t i
e n th
e wn
s d th
e t d
s ts o f t d y n d t he
e a e , an e s u en o o -
a ee s

I
a b v i nf m t i n nl y t id him i t h i nt p t t i f m i w i t t n in p vi
o e or a o o o a n e e r re a on o us c r e re o us

ce nt iur es . th n ly d y f i t m nt l m i it w
e e ar a s on n s ru y t i nt d e a us c as ece s sar o ro uc e

g f
rac e s o ll a t b
so r s t h i t m n t
eca u s e in w ne t p b l
n s ru f e t i n isng t n u se e re o ca a e o s us a o e

for a ny l ng t h
e f t i m ; b t wi t h t h
o dv t f t h m d
e u p i n wi t h ite a mp
en t i v ly
o e o e rn a o s co ara e

g t
rea t
sus a i n i ng p w nd l o wi t h t h
e r, ad v n t in v a sol m i f n w t y
e a l f i n e
g o ca us c o a e s e o s

ing (G m n L i d r i ng i ng
er a e nt
e t d wi t h I t l i n
s l
as co t i ng i ng ) n m nt l
ras e a a co o ra u ra s ,
or a e a

t nes w
o u d l
e re send l nd w h n f
e ss a nd n w
es s , a us u ll y wri t t n o ut in f ll in t h
e ou o are a e u e

sc orein t d f b i ng i ndi t ed by sig n

s ea o e ca s .
 CHAP TE R V I
I
S CA LE S

7 6 . A s cal e (
a Latin word mea nin g l add er;
f rom s cal a ,

Ger T ou l eiter) is an as c e n d ing o r d e sc ending series of to n e s

.
—
,

progressing a cc or d in g to som e d efini t e system and all b e ar ,

ing (in t h e c as e o f to n al ity s c a l e s at l east ) a very in timat e

r el ation to the first ton e t h e key t on e or t on ic (See p 2 8 -
. .
,

Sec 7 8 ; al so n ote 1 at bottom o f p

. .

M an y d iff e rent kin d s o f s cal es h ave i

ex s t ed in va r o u s i m us i cal e ras , t h e po n t i of

res e m bl an ce am o ng t h em al l bi e ng th e f act t h at t h e yh a ve al l m o re or l ess re cog n iz ed

th e oct ave a s t h e n a t u ral i i

l m t of the se r es i . T he d i ff eren c e am o n g t h e va r o u s i s cal es

h as b ee n in the i i t
s el e c t o n o f n e rval s b tw e ee n the scal e -
t o n es , a n d , co nseq u e n t l y , in
b wi t h i t h Th us j i
l

th e n um er of t o n es n e o c t ave . e .
g .
,
in our ma o r s cal e t he n t e rval s

b tw
e e en t h e t o n es a re a ll w h l o e s t ep s e x cep t
-

(wh i h h t p )
t wo d th lt c a re a lf-
s e s ,
an e res u

is a s cal e o f ei g ht t o n es (i l di
nc u g i
n t h i n m b b t h t h k y t
s nu d iter t ) o e e -
o n e an s o c a ve

bu t in t h e so call ed
-

pentatonic l f th Chi
s ca e o d the ld i ili z t i w
nes e an o er o er c v a o ns e

find l arg e r i n t e rv al s t he s et p d -
h l f)
an -
d
a -

qa t ly ,
m ll
an mb f co n se u en a s a e r nu er o

t o n es wi t h i t h t n e o c av e . Th u s i thn l w
e s ca e u
p h i h m y f t hon l d S t h f lk c an o e o er co c o

s o n g s a re b d th i t as e e n e rval s are arra n g d f ll w

e as o o s

wh l wh o e o le s t ep - an d
1 2 5 a h al f 6
st e p s t ep
-

T he res u l t is a s c a l e o f Six t o n es , co rre sp o nd ng i ap p ro x im at e l y wi t h C — D— E

G —
A— C in o ur m od e rn s y s t em .

T h e t erm pent ato n ic is t h u s se e n t o b e a m sno m e r s n ce t h e s x t h t o n e is ne c ess ar i i i y

fo r i i j
t h e co m p l e t o n o f t h e s e r es , u s t as t h e e g h t h t o ne is es se n t al in o u r d a t o n c i i i i
scal es .

T he f ol lo wi ng Ch i ne s e t u ne (C l lled Jas m i n e is b as e d on t h e p e nt at o n i c sc al e .
2 8 M U S I C N O TA T I O N AND T E R M IN OLO G Y

77 . I nstu dying the th e ory of the s cal e the stu d e n t Sho ul d

bear in mind the f a c t that a s c a l e is n o t an arb itrary s eries of
to n es whi c h som e on e has in ven te d and wh ic h others are ,

r e q u ire d to make u se o f It is rath e r the resul t o f a cc ustomin g .

the ear to c ertain mel o dic c omb in ation s (wh ich w e re origin ally
h it upo n by a c cid en t ) an d fin ally an al yz in g an d systemat iz ing ,

these c omb in ation s in to a c ertain d efi nite or d er o r arran g e

me n t The app lic ation of this id ea may be verifie d wh en it is
.

r e call e d that most primi tive peop l es have inven t e d mel o di e s

o f some Sort but that o nl y in mo d er n t imes an d part ic ul ar l y
, ,

sin c e the d e vel opmen t of in strum en tal music have these ,

mel o die s b een an alyz e d an d t h e s c al e upon wh ich they have ,

been base d d is c overed t h e inven tors o f the mel o dies bein g

, ,

themsel ves who lly ign ora n t of t h e existen c e O f su ch s c al es .

7 8 A k.ey is a n umber o f to n es group in g thems e l ves n at

u rally ( both mel o d ic ally an d harm onically) about a c e n tral

to n e the key to n e T h e wor d tonality is o f ten use d sy nony .

m ou sly with key in this s e n s e .

T h d i ff e b t w k y d l i t h f t h i t h t wh il b t h k y d
eren ce e ee n e an s ca e s e re o re s, a e o e an

s ca l e mp l y t h
e m t n m t i l by k y w m n t h m t i l i g
o e sa e o e a er a l wi t h t ,
e e ea e a er a n en e ra ,
ou

a ny p

b t n w
u
ti
ar

o
l d
ng d i nt a rra
ng m

g l
t in m i n d whil by
cu ar o r e r or a rra

e n d i ng d nding
o a re
l w m
i
th
t h
e m t n
ld b n t d
u ar asce
en

or
,

esc e
e s ca e

s e r es
e

. I
ean

S ou
e sa e

e
o

o e
es ,

in t h i s nn ti n
co l th t n t
ec ll o l a so
p nt n q a ll y g d pp t ni t y f
o a s ca es re se a e ua oo o or u o

h vi g t h i t
a n d
e r b i f t li t y k y f li g n it h t h h m t i
o n es u s e as a as s or on a or e -

ee n : e er e c ro a c

n or t h wh l
e t p l p o e s e
-
th n y h t i t i cs f b i g d t n l
s ca e o s s es s e ec e ss a r c ara c er s or e n u se as o a

it y l i n th
s ca es m th t m j
e sa nd m i n
e s en se l d a our a or a o r s ca e s a re so u s e .

There are th n l cl as s s of scal es e xta n t at the

79 . re e g e era e

presen t tim e Viz (1 ) D iato nic ; (2 ) Chromatic ; (3 ) Whol e

,

to ne 1
.

8 0 T he w or d diatonic mea n s
. through the to n es
through the to n es O f the key) an d is app lie d to both major
an d m in or s c al es o f o u r mo d er n to n a lity system n ge n era l
,

. I
a d iato nic s c a l e may be d efi n e d as o n e wh ich pro cee d s by hal f
steps an d whol e steps There is however on e ex c eptio n to -
.
, ,

1 If t i t ly l g i
s r c o cal t e rm i n o l og yi s to he in i s s t e d upo n the wh ol e -
t on e s cal e sh o ul d
be call ed th ewh l
“
o e s t ep
-
”
s cal e .
 S CALE S 29

this prin cip l e viz in t h e progressio n six to seve n in the har

,
.
,

mo nic min or s c al e whi c h is of c ours e a step an d a half (See ,

- - -

p 3 3 Se c
.
,
.

81 A major diatonic scal e is o n e in whi c h the in terva l s

.

between the to n es are arran ge d as f oll ows

wh l wh l o eh lf wh l wh l o e a o e o e
1 2 3 4 5

I
s t ep s t ep s t ep s t ep s t ep

othe r word s a major diato n ic sc al e is o n e in whi c h t h e

n ,

in terva l s b e tw een thr ee an d f our an d b e tw een s e v en an d eight ,

a re ha lf st eps a ll t h e oth e rs b ein g who l e st eps

-

,
A c omposi -

.
~

tion bas ed o n this s cal e is said t o be writt en in t h e major mo d e ,

o r in a major k ey T h e major d iato nic s c al e may b e gin on

.

any o n e o f t h e tw el v e p it c h e s C C it o r D b D D # o r Eb E F , , , , , ,

F it o r G 7 G Gil o r Ab A At; o r B i) B but in e a ch c as e it is

, , , , , ,

t h e sam e s c al e be c aus e t h e in t e rva l s b e tw ee n it s to n e s are the

same We hav e th en o n e major s c al e only but this s ca l e may
.
,

be written in many d ifferen t position s an d may b e sun g or ,

playe d b egin n in g o n any o n e o f a n umb e r o f d iffe re n t pitch e s .

8 2 It is in t e r e stin g to n ot e that t h e major s c a l e c o n s ists

.

o f two id e n t ic a l se r ie s o f f our to n e s ea c h ; i e t h e first f our . .

,

to ne s of the s c al e are separat e d from one an oth e r by exa c tly

t h e same in t e rval s an d th e s e in t e rval s app e ar in exa c tly the
same ord er as in the case of t h e l ast four ton e s O f t h e s c al e .

F ig 5 3 will make th is Cl e ar
. T h e first f our to n e s o f any d ia .

tonic S c al e (major o r m in or) are o f t en refe rre d to as t h e l ower

t etrachord an d t h e upp e r f our to n e s as the u pp er tetrach ord
1
.

F ig . 5 3 .

Lo w er T e t rac h o rd U pp er T e t rac h dor

T he 1
w
o rd t et rachord m ea n s l t e ral l i
o u r s t r ng s y f
a n d re e rs t o t h e p r m t ve i f i ii
ins t ru m e n t , t h e o u r s t r ng s o f f h ch i w i w
ere s o t u n e d t h at t h e l o es t a n d t h e h g h es t w i
t ones p ro d u ced w
e re a p e r e c t o u rt h a p art f f Wi
t h t h e Gre e ks t h e t e t rach o rd w as t h e
.

i yi
u n t o f a n al s s a s t h e o c t av e is wi
t h u s t o d ay , an d all Gre ek s cal es a re cap a l e o f
-
b
i ii i
d v s o n n t o t w o t e t rach o rd s , t h e arran g e m e n t o f t h e nt erval s e t e e n t h e t o n es in i b w
if i i f
ea ch t e t ra ch o rd d f e re n t a t n g o n e s cal e ro m an o t h e r, b u t t h e t e t ra ch o rd s t h e m s e l ves
wy i i
al a s co ns s t ng o f g ro u p s o f o u r t o n e s , t h e h g h es t f i
e ng a pe r e c t o u rt h a o ve t h e bi f f b
l w t
o es .
3 0 MU SI C NO TATI O N AND TE R M IN OLO G Y

It is in terest in g f urther
to n ote that the upper tetrac hord
of any s ha rp s c a l e is a lways use d without Cha n ge as the l ow e r
tetra c hord of the n ext major s cal e invol ving sharps whil e the ,

l ower tetra c hor d o f any f l at s c a l e is use d as the upper tetra

c hor d O i t h e n ext flat s c a l e Se e F igs 5 4 an d 5 5 . . .

F ig 5 4 . .

pp
U e r T e t rac h df
or ro m Sca l e of C N e w T e t ra c h d
or t o co m pl et e Sca l e of G

F ig . 5 5 .

Lo w er T e t rac h df
or ro m Scal e of C N e w T e t ra c h d
or t o c om pl et e Sca l e of F

83From the stan dpoin t of sta ff n otatio n the major s c a l e

.

may b e written in fif t ee n diffe ren t position s as foll ows ,

C N h p fl , o s ar s o r at s
y e -
no t e

G, O ne S h ar p

D, T wo S h a rp s

A, T h re e s h p ar s

E , F o ur S h ar ps

B , F ive s h ar s p
3 2 MU S I C NO TA T ON AND T E R M I NOLO G Y I
but differ in n otatio n they are said to be enh armonic .
( cf .

p 3 8 Sec
.
,
.

Not e . T he s t u d e nt is i
ad v s ed to a dop t so m e u n if o rm m e t h od of w it i
r ng s cal es ,

f bly t h
p re era e o ne f oll o w ed i b
in t h ose g ven a o ve , t h e n e ce ss ar y h p s ar s an d fl t a s ap p e ar

ing b f th
e ore e n o t es in t h e s ca l e an d t h en rep ea t ed co l l e ct vel i y t th
a e en d as a s ig na t ure .

He is al so a d v s e d i t o rep eat t h es e sca l es an d s ig n at u res o ve r an d o v e r u n t il b a s ol u t e

famili ari t y i s at t a ned i . Eg . .

, E— —
Ffi v—
Gfi A —
B — — —
Cfi Dfi E ; s ign at ure , fo u r Sh arp s,

F , C , G, and D .
 C HAP T E R VIII
S CA LE S (C on tinu ed)
84 . T h e m in or diat onic use d in sev e ral S lightly
s cal e is
diffe r e n t f orms but the c hara c terist ic in t e rva l betwe en t h e
,

fi rst an d thir d to n e s (wh ich diffe r en tiates it from the major

s c al e ) r emain s t h e sam e in e very c as e This in t e rval betwe en .

t h e first an d thir d to n e s c o n s ists o f f our ha lf st eps in the major -

s c ale an d o f thr e e half steps in the m in or s c ale an d thi s di ff er

-

e n ce in S iz e has g iv e n r ise t o the d e s ign at io n m aj or f o r the

s c al e having t h e l arger third and min or fo r t h e s c al e having

,

t h e small er o n e .

85 .T h e origin al (or p rim itive) form o f t h e m in or s c a l e has

it s to n e s arra ng e d as f o l l ows .

AS it s ame imp lie s this is t h e ol d e st o f the thr ee forms

n ,

(b e in g d erive d f rom t h e ol d Gr e ek Aeol ian s c al e) but because ,

o f the abs e n c e o f a l e a d in g to n e
“ ”
it is su itab l e f o r t h e s impl est
o n e part mus ic o nl y an d is th e r e f or e li ttl e use d at pr e s en t
-

, .

86 . T h e h armon i c m i n or s cal e is lik e t h e primitiv e f orm

ex c ept that it substitut e s a to n e o n e hal f st ep h igh e r f o r t h e -

seven th to n e o f t h e o ld er the primitive) form This .

Cha ng e was ma d e be c aus e the d e v el opme n t o f wr it in g mus ic

in s e ve ral parts (partic u l arly harm on ic part writin g) mad e -

I
‘
”
n e ce ssary a l ea di ng to n e i e a to n e with a stro n g te n d en cy
,
. .
,

to move on up to the k ey ton e as a cl osing po in t

-
n ord er .

33
34 MU S I C N O TATI ON AND T E RM IN OLO G Y

to se c ure a ton e with su ch a stro ngly upward tendency t he

in terva l between s even an d eight h ad to be r ed u c e d in s iz e to a
half step It sho ul d be n ote d that this change in the seven th
-

to e
n o f c l
the s a e ause
c d a n in te val o f a step an d a ha lf be
r — - -

tween the sixth and seven th to nes of the s ca l e .

W h o le h al f wh ole h al f s t ep an d
4
s t ep s t ep s t ep s t ep a h al f
87 . T he mel odic min or
substitutes a to n e one half step s cal e -

h igher than six as we ll as o n e a half step higher tha n seven -

b u t t h is Cha nge is ma d e in the as c en din g s c al e o nly the d e ,

s c ending s c al e bein g like the primitive f orm The higher .

“ ”
sixth (c ommonly ref erre d to as the raised Sixth ) was use d
to get rid of the u nmel o di c in terval of a step and a hal f 1 - - -

( augme n te d se c o n d ) w hil e t h e retur n to the pr im

, i t ive f orm ,

in d es c en din g is ma d e be c ause the as c e n ding f orm is too mu ch

l ik e the to n ic major s c a l e .

wh o le
1
s t ep

Th is f orm is u se d onl y t o a very lim ited exten t and the n

’

principally in vo c al music the harmo nic f orm being in almost ,

u niversal use in sp ite o f the augme n te d se c o nd .

8 8 T h e min or s c a l e in it s various positio n s (up to five

.

sharps and five flats) an d in all three f orms f oll ows : a c ompo
sitiou base d on any one of these f orms (or upon a mixture of
them whi ch o f ten o cc urs) is said to be in the minor m ode It
,
.

will be n ote d that the fi rSt f our to n es are alike in all three
f orms ; i e the l ower tetra chord in the m in or s c al e is invaria
. .
,

bl e n o matter what may happen to the upper t e tra chor d

. The .

S ign marks the step an d a ha lf - - -

.

1
Th t p d
e s eh l f ( gm t d
-
an -
a nd) i
-
a nm l di
au beca it i t h sam
en e se co s u e o c use s e e

si z e as a min t hi d d t h e m i nd find it d i ff ul t t t k in
or r an nd ( t p s ic o a e as a s eco no es re re

s n t i ng it b i ng o n
e e dj nt t aff d g ees) n i n t rv l f t h
a ace s m si ze t hi dr a e a o e sa e e as a r
-
.
 SCALE S 35

P im i i
r t ve F o rm H a rm on ic F o rm M el o dic F o rm Sig na t u re

F 1: !
Mi n or

Note .
— T he s t u d en t is i
a d v s ed to rec it e t h e ha rmonic f orm o f t h e m no r i s cal e a s

w as s ug g e s t ed in t h e ca s e o f the ma j o r s ca l e , n o t ngi t h at t h e
“
i
ra se d se ve n t h d oes no t
aff ect the k ey -
S ig n at u re . Eg. .
, E — F# — G— A— B — C —
D# — E; s ig n a t u re , o ne

sh arp , F .
3 6 MU S I C NO TATI ON AND T E R M I NOLO G Y

89 . A min or s c al e h avm g t h e same Sign ature as a major

s c a l e is sa id to be it s rel ative min or E g e is t h e rel ative . . .
,

min or o f G c o f E ) d o f F e t c t h e smal l l etter be ing use d to

, , ,
.
,

r ef er to t h e min or k ey or s c al e wh il e the c ap ital l etter ind icat e s

,

the major k ey or s c al e u nl e ss a c c ompanie d by the word m in or .

Rel ative keys are th e re fo re d efi n e d as thos e havin g the same

’

Sign atur e G an d e are rel at iv e keys as are also A an d iii e t c

.
, ,
.

A m i o s a l e b i i w it h the same to e as a ma
'

9 0 . n r c e g nn n g n

r s c a l e is re fe rre d t o as it s t on ic m in or Thus e C w ith

jo g .
,
. .
,

three flats in it s S ign ature is t h e to nic min or of C with all

d e grees in n atura l c o n d it io n ; e with o n e sharp is t h e to nic
m in or o f E with f our Sharps e t c To n ic keys are therefor e ,
.

thos e havin g the sam e key to n e -

9 1 . T h e e ight to n es o f the d iato n ic s c a l e (both m ajor a n d

m in or) are o f t e n r ef e rre d to by sp e cifi c n am e s as f o ll ows ,

I . T onic to n e (Th is ref ers to the f a c t that the

the .

to nic is the prin cipal to n e or gen eratin g to n e o f t h e ,

k ey i e it is the to n e )
,
. .
,
.

2 S u p erton ic
. above the to n e .

3 M
. ed i a n t m id way betw e e n to n ic an d d omin a n t .

4 S
. u b d o m i-
n a n t the u n d er d om i n a n t (T hi s n ame .

d oes n o t r e f er to t h e positio n o f t h e to n e u n d er t h e
d omin a n t but to the f a c t that the fi f th bel ow the
t o n ic is a l so a d om in a n t to n e the u n d er d omin an t
just as the fif th above is the upp e r d om in a n t) .

5 D
. om in an t the gover nin g to n e (From the Lat in .

word dominu s mea ning m as ter)

6 S u p er dom in ant
.
-

above t h e d omin an t .

o r S u b m ediant midway betwee n toni c an d sub

-

d omin a n t .

L ad ing t on e the to n e wh ich d e ma n d s resol ut io n

7 . e

to the toni c (o n e ha lf st ep above it ) -

.

8 O ctave
. the eighth to n e .
 S C AL E S 37

9 2 The syll abl es c ommonl y app lie d to t h e various major

.

an d m in or s a
c l es i n t e a c h in g S ight s in g i n g ar e a s f o ll o w s z
1 -

Major D o RE MI FA S OL LA TI D O , , , , , , ,
.

M in or 2 original LA TI D O RE MI FA SOL LA , , , , , , ,
.

harmonic LA TI DO RE MI FA SI LA
I
.
, , , , , , ,

m el o dic LA TI DO RE MI P SI LA , , , , , , , ,

S OL FA MI RE D o TI LA
I
.
, , , , , ,

t i i t s ti g t n e res t dy t h n h
o s ug in b t h p ll i
e Cg d p ann n i ti es t h t h v o s e n an ro u c a on a a e

o c c u rre d ( d t il l
an a re s i g ) i t h yll bl
o c cu rr n Th fi t n ( t) w ese s h g d t a es . e rs on e u as C an e o

DO ly
a s ea r th i t th t y b
as e s x ee n f t h diffi l t y f p d i g g d i g i g
cen u r e cau s e o e cu o ro uc n a oo s n n

tone on u t F th
. m or e sa d l i d t
e re as o n an i d h vi g t w d i t i yll bl
a so n o r er o avo a n o a on c s a es

wi t h t h m i i t i l l t t t h t i l f y t m (i v t d in E gl d b t 8
e sa e n a e er, e o n c so - -

a s s e n en e n an a ou 1 1 2

a nd y t m t i z d
s s e b t 8 5 ) h g d SI t T I d t h i h g h b
a e a ou 1 0 C an e lm t io an s C an e as e en a os un

v e rsa lly d p t d by t a o he f ig h t i g i g i t h i
eac e rs o t y
s Th m -
s n l b t n n s co u n r . e o re e a o ra e

t ni
o l f
c so-

p ll
-
i g a S f t he d i t
n oi y ll b l e (D O H L
a on c s A H h t h
a w v es b n , ,
as n o ,
o e er, ee

f v b ly
s
a o ra

ca
i v d in t h i
re ce

o ra

b t h p ll i g d p n i t i n will b m d i t h n fut
n
e t y
er

ro n u
d t h t nd
i m p l ifi t i n t h t h n t w d l b t i n t i p b bl t h t f t h h ng in a
s co u n r

o
y m t b t w d t ill f t h
ar e a
an

o ra

eh h g th t a
e

o
e

e
.

n
I
e nc

e
s
s ee

ro

ear
a
s

e
o e

u re , o n e s u c
a
o

ur
ar

er C
s

C an
a
ur

e
es
er

a
o s e an c a o

s ee m ps es i ll y dec a i b l b i g e s ram t h e y l l b l
e n t h R
so E f t h
e o d t er s f t h a e an or e s eco n one o e

m j n t yl l b l m y b p vi d i g
“ ”
l
a o r s ca e , s o th t th p a e re s e v d f s fl t twa th
e a e re se r e or a -
o, us ro n

a un if m v w l or od f e -
l l i t m di t t n
so u n or a f th d n er d i ng h m t i
e a e l o es o e es c en c ro a c s ca e , as

i l
s a rea dy t h in t h e c as e d i ng f m e as cen or .

Th 1
yl l b l
es e s i d t h v b d i v d ig i n lly f m t h i ni t i l yll bl
a e s are sa o a e ee n er e or a ro e a s a es
f th H ym t S i t J h n t h m i f wh i h w t yp i l G g i n h nt T h
“ ”

I
o e n o a n o ,
e us c o c as a ca re o r a C a . e

a pp l i t i n
ca f t h o y
o ll b l t t
es e s h l a t wi
es l l ob m d l e s ca eby f t t h
o n es i e a e c ear re e ren ce o s

h ym n g iv as b l w t will b b v d t h t t h i h ym p vi d d yll b l
en e o . e o ser e ly f a s n ro e s a es o n or

th e i t
s x f th h
o n es o h d th n e g i z d ; wh
exac or th e t v reco l w d pt d
n e en e oc a e sca e as a o e

( l y in t h i t
ear th
e s x e ent y) t h i i t i l l t t
cen u r f t h l t li n e n d i) w a m e ers o e as e s an ere c o

bi d i t
ne yl l bl f t h v t h t
n o a s a e or e se en on e .

Fa mu li rum S ol p ol ln ti La bi i
'

- -
tu o -
ve - - -
re a

2
A cons i derab l e n um b f t h (p t i l l y t h wh did t l n t i g
er o ea c ers ar cu ar ose o no ea r o s n
by yll bl is a e n ch ildh oo d ) o bj t t lli g t h t i f t h mi
ec o ca l l i i ti g th t
n e on c o e no r s ca e a, ns s n a
b th m j
o a or an d mi no r t on i h ld b ll d d A d i g t t h i pl t h yll bl
c s ou e ca e o . c co r n o s an e s a es
d i i gi n s n ng t h e h a rm o n i mi l w ld b D O R E M E FA SO L L E T I
fig
l s c nor s ca e ou e: , , , , , , ,

Th e re
is no p art cu lar a s s i b i f t h i t h y f l t h g h ll l ni t f
or s eo r ,
or a ou a s c a es us o c o u rs e
b eg in t h t h wi
e k e y
—t o n e o r o n c
,
t i t h i t i m y b f d t by y yll b l wh i h
s on c a e re e rre o an s a e c
Wi l l s erve a s a as s f o r an as so c b i i ti p b li g
a t f l th
on f f th ro c e ss ena n one o ee e o rce o e
t o ne a s a C lo s ng p o nt — a o e i i h m t T h i t h D i n m d t h t i w ld b
one . us n e or a o e e on c ou e
RE , in t h e Ph r g an , ,
et c y i MI .
3 s MU S I C NO TA TI ON AND T E R M I NOLO G Y

The chroma tic s cal e

which pro c ee d s al ways by is
1
93 . one
4
h alf s t ep s Its in terval s are therefore always equal n o matter
.

wi th what to n e it begin s S in c e however we hav e (f ro m the .

, ,

st a n d po t in o f i
the p ano keyboard ) five pairs of ton e s whi ch 2

are e nharmoni c all y the same it may r e a dily be s e en that the ,

C hromatic s c a l e might be n otat e d in all sorts o f f ashio n s an d ,

this is in f a c t the rea l status of the matter there be in g no o n e ,

method u nif orml y agreed upo n by c ompos e rs .

Par y (G v D i ct i n y t i l h m ti )
r ro e s
’
mm d w it i g t h o ar l wi t h ,
ar c e c ro a c re co en s r n e sc a e

su ch id nt l can
acc e in h m t i
a s as h d wi t h t h i
g g t h
o cc ur k y in w h i h C ro a c C or s ou C an n e e c

t h p assag
e u Th t kin g C as
e o cc t yp
rs .t h fir t i d nt l wi ll b D b t h
us , a a e, e s ac c e a e ,
as e

u pp ner t o f t h m i n
o e nin t h n th t ni ; t h n
e t wi ll b Eb t h m i
or t hi d f t h
o e o c e ex e ,
e no r r o e
k y ; t h e n t Fit t h m j
e t hi d f t h
ex p t
, i e l l f wh i h a or
n wi t h t r o e su e r on c a o c ca o c cu r ou

cau s ing m od ul t i n and t h e m ai ni g t w wi ll b Ab d B b t h m in i t h d

a o re n o e an , e or s x an

se v nt h
e f t h e key oAc d i ng t t h i p l th . h m ti l b g i n i ng wi t h C
co r o s an e C ro a c sca e e n

woul d b pell d C Db D Eb E F Fit G Ab A B b B C t h f m b i g t h

'

e S e —
, , , , , , , , , , , , e or e n e

s m e bo t h a en d i ng
a nd d n d in g
sc Th i i f e w it t n
a l i v ly f m
es c e . s s o co u rs r e ex c u s e ro a

h rm ni
a t n dp i nt n d t h
o c s a dv nt g f
o h f m i it d fi it
a e a a a e o su c a or s s e n en es s .

94 F or s ig h t s i
. n in
g g p u rp os es the c hromat ic s c a l e is - 3

usuall y written by represe n ting the in terme diate to nes in

as c en ding by Sharps (in some c ases n atural s and d oub l e ,

sharps) and the in terme diate ton es in d es c en din g by flats

,

( somet imes n atura l s a n d d oub l e fl at s ) T he c hromat ic s c a l e -

.

in nin e diff ere n t pos itio n s written f romthis stan dpo in t f ol , ,

l ows an d the syll ab l es most c ommo n ly app l ie d in Sight singin g

I
-

have al so been a dd e d n the first two s c al es the stu d e n t o f .

harmony is aske d to n ote that be c ause o f the very c ommon pra e

1
T he s t u d e nt sh o ul d
d f ere nt at e e t een t h e so cal l ed t o nal t if s cal es l k e i b w -
“
iy i
j
t h e ma o r an d m nor, t h e t ones o f i
h ch are a c t u al l u sed as a a s s fo r key eel n g
“ ”
w i y b i -
f i
wi f ii i
t h t h e am l ar exp er en ce o f co m n g h o m e t o t h e t o n c a t e r a m el od c or h arm on c i i f i i
i
ex curs on , and o n t h e o t h er han d t h e p urel art c al an d m ech an cal cons t ru ct on o f y ifi i i i
i
,

t h e ch ro mat c s cal e .

3
y “
M an o t h er enh arm on c no t a t ons are p o ss l e , al t h o t h e five p a rs o f t ones i i ib i
b f
a o ve re er ed t o are t h e m o s t co mm o n
r Th us E# and F are enh armo n call t h e sam e , . i y
as are also C b an d B , C# and B x , e t c .

3
w
T h e o rd chroma tic m eans l t erall colored and was rs t app l e d t o t h e n t er i y fi i i
m edia t e t ones ec ause b by i
u s ng t h em t h e s n g e r co u l d g e t s m oo t h er an d m o re d ve rse l i i y
i
Shad ed p rog re s s o n s , i e , co uld g e t m o re col or t h an u s n g o nl
. . t h e d a t o n c t o nes by i y i i .

w i
C o m p o se rs e re no t long d sc o ve r n g t h e pe c ul ar val ue o f t h ese ad d t o n al t o ne s a nd i i ii
f
soo n o und t h at t h e se s am e t ones ere e x ce ed ng l val ua l e al so in m o d u l a t ng h e n ce w i y b i ,

i
t h e t wo us es o f nt erm edi a t e t o nes a t t h e p rese nt t me, rs t , t o em e ll s h a m elod ; i fi ’

b i y
seco nd , t o mod ulat e t o ano t h er key .
40 M U S I C N OT AT I O N AND TE R M I N OL O GY

N ote . Iw i i
n r t ng Ch ro m a t c s cal e s i
i ig h t i ng i g t ndp i t t h t d t
f ro m th s s -
s n s a o n e s u en

is urg ed to adop t a th t p p
r ee s e ; fi t w i t ing t h m j
ro c es s d i t ni rs l b th r e a or a o c s ca e o
-

as cen d ng a ndi d es cen di g ;

n d m k ing t h h l f t p ; t hi d i
s e co n ar ti g
I id t l e a s e s r n se r n a cc en a
-

, ,

no t es call ng i fo r t h e i t m di t t
n er e tha e b v h m ti
on es . l th n i t e a o e C ro a c s ca es es e n er

me di at e t on es h ave been re p t d by b l k
resen e n t h d t d i ff t i t ac t h m o e -
ea s so as o e ren a e e

f ro m t h e n o t es rep res en t i ng d i t i l t a o n c s ca e o n es .

The w h ol e s tep s cal e (the thir d type me n tio n e d in

95
-

Sec 7 9) is as it s n ame imp lies a s c al e in which the in t e rva l s

.
, ,

between the ton es c on sist in every in stan c e of who l e steps -

.

Th is re du c es the n umber of t o n es in the s c al e to seve n B e .

ginn ing with C the s cal e rea d s : C D E Fif o r G ) Ab E h C , , , , , ,

.

Thi s s c al e has been use d somewhat exte n sively by the u l t ra

mo d ern Fren ch s chool of c omposit ion represen ted by D ebussy ,

Ravel an d ot hers but is n o t makin g any progress toward

, ,

u niversal a doptio n The remarks of a re c en t E nglish writer .

1

on th i s subje c t may be in terest in g t o the stu d e n t who i s pu zz l e d

by the app aran t prese n t—d ay ten denc ies of Fren ch music .

H e says
Th t d n t
e s u f m i
e n t o t isog m e d n d v
eresl p m n t wi ll
o l er p d i l ye d i
e o v e r en s a so s ee s co

th t th
a e ai
d pt n f t h
o o llo d w h l
e so ca t -
l e b i
o e f
-
m i i
o n e s ca e as a p t p n as s o us c s , e x ce u o a

y i
ke ed n t m t
s ru t d t
en t h une m p m i o f qe l
co t m pro m n tse nn o t e l ua nd e e ra e ,
u a u ra a

i mp ibl N pl y p n t i g d i n t m nt n pl y t h
o ss e . o a er u o a s r n e s rul f w h l t nese ca a e s ca e o o e -
o

a nd i
arr v t n e a t v wah i ~
h i
oc a in et wi t h
c t h ts t i n g n
une t l h d l ib
e s ar t l y o e , u n es s e e e ra e

h ng
c a n
es o f th t
e o t h d
e n o es o n d l t i t w h
e ro a il p l yi
an g i t a T h
e rs b v i l t e a n . e o o u s res u

o f th p pl
e a i i
t n f t h
ca w h o l o t e l t o e -
h t
o n e s ca e t i g q
o an o rct t w l d b t
es ra o r a s r n ua r e ou e o

f orceth m t e d pt th o aq o l t m p e e m n t uaf t h pe i n fe ra t d
e p l y o v y ei n t v l
a o o r e , an a e er er a

e xc ep t t h t v
e oc a t f t n e ou W ho t h
u i m e d ifi
.
t i n h en d t k s h l d o ll m i
ca i toh a a en o a us c n e

p l
ure s ca e w l d b e d t i ou t d n d d t
s or e y d nl a t i n g
es rop l a y w
e e
,
tu f ess s rt h e e rs re o ace

1 St f an ord M usi cal Com po si t i o n (1 9 1 1 ) p . 1 7 .

 SC AL E S 4 1

p rac t ca i
ll y i mpo ibl ss e drudg er y o f s t ud yi ng b oth th e eq ual t emp era m ent and t h e p u re

s cal e f ro m t he s t art and w e re a bl e t o t a ckl e e ith f er o rm at a m o m en t

’
i
s n o t ce . A

I
,

t h o ro ug h kn o wl ed g e o f t h e n at u ral g e nes i s of the s cal e o f w es t ern na t o ns i will b e t he

be s t an t id t
o e to f ad s f o u n d e d u po n ig no ran ce o f it . t is i
a cur o us co mm en ar t y up o n

t hi s q u es ti
on t h at W ag ner, in t h e o p e ni n g o f t he th i rd a ct o f T ristan (b ars 6 to
e xp er im en t ed wi t h t h wh l e o e -
t o n e s ca l e an d dre w hi s pen t h ro ug h it , as w as t o b e ex

p ec t e d f ro m a co mp wh
os e r o s e e ve r yw o rk p rove s the w it
r er t o h ave h ad t h e p u re scal e

i b
n red in him .
”

The re may be som e diff e ren ce of op inion amo ng ac ou s t i

Cian s as to whether Mr Stanf ord is c orre c t in h is s cien tifi c .

”
assumption s regardin g the diff e ren ce b e twe en t emp e re d an d
“
pure s cal e s but even so there is a far mor e poten t reason
1
, ,

why the whol e st ep s cal e will probab ly n ev e r be c ome popul ar

-

as t h e major an d minor s cale s n ow are viz t h e f a c t that it ,

.
,

O ff e rs n o possib ility of i ncul cati ng tonal ity feeling whi ch has ,

always b e en the basis of even t h e simp le st primitive music .

Ton al ity s c al e s give ris e to a f eelin g of al tern ate perio d s o f

c o n tra c t io n an d rel axatio n an a c t ive to n e (o r Chor d) f ol

l ow e d by a passiv e o n e but n o su ch e ffec t is possib l e in the ,

who l e st ep s c al e an d it s e e ms su itab l e there fore o nl y f o r that

-

Cl ass o f mus ic whose outlin e s are p u rp os el y in tend ed to be vague

an d in d efi nite t h e impr e ssio nistic styl e o f music writing .

1
y
Re c en t t es t s in Ge rm an s ee m t o p ro ve c o nc l u s v e l t h at t h e tem pered sc a l e is i y
t h e s c ale o rdinar l e m p l o ed iy y by b
o t h vo c a l s t s and p l a e rs o n s t r ng e d i
n s t ru m en t s , y i i
i i i
a nd t h at t h e d e al o f a n d a g t at o n f o r a pure ( e , u ntempered) scal e in vo ca l and in i . .

i
s t rm g mus c is s o m e h a t o f a m t h w y .
 C HA P TE R I X
AUXILIARY WO RD S AND E ND IN G S

9 6 B eing a l ist of articles a dverbs

.
, ,
co nju nc tio ns prepo ,

s it ion s an d e n d in gs
,
o f ten utiliz e d in ,
c ompou n ding terms

rel ating to music al eff e c ts .

A p repo s t ii on var o u sli yt ran sl a t ed to, at , for ,

by ,
in , wit h , to w ards .

A cappella in ch urch s t yl e .

‘
A capriccio at t he f an c y of t h e p er f o rm er.

Adeux mains for t w o h ands .

Am zza voce t h h al fv i o ce .

firier of
i” o
A la , or alla in t h e m a . tie marcia in t h e st l e y of a march .

Assai ve ry , o r ve r ym u ch . All egro as s ai v er yf as t .

B en w ell . B en ma rcato w el l m ark ed .

Coi , con, col , coll a , coll e, coll o wi t h wi t h t h ,

or e .

C on a more wi t h t nd ness e er .

Coll a voce wi t h t h v i e o ce .

Comf
Contra
Da f m D
ro
as ,

ag a

.
l kei
i ns t
Come pri mo
.

n co m po un

a
.

Capo
If ro m
t fi t
d w d m n
t h e h ea d
as a

or s

.
rs .

ea s an oc t ave bl w
e o .

Di , ,
by wi t h
o f , for Di bravu ra . wit h d i a r ng .

Di mol to e x cee d n g l v er m u ch i y y . Al l egro di molto e x cee d ng l i y rap id .

Doppio do u l e Doppio movi ment o b . b

do u l e m o ve m ent .

E, ed , cl an d . Cresc . et accel . l o u d er and f as t er .

I
Ens embl e

I l, L ; l
g
’
,
le
t o g e t h er, t h e
t he . I
Ii l bas s o
op p o s it
the
e o f sol o

b as s .
.

’
L ist ess o t empo t he sa m e sp eed .

I
I
l pi u
s s imo
t h e m o st
I t li na

I t l i n di mi
a
. 1 pi n f orte possi b b
sup e rl a t ve e nd ng F orte
i
as l o u dl
—
a s po ss

f ortiss imo
n u t v e e n d ng s
i
i
.
fl
And ant e
y
and ant ino
.
ibl e .

Poco
no , etto a a . .
pochetto .

M eno l es s . M eno f orte l es s lo ud .

M ent e —
the en d n g i wh i ch ch an g es a n o un or ad ect ve j i to an ad ve r b . La rgo
largament e .

M ezzo or me zz a h al f m di
,
or e um . M ezzo f ort e m edi um l o u d .

K M olto m u ch , o r ver ym h uc . M olto cresc . ve r ym u ch lo u d er .

Nel , n ell a , etc . in t h e , o r at t he . N el battere at t h e do wn beat .

Non not . N on tant o no t t oo m u ch .

O s sia o r e l se . O ss ia piu f acil e o r els e m ore ea s ily .

P er fo r . P er il viol ino fo r t h e i i v ol n .

P eu — i
l t tle . Un peu cresc a . l i t t l in e c re ase in t o ne .

P iu more . Pitt forte more l udl y

o .

42
 I
I
AUx L AR Y WO RD S AND END IN G S 43

P aco i
l t tle . P oco a poco i
l t t le by li t t l e .

P oi —
t h en . E poi la coda — and t h en t h e coda.

Possi bile —
p os s ibl eF orte possi bil e — as l o u d l as p ossi le
. y b .

Quas i in t h e m ann er o f Allegro quas i anda nte

. a a rl f i y rap id movement ,
y et in t h e st yl f e o an and ant e ; al m o s t as s lo w as an andant e .

S a ns wi t h t ou . S ans ped al es wi t h out p ed al s .

S empre —
lw y
a a s, or con t n u all i y . S empre f orte — a l o ng pa ssag e t o be p la y ed
f o rt e t hro ug h o u t it s en t re ti y .

z wi t h z
'

S en a ou t . S en a accom pag na mento wit h o u t acco m p anim ent .

S ino , s in as fa r as . Se e p 1 4 , no t e
. .

S ol o al o n e . O ppo s i t e o f e ns e m l e b .

S ub und er o r lo w er . S ubdomina nt th e under dom inant .

T anto sa m e as troppo, q . V .

T re t hree . T re corde t h ree st r ng si .

T rés ve r y . T res vivement ver y l iv l y e .

T roppo t oo m u ch : Non ta nto al l egro, or non troppo all egro -

no t t oo fast .

Una , nu , u no o ne , o r a Una corda

. o n e s t r ng Un peu i . a i
l t t le .

A working kn owl e dge o f thes e aux iliary terms will aid t h e

stu den t gr e atly in arriving at the meaning o f hu n d re d s of
terms without stopp in g to look up ea ch indi vid ual one .
 M EAS URE
97 F rom the sta ndpoin t of the eye a measure is that
.

portion o f the sta ff f ou nd betwee n two bars

(i n c erta in c ases ,

thi s spa c e may be l ess tha n a measure as e g at the begin ni n g ,

. .
,

an d en d of a moveme n t) ; but f rom the sta n dpoin t o f t h e c ar

a singl e isol ate d measure is n o t possib l e and t h e term must

, ,

theref ore be d efin e d in the p l ural f orm .

M easures are Sim il arl y a cc e n te d groups of eve nly spa c e d -

beats ea ch group having at l east o n e a cc en te d an d on e n on

,

a cc en te d beat T he stro n gest a c c en t fa ll s n orma lly on the

.

first beat in the measure .

Two ess en tial Chara c teristic s are in vo lve d in the or d inary

music al measur e
() IA group o f eve n beats ( o r pu l s e s ) a l ways f e l t though , ,

n o t a lways a c tua ll y sou n d e d o ne or more of th e se beats ,

bein g stro nger th an t h e rest ;

r l
jJ F “
i
- -

()
2 Certa in rhythm i c figur e s ( e t
, c ) , , .

wh ich f orm the a c tua l music a l co n te n t of these groups .

Th t de t wi ll n t
s u th
en t i l d i ff
o e eb t w rh y t h m d m
e s s en a ere n c e e een 1n easu re .

Rh y t h m i t h g l f t i
e re u ar rec u rre n ce o i f b t ( p l ) wh i l m
I
s ac c e n n a se r e s o ea s or u s es ,
e ea s

p i g f th b t d in g t m p ifi d y t m l i t ni g t

I
ure i th g
s e ro u n o e se ea s a cc or o so e S ec e s s e . n s e n o

pi f m i A nd B m y f l t h hythm q lly t g ly b t A

I I
a ece o tw h us c, o e are rs a a ee e r e ua s ron ,
u

m y a bj t i ly g p t h b t i t
su ec ve ro u etw ea s tw n o t whi l B f l
on e , o one , o e c .
, e ee s

th ge ro u
p tw
s as th fone , tw
o, three , f o ur t Rh y t h m i t h
on e, o, ree, our e c . s us

s een t b o f d m t l t h i g i h t i t h m i i t l f wh i l m
e a un a en a n ,
n e re n n i t
e us c se ,
e ea su re s o a

t in
c er a t t t l
ex en t bi t y g p i g wh i h m i i h v d p t d f p
a e as an ar ra r ro u n c u s c an s a e a o e or rac

I
ti l p
ca p u r o s es .

9 8 . p ation the n ormal system O f a cc en tin g is

n sy n co

temporarily susp en d e d and t h e a cc en te d to n e f all s o n the

regu l arl y u n a cc en t ed part o f the m e asure Syn c opation may .

therefore be d efine d as the temporary in terruption of a n ormal

44
 ME AS U RE 45

series a ccen ts ; i e a ccen tin g a beat that is usuall y no t ac

of . .
,

c e n t ed Thus e g in F ig 5 6 measure one has the regul ar

. . .
,
.
,

system of a cc e n ts n ormally f ound in f our q uarter measure - -

(str o n g a c c e n t o n o n e s e c o n d ary a cc e n t o n three ); but meas ,

ure three has onl y o n e a cc en t an d it fall s on the se co n d beat ,

.

F ig . 5 6 .

99 Measures are
. usua ll y c l ass ifie d as s i m p l e an d com p ou n d .

A simpl e measu re is o ne whi ch has but a s ingl e a c c e n t i e ,

. .
,

the m e asur e ca nn ot be divid ed in to small er con stituen t groups .

There are two main cl asses of simpl e measure s two beat ,

-

measure and thre e beat measure A comp ou nd m easure is (as

,
-

it s n am e impl ie s ) o n e ma d e up by c omb inin g two o r more

simpl e measures or by the el aborat ion o f a sin gl e m easure ,

(i n s l ow tempo ) to s eve ra l c on stitu en t groups T h e prin ci

i n .

p a l c ompou n d m e asures are f our beat an d six b e at both - -

being refe rre d to as c ompoun d dupl e m e asures F iv e b e at -

.
-

sev e n b e at nin e b e at an d tw e lve b e at m e asure s are a l so

-

,
-

,
-

c l ass ifie d as c ompou n d m e asur e s .

I
An E ng l sh i w it r er
1
c l ass ifi es m ea s u res as i
d u p l e , t r p l e , o r q u ad rup l e , sp ec i fying t h at

a s im pl m
d i id d i t h l
v e
e i

n o
J
i
ea s u re hb t i

f A J‘
a ves
s one
p

t
t

)
d n

z
by
d
wh i h
t h t
t w h

m p
c l

d m
b
ea c

,
_
ea s re

I
re s en e

e c . an
a no e

a a co
o s e va u e ca n

o un eas ur e
e

i
s on e i wh i h n h b t i c p ea ct d by d tt d ea t wh v l s re b di id d re sen e a o e -
no e , ose a u e ca n e v e

i t th p t J i ‘
n o ree
’
h
PJ d
ar s ,
h l
JJJ r
).
T h i th t b ’ r: . e re s u s s ee n o e

co n si d bl differa f Op i i
e t th m
e ren ce o i g f t h w d i mpl d
n on as mp nd o e ea n n o e or s s e an co ou

wh p p l i d i t h i
en a e ti th
n p i ip l q t i t i
s c o n n ec b i g wh t h fon, e r nc a u es on a ss u e e n e er ou r

b tm
ea i i d i i d l i t y w h t h it i
ea s ur e s an n v i ty mp d d t f
ua var e ,
or e er s a va r e co o un e ou o

tw b o -
t mea i t h by p l i g t w f t h i g p by t h l b t i f
ea s u re s , e er ac n o o e se n a ro u or e e a o ra on o a

i gl m
s n e i t l g
ea s ure mb fb t
n o a i ft
ar er n u y i l w t mp i P er o ea s , as s o en ne ce ssa r n s o e . er

h p th
a s i t w y t f t h d i ffi l t y i t d m i t t h t b t h m y b t
e e as es a ou o eb t i dif cu s o a a o a e ru e u n
fere n t mp it i
co Th t i it i f q
os ons .
t ly i m p ibl t t ll wh t h
a s, mp it i s re ue n oss e o e e e r a co os on

t h t i b i g li t
a s e nd t i i tw b t s en e i f b tm
o s n d y t it i m o ea ,
or n o ur ea e as u re , an e s so e

t im es p ibl t d i i m i t Si h w
o ss e so o s cr t i t h m j it y f
na e . n ce , o e ver, o n e ca nn o n e a or o ca s e s

di t i g i h b t w
s n u s tw b te d fe en b tm o it wi ll p b b l y b b t t l
ea an our ea ea s u re s , ro a e es o e a ve

th e or i g i l l ifi t i i t t d g d f b t m
na c as s ca on n ac mp d i ty
an re ar our ea eas u re a s a co o un va r e .

1
Pearse Rud m en t s i of M i u s ca l K wlno ed g e , p 37. .
46 MUSIC NO TATION AND TERMINOLOGY

The com m ones t varieties o

1 00
f are m eas ure
I
.

. Du p l e (sometimes c all e d eve n measure or eve n t ime) , ,

in whic h there are two beats the first o n e b eing ,

a cc en te d Examp l es of d up l e measure are 2 3 3

.
, , ,

two q u art er two eighth an d two half measure re

-
l
,
-

,
-

sp e c t iv e ly

2 . T rip l e,(the o l d per f e c t measure ) in wh ic h there are ,

three beats the first on e being a c c en te d t h e se c o nd

, ,

an d th ir d u n a cc e n te d Examp l es are 3 2 3 three .

, , ,

e ighth three q uarter an d three ha lf measure re

,
-

,
-

sp e c t iv ely .

3 . Qua dru pl e in which th e re are f our beats the fi r

,
st ,

an d thir d be in g a c c e n te d (primary a cc en t on one ,

se c o nd ary a c c en t o n three) the se c o n d an d f ourth ,

un a cc en te d (See n ote above u n de r Sec

.
,
.

4 S extu p l e in which there are s ix beats the first and

I
\

.
, ,

f ourth bein g a cc e n te d the others n o t n rap id ,

.

III
temp i this is always taken as c ompou n d d up l e meas
u re a d otte d q uart e r n ote havin g a b e at It will be

II
.
,

n ote d that t h e two m e asures 8 LU LU r

.

are eff e c t with 2 LE

id e n tic al in f rr i
1 0 1 Othe r varieties of m e asure sometimes f oun d are 3 and
.

3
1
,
but these are pra c t ic a ll y a l ways take n as thr ee beat a n d -

f our beat measures resp ec tively bein g e q u iva l e n t to t hese if

-

e a c h group o f three to n es is thought o f as a tr ip l e t

mm
.

g‘ mm ,
elt w.
ith 2 J
is iden tic a l in e ff c

1 0 2 Quintup l e (five beat) and s ep tup l e (sev en b e at)

.
- -

m e asures are o cc asio n all y m e t with but th e se are rare an d ,

will always be spora di c T h e five b e at measure is tak en as .

-

a c omb in at io n o f thr ee an d two o r o f two an d thr ee (som e ,

t imes a mixture o f both in t h e sam e c ompositio n) wh il e the ,

1 For exp l ana t io n of t e rm no l o g i y , s ee p 48.

, Sec . 1 06 .
 C HAP TE R X I
TE MP O
1 04 The word time in music al n om e ncl ature has been
.

greatly abuse d having been use d t o in di c ate

,

“
( ) Rhythm ; as the time was wro n g
1

( )
2 V ar ie ty o f measur e sign ature ; as two four time — —
.

“
)
”
(3 Rate o f spee d ; as the t ime was t oo s l ow .

To obviate the c o nf usio n n aturally resu l tin g f rom th is

three fo l d an d in exa c t use o f the word ma ny tea chers o f
-

mus ic are a d opting c ertain changes in termi n ol ogy as n ote d

in Se c t io n s 1 0 5 1 0 6 an d 1 0 7 Su ch c h anges may c ause
, ,
.

some c o nf usio nat first but s e em to be n e c essary if our mus ical

,

termin ol ogy is to be at all exa c t .

1 0 5 The firs t of the cha nges men tio n e d in the above

.

paragraph is to substitute t h e word rhythm fo r the wor d ti me

when c orre c ting mi stakes in vol ving misp l a c e d a c c e n t e t c ,
.

“
Eg. .
,
Your rhythm in the th ird measure o f the l ower s c ore
”
was wro n g in stea d of Your time,
was wro ng .

1 06 The s econd change men tio n e d wo ul d elimin ate su ch

.

“ ” “
b lin d an d mi sl e ading expressio n s as two f our time
'
three -

,
” “ ” “ ”
f our t ime f our f our t ime
,
six e ight t ime
-

et c an d sub ,
-

,
.
,

s t it u t e there f or su c h se lf exp l a n atory d es ig n at io n s as -

two
” “ ” “
q uarter measure three q uarter measur
,
e f our q uarter-

,
-

” “ ” “
measure six e ighth measure
,
-

et c Eg The fi rst mov e ,

. . .
,

men t o f the B eethoven So n ata O p 2 No 3 is in fou r quarter .

,
.
,
-

meas u re .

1 07 . The
re f erre dthird
to above wou l d subst
ch ang e itute
the word tem p o (p l ura l t em p i ) f o r t h e wor d tim e in all all u
“
s io n s to rate o f speed E g The s cherz o was p l aye d in very
. . .

”
rap id temp o .
 TEMP O 49

T he w o rd t empo has b d i
een u s e n th i s c onn e c t o n so i l on g by p f i l m i iro es s o na u s c ans

I ibl bj t i
t h at t h ere can be no po ss e o ec on t o it on t h e g ro un d o f it b ing f ig w
s e a o re n o rd .

nf a ct t h ere is a d ec d ed i ad van t ag e in h av i ng a w o rd t h at is un d ers t oo d in al l co un t r es i

w h ere m o d ern m u s i
i il i z d m i ) i p f m d d j t h i f d t h
c c v e us c s er or e ,
an us ere s o un e

p i
r nc i p l a f t h
rea so n
p p l i t y orf t h I t lei l g go i m i l
u ar t m i l o g y e a an an ua e n u s ca er no o .

Sh m
c u M D w ll
ann , d th ac w ll k w m p
o e an h v t i d t b
o er k d wn t hi
e no n co o s e rs a e re o re a o s

p p l i t y by
o u ar i g th i w us n p t iv v m le r oi b t h t mp n d d y mi
re s ec e e a c u ars n o e o an na c

i di t i b t i pit f t h
n ca o ns , u t t mpt t h It li
n s e o l g g i t i ll q i t
es e a i e ll y s e a an an ua e s s u e un v e rsa

us e d f t hi p p
or d d s v d ly
u r o se , an f if w t h m i
ese r e t ti th t i so , or e are o ave a us c no a on a s

un iv l ersa th t
, Am i
so ia bl t p l y m i w i t t by F h m
an e r ca n s a ea o a us c r en a ren c an or

G m
er R
an , o r a i t h w gh t l t h u ss an , t i
en mb f
e ou p i a so o av e a c e r a n n u er o ex res s o ns

f i g t t m p t wh i h wi ll b
re err n o e o, e c d t . d by ll i
,
m i t m i l gy
c e un ers oo a ,
. a
.
, a us c er no o

th t i
no

th
a nis u

k w i th i p ti l
n

f b t i di
ere o re
l
n
T h I t li
vers a

t th
l g g w
s

e re a n e
.

p ar

t
t t im
t h fi t i t h fi ld i t h m t
e

c u ar a

f m i l E p
d i
a

t i ly
t
n u se as a so r
an

d q t
an

e t
i v ll y
ua

h ld
res en
e

o
as e

e , an

us ca
rs

s
n

s en

e ran o
e e

re

.
,
s

a e
e

ua e
os

. I
un ersa

s ou

Th e r e are several
1 0 8 . ways o f fi ndi n g th e correct tem p o
of a c ompositio n :
1 . From the met ron omic in dic atio n f ou nd at t h e be
ginni n g o f ma ny c omposition s Thus e g t h e mark . . .
,

M M 9 2 (M aelz el s M e tro n ome 9 2 ) mea n s that if

. .
’

the metro n ome (e ither M aelz el s or some other re ’

l iab l e make ) is s e t with the s lid in g we ight a t the

figur e 9 2 th e re will be 9 2 clicks per min ut e an d they ,

will serv e t o in dic ate to the p l ay e r o r singer t h e rat e at

wh ich the b e ats (or pul ses) shou l d f oll ow o n e an other
’

This is u n d oubte dly the most a c curate mean s o f d e ter

minin g t e mp i in sp ite o f slight in a ccura cie s in m e tro
n omes an d o f the mi sta ke s whic h c omposers them
1

selve s o f ten make in givin g metron om ic in dic ation s .

2 . Anoth e r mea n s of d eterm ining the tempo o f a com

pos ition is to p l ay it at diffe ren t temp i and the n to
c hoose t h e o n e that f e el s right for that partic ul ar
p ie c e of music This is perhaps the b e st mean s of .

gettin g at the c orr ec t tempo but is open o nl y to the

1
T o t es t t h e acc u rac o f a m e t ro n o m e , s e t t h e y
e g h t a t 6 0 an d se e it e a t s wi if b
se co nd s If
1 t g 1 ves m ore t h a n 6 2 o r 6
.
3 or l ess t h an 5 7 o r 5 8 c l cks p er m n u t e it ll i i wi
no t b e o f m u c h s erv1 ce i n g 1 v1 ng co rre c t t em
.

p and sh o ul d b e t a ken t o a e ell er t o be i jw

5 0 M U S I C N O TAT ION AND T ERMINOL OG Y

musician of l ong experienc e ,

sure ju d gmen t ,
and

sound s cho l arship .

3 . A third metho d of findin g tempi is thr ough the in ter

t a t io n o f c erta in wor d s use d u ite un i versa ll y by
p re q
c omposers to in dic ate the approx ima te rate o f spee d

an d the ge n era l moo d o f c ompositio n s The dith .

c ul ty with this metho d is that o n e can har dl y fin d

two c omposers who emp l oy the same word to indic ate

the same tempo so that n o abso lute rate of spee d ,

can be in d ic ate d an d in the l ast a n a l ysis the c o n

,

d u c tor or p er former must f all ba ck on the se c o n d

I
metho d cite d above i a in di vid ual ju d gme n t . .
, .

9 1 0 sp ite
. o f the innexa c t n ess o f use in the c ase o f ex
pression s rel atin g to tempo these expression s are n everthel ess ,
'

extremel y use fu l in givin g at l east a hin t of what was in the

’
c omposer s min d as he c o n c e ive d the mus ic that we are tryin g

to in terpret S in c e a n umber of the terms overl ap in mean

.

ing an d sin c e the mea n in g o f n o s in gl e term is abso l ute these

, ,

expressio n s rel ating to tempo are best stu die d in groups .

P erhaps the most c o nve n ie n t group ing is as f oll ows

1 . Grave (l it weighty serious) l arghissimo adagissimo

.
, , , ,

an d l en tis s im o ind ic atin g the very sl owest tempo

used in re n de rin g music .

2 . L argo, 1
ad agio,
2
an d l ento indi c atin g q u ite a sl ow
tempo .

3 . L arghetto a littl e l argo) an d ad agietto ( a l ittl e

ad agio ) a sl ow tempo but ,
no t q u it e so s l ow as
l argo, et c .

4 . And an te (go in g , walking as c on traste d with run

or ,

ning) a n d and antin o indic at ing a mo d eratel y s l ow

tempo .

1
La rg o , l arg h e t t o , et c .
,
are i
d e r vat iv
es o f t h e La t n i w o rd i
largus , m ea n ng l arg e ,
b ro ad .
2
Ad ag i o i
m ea ns l t e rall y a t ease .
 TEM P O 5 1

Anda ntino is no w i
qu t e i
un vers all yt ak en sl i g h t ly f as t e r t h an andante , i
in sp t e o f
t he f ac t t h at if an da n t e m e a ns
“
go i ng ,
”
an d if i “
no is t h e d m i in t i u ve i
e nd ng , t h en

a nda nti no m ea n s
“
g oi ng l es s ,
”
i . e .
,
m ore slo wl y !
5 . M oderato tempo a mo d erate .

6 All egro an d al l egretto

.
l
a mod erately q uick tempo ,

al l egrett o b eing usuall y in terprete d as mea ning a

tempo somewhat sl ower tha n all egro .

T he w d ll g m
or ali t ll y h pp y j y
e ro e an s d t h i li t
e ra l m ni n g i t i ll a ,
o o us , an s e ra ea s s

s ometimes a p p l i b l b t in t h e m j n t y o f i n t n
ca e, u t h e t m ef e s onl y t o ta o f s a ces er r r ra e o

sp ee d .

7 . Viva, vivace, (li t . live ly) a tempo between al l egro

an d pres to .

8 . P res to p res tis sim o vi vaci s si m o an d p res tissim o p oss i

, , ,

bil e the most rapid tempo possibl e .

1
Th ere h as b een so m e difi eren ce o f O p i n i o n as t o wh i ch o f t h e s e t w o t e rm s i di t
n ca es
i
t h e m ore rap d t e m po : an a n al s s t el l s u s t h a t yi
all egro m ea n s q u c k , an e o s if i d i f tt i
i i i
t h e d m n u t ve e n di ng , t h en all e grett o m ean s a l t t l e q u c k i a , s lo er t h an all egro i i . . w .

w
Th ese t wo t erm s are , h o e ver, so clo sel al l ed in m ean ng t h at a d sp u t e o ver t h e y i i i
m at t er is a mere w as t e o f b reat h .
 CHAP TER XII
TE MP O (C on tinu ed)
1 1 0I nn umerab l e c omb in ation s of the word s d efi ne d in
.

Sec 1 0 9 with o n e a n other an d with other wor d s o ccur

. Some .

o f these c omb in at io n s w ith the ir approx imate mea nin gs f ol

l ow . The mea ning of any su c h expression n o t f ou nd in the

l ist may usua ll y be arrive d at by c o n su l tin g the terms d efin e d
in paragraph 1 0 9 a n d re c a lli ng the use of c erta in aux iliary
terms q uote d in Chapter IX .

L g i
ar o assa v y l w er s o .

L g di m lt
ar o v y l w o o er s o .

L g m n n t pp
ar o a l w b t n t t
o l w
ro o s o ,
u o oo s o .

L g n p
ar o u l w b t n t so l w oco l g (Cf l gh tt )
s o ,
u o s o as ar o . . ar e o .

L t m nt
en e l wl y e e s o .

L t nd en a wi t h i n o i ng l wness cre as s o .

T e l nt m t
r s v
e y l wl y
e en er s o .

L nti im nt
e ss v y l wl y e e er s o .

L t i im m t
en ss v y l wl y
a en e er
'

s o .

L nt e i v y l wl y
o as sa er s o .

L nt e p i i
o a ca l wl y b t p i i
r cc o ly s o u ca r c ous .

L n t di m l t
e o v y l wl y o o er s o .

And t fl t an e a m d t ly l w
e u os o d wi t h t d n nd p t ho e ra e s o ,
an en er e s s a a os .

And t m bil an e a m d t ly l w
a d l vi g l y
e o e ra e s o ,
an o n .

And nt nt bil
a m d
e ca t ly l w a d in i g i g t yl
e o e ra e s o ,
an s n n s e .

And nt g zi a m d
e rat ly l w osond g f ll y o e ra e s o ,
a race u .

And t m t an e m d t ly l w
a es os o nd m j t i ll y o e ra e s o ,
a a es ca .

An d t n m t
a n e co ligh t ly f t th n d nt
o o s a s er a an a e .

And nt (m ) n n t pp
a e n t t
a l wl y o ro o o oo s o .

And n t p t a t em d e t ly l w
as ora e n d in i mpl nd n ff t d t yl ;
—
o ra e s o ,
a s e a u a ec e s e

rural , p as t o ral ) .

Anda nte quas i all egro al m os t a s rap id in t em p o as all egro; (l it . an a nd an te in

t he st yl e o f a ll egro ) .

And an te s os tenu to m od era t el sl o an d su s t a n ed y w i .

Al l egriss imo m u ch f a s t er t h an al l egro (T h e sup erl at ve d eg ree o f allegro) . i .

All egro agita to a m o d era t el rap d t em p o an d in ag t a t ed s t l e y i ,

i y .

All egro appas sionat o a m od era t el y rap i d t e m p o , and in p ass o nat e s t yl e i .

Allegro assai (v ery allegro) f as t er t han allegro .

Allegro comm odo a con v en i e n t l y rap i d t em p o .

Allegro con bri o an all egro p l ay ed in b ri ll i an t s t yl e F as t e r t h an allegro . .

5 2
 TEM P O 53

Allegro con f uoco -

ah al legro p la y ed wi th fire, i . e .
, with ex t rem e an im t i
a on .

Fast er t h an all egro .

Alle gro con s pirito an all e ro g f

p e r o rm ed wi t h p i i t
s r .

Alle gro con moto f a st er t h an al legro .

Allegro di bravura an allegro f

p er orm ed in b i l li
r ant st yl e, i . e
.
,
d em andi ng g rea t
sk ill in execu t o n i .

Allegro f u ri os o ( ur o u sl ) f i y
q u ck e r t h an al legro; v er r ll i ybi i an t .

Allegro gius t o an allegro m o v em en t , b u t in ex ac t rh t h m y .

All egro ma gra ios o z

an al l egro p la y in g ra ce ul s
ed e f t yl .

All egro (ma ) non ta nto an all egro m o vem en t , b u t no t t oo rap id .

Al l egro (ma ) non troppo an allegro m ovem en t , bu t n o t t oo ra p id .

All egro (ma ) n on p res to an allegro m ov em en t , bu t no t t oo ra p id .

All egro moderat o sl o er t h an al l egro w .

All egro vi vace fast er t h an allegro .

P resto as sai as rap idly as p o ss ibl e .

P resto (ma ) n on troppo a presto m ovem en t , bu t no t t oo rap id .

There are c ertain terms whic h ind icate a modifi cation

1 1 1 .

of the n ormal tem p o o f a moveme n t these be ing di vid e d in to ,

two classes (a) those terms which indi cate in gen era l a sl ower
,

tempo an d (6 ) those whi ch indicate in gen eral a more rap id

,

tempo The further sub divisions of these two cl asses are

.

shown bel ow .

()
a T erms in di c at in g a s l ower tempo .

1 Terms indic atin g a grad u al retard

. .

Ritenen te (f it ) riten u to (f it ) ritardand o (f it ) ral

, , , ,

l en tand o sl enta nd o .

Terms indi cating a tempo which is to be come d efi

2 .

ni t e ly sl ower at on ce .

P iit l ento (lit more sl owly) meno moss o (lit l ess .

, .

movemen t) .

Terms i n dic at ing a sl ower tempo c omb in e d w ith an

3 .

in c rease in power .

La rgand o all argand o These word s are both d erive d

,
.

f ro ml argo mea ning l arge broa d , ,

.

( F or terms i n d ic at in g both s l ow e r t e mpo a n d so f ter to n e ,

see page 5 9 Sec ,

.

Th t d
e s u t h l d n t t h d i ff
en s nou b t w g p s nd
o e e
g iv n b ve e re ce e ee n ro u 1 a 2 as e a o

t h t m in g
e er s p i nd i t t h t h m
ro u 1 nd ven
ca e ch p l ain t h m eac
e ea sure , a e ea u se e ea su r ,

i a l i t tl l w t h n t h p
s e s o er ed i g an wh i l e h t m piu l nt nd m n m o
re c n o e, e su c er s as e o a e o oss
 M U SIC NO TAT IO N AND TERMINOLOGY
“

54

in di ca t e a ra t e o f sp e ed b eco m n g i in st a n t l y sl o w i
er an d ex t en d ng o v er an en t re i ph r a se

or p assa g e Sm
. o e c om p o sers B ee t h ov en an d i
C o up er n) h av e ev id en t ly h d th i
a s

sam e di s t in t i n i c o n m in d b tw
e een ralle n ta ndo an d ritardand o o n th e one h and , an d

ri tenuto and rit enen t e o n t he o t h er, co n s id ier ng the f orm er (ra ll . and rit .
) i
t o n di ca t e
a g rad u all y sl a ck enin g sp e ed , an d t h e l a t t er (riten ut o an d riten ente ) i di
to n ca t e a

de fi i t ly l w
n e t
s o T h m j it y f
er ra e mp d n t h w v
. b e a or o co o s ers o o o e er d i ff ti t
e ren a e e

tw een t h m in th i w y
e d it wi ll t h f h dly b w t h whil f t h t d t t
s a ,
an ere o re ar e or e or e s u en o

t y t
r m mb
o re t h di ti
e ti er e s nc on .

()6 Terms i n di c at in g a more rap id tempo .

1 T erms in dic ating a gra dual a cc el eration

. .

Accel erand o afl rettando (thi s term imp lies some de ,

gree of ex citemen t al so) s tringend o p oco a p oco , ,

2 . T erms indi c atin g a tempo which is to be come

d efi nitel y f aster at o n c e .

P iu al l egro p iit t os t o piu m os s o s tretto u n p oco

, , , ,

a n im a t o .

1 1 2 Af ter any mo difi c atio n in tempo (e ithe r faster or

.

sl ower) has been sugg e ste d it is usual to in dic ate a return to

the n ormal rate by some su ch expressio n as a temp o (li t in .

t ime) a temp o p rimo (lit in the first time) temp o p rimo or

,
.
, ,

t emp o .

1 1 3 T emp o ru bato (or a temp o ru bato) mea n s l iterall y in

.

robbed time i e d urat io n tak e n f rom o n e me asure or beat an d

,
. .
,

g iven to an other but in mo d ern pra c tic e the term is q uite ,

gen erall y app lie d to any irregul arity o f rhythm or tempo no t

d efin itely in di c ate d in the s c ore .

The terms ad l ibitu m (ad a p iacere and a cap ricci o , , ,

a l so in dic ate a mo difi c atio n of the tempo at the will of the

performer Ad l ibitum mean s at l iberty ; a p iacere at pl ea sure ;
.
,

an d a cap riccio at the c apric e (of the perf ormer) ,

.

1 1 4 The term temp o giu s to is the opposite of temp o ru bato

.

( a n d o f the other terms d efi n e d i n paragraph It mea n s

li tera ll y in ex ac t time (T em p o g i us t o is somet imes tra n s.l ate d

q u it e ra p idl y
1
but thi s is ver ,y u n usua l ) .

1
B l
u ss er El em en t f No t t i n and Harm ony p 7 6 s o a o ,
. .
 CHAP T ER XIII
D YNAM I C S
1 20 The word dynamics (cf dyn amic
. the O pposite o f .

static) as use d in the n omencl ature of music has to d o with the

various d egrees of power the c omparative l ou dn ess and
so f t ness) of to n es .

As in the c ase of wor d s ref erring to tempo the expressio n s ,

referrin g to dy namics are always rel ative n ever absol ute ; it ,

is poss ib l e to indic ate that one measure is to be l ou d er tha n

a nother but it is n o t possibl e (nor d esirab l e) to in di c ate
,

exa c tly how l ou d either is to be Thus dynamics perhaps .

,

eve n more tha n tempo w ill be see n to d epe n d o n the taste o f ,

the perf ormer or c o n du c tor .

The f oll owing words referring to dynamics are in com

mon use
P i ni i im (ppp)
a s ss f tl y s p ibl ( t wi ll b t d t h t t h i i
o —
a s so t a o ss e . I e no e a s s a so r

of h yp p l ti
er s u
-
f pi )
er a ve o ano .

P i i im (pp)
an ss v y o f t ly (T h p l t iv f pi n ) er so . e su er a e o a o .

Pi (p)
ano f tl y so .

M pi
eazo (mp) m di m
ano f tl y e u so .

M zz f t (mf )
e o m d i m l dl y
or e e u ou .

F t (f )
or e l dl y (lit t —
g) ou . s ro n .

F ti im (ff )
or ss v y l o dl y (T h p l t iv
er ff t ) ou . e su er a e o or e .

F ti i im (fff)
or s ss l dl y
o p ibl as ou as oss e .

Th l k f
e ac w d mp t i d g i th
o a one -
or f b t h pi
co nd f t ara ve e ree n e case o o a no a or e

m t n
s ee s o i t t t h h yp
e ce ss a e
p l t i d g e g i v n b v b t
er sut
-
h p t i f er a ve e ree a s e a o e, u e ra c ce o

i gf
us n v
ou r, o r e fiv p f i
en t de i b l
’
s or
’
s s no e s ra e .

1 21The terms d efin e d in Sec 1 2 0 are o fte n c omb in e d with

. .

others as e g ,
. .
,

P i ni im p
a ibil ss oso f tl y p ib
oss l e e as as o ss .

Pi n ai v y
o assa f tl y er so .

F ti im p
or ibil
ss l dly
o ossp ib l e as ou as o ss e .

Fort pia n (f ? )e lo d f ll w ed t n e by so f t
o u ,
o o a o c .

5 6
 DYNAMICS 57

‘
terms rel ating to tempo the meaning o f
AS in the c ase o f ,

many other expression s rel ating to dynamics may eas ily be

‘
arrive d at by recalling the list of aux iliary terms quote d under
Sec 9 6
. .

1 22 The terms sforzand o forzando sforzato and forzato

.
, ,

all indic at e a stro n g a c c e n t o n a s ingl e to n e o r c h or d These .

word s are abbreviate d as f oll ows : sf f z and sf z the abbrevi , , ,

atio n being p l a c e d dire c tly above (sometimes bel ow) the n ote
or chord a ff e c ted The Sign s A and . are a l so c ommo nl y
use d to indicate su ch an a cc en t
Iiy
.

n i
n t e rp ret ng t h e se a ccen t m ark s t h e s t ud e n
t m u st b ea r in m i nd ag a n i the f ac t

th at t h e h ave i
a rel a t v e ra t h er t h an a
na b
so l u t e m ean i ng : t h e m ark f
s i
o ccu rr ng in
t h e mid s t of a piano p assag e wi ll i d i t n ca e a m u ch mil d er f orm o f ac c en t tha n w ould

t h e sam e m ark i g in t h mi d t f
oc curr n e s o a f orte p a ssag e .

1 23 The word s rinforzand o and rinforzato (abb

. rinf . .

and rf z ) mea n lit e ra ll y reinforced an d are use d to in dic ate a

.
,

sudd en in c rease in pow e r usual ly extending over an en tire

phrase or passage in stea d O f app lying o nly to a Singl e to ne or
chor d as in the c ase o f sforzand o e t c ,
.

1 24 Cres cend o (abb

. cres c or mean s a gra dual
. .

in crease in power It will be n ote d that this word d oes not

.

mean l oud n or d oes it mean a su d d en increase in power u nl ess

,

a cc ompanied by some auxiliary term su ch as su bi to or molto ,

.

B roa dl y speaking there are two varieties of crescend o

(1 ) that in wh ic h the same to n e in c reases in power wh il e
being prol onge d ; (2 ) that in whi c h su c ceeding ton es are ea ch
sound e d more stro ngly than the pre ce ding one The first .

varie ty is possib l e onl y on in strumen ts giving forth a ton e

which can be varied after it begins Thus e g the human voic e . . .
, ,

the viol in the organ encl osed in a swell box an d c erta in wind
, ,

instruments are all c apab l e o f sou n ding a to ne so f tly at first

,

and gra d uall y in c reas in g the vol ume u n t il the max ima l po in t

of power has bee n rea che d B ut on the p ian o organ n o t .

,

e ncl ose d in a swell box kett l e d rum et c

-

the power of th e
, ,
.
 5 8 MUSIC NO TATION AND TE RM INOLOGY

tone ca nn ot be varied a fter the ton e has o n c e been soun de d ,

an d a cres cend o e ff e c t is there f ore poss ib l e o nl y in a p as sa e

g ,

in ren d erin g whi ch ea c h su cc ee di ng to n e is stru ck more f or cibl y

tha n it s imme diate pre d e c essor This se c o n d varie ty of cres .

‘
cend o o ff ers a mea n s o f d ramat ic e ff e c t whi c h may be emp l oye d

most Strikingly as e g when a l on g passage begin s very sof tl y

,
. .
,

an d in c reases in power li ttl e by littl e u n t il the utmost re

sour c es oi the in strumen t or orchestra have b ee n rea c he d A .

n otab l e examp l e of su ch an e ffec t is f ou n d in the tra n s itio n

f rom the thir d to the f ourth movemen ts o f the B eethove n

Fif th Symphony .

T h e difi eren c e
'

b twe f f z
e en s orza nd o, rin or a nd o, and cres cend o sh o ul d n o w be no t ed

f z
s or a nd o i di
n ca t e s t h at a s ng l e
i t on e o r ch o rd is t o b e l o u d er ; f
rin or a nd o , z t h at an

ent i re pa ssag e is t o b e l ou d er, eg nn ng wi t h it s b i i

rs t t o n e ; b u t crescend o n d ca t e s fi i i
i w
t h a t t h ere is t o b e a g rad u al n crea se in p o er, t h s n crea se so m e t m e s o c cu rr ng d u r i i i i
i
ing t h e so un ding o f a s ng l e t on e , b u t m ore O t en in a p assag e f .

C ertain
f e
combinati on s o the word cres cend o
’

5 1 2 . w ith oth r
wor d s are so c o m mon that they S ho ul d be espe cially n ote d .

Amo ng these are

Cres cendo al f ortiss imo
— keep on graduall y i n c reas ng i in po w er u n t il t h e fo r
t i ssim o (o r very l oud ) po n t h as een i b rea ch ed .

i w y ( p i dl y)
L
\ Crescend o s u bito n crea s e in p o er su dd enl or ra .

Cres cend o poco a poco n crea se in p ower i v y v y g

er ,
d ll y
er ra ua .

Cres cend o poi dim inu end o rs t n crea se , fi i then d i m i ni h t h t s e on e .

Cres cend o e diminuendo sa m e as cresc .

poi dim .

Cres cen do molto i n c rea se in p o w er v e r y g t lyrea .

Cres cend o ed anima ndo p

oco a p oco g ro wing g d ra u all yl o u d er in t o ne and qu i ck er

in t empo .

C res cendo ed afi rett and o g ra d u a ll yl o ud e r a n d f as t e r.

Crescendo poco a poco sin al fine c res cend o g rad u all y ev en up t o t h e v er y en d .

1 26 . Decrescend o or mean s a gra dual(

d ecres c .

d iminishi n g o f the to n e It is the opposite of crescendo The . .

word dim inuend o is syn o nymous with d ecrescend o

D ecres cendo (or dimi nuend o) al p ianiss im o mea n s de
c rease gra d ua ll y in power un til the p ianis s imo (or very so f t )

po in t is rea che d .
 DYNAM ICS 59

K 7 1 2 A n umb
. er O f t er m s referring to both s ofter ton e and

sl ower t emp o a re in use T h e most c o m mo n of these are .

m ancand o m ori ente m orend o p erdendo (f rom p erdere

,
1
,
to ,

l os e) p erdend os i cal a ndo an d s morzand o

, ,
2
Su ch expression s .

a re usua ll y tra n s l ate d

1 28 I gra duall y dying away

n p ia n o mus ic t h e abbr e viat io n P ed in dic at e s that
. .
.

t h e d amper pe d al (t h e o n e at t h e r ight ) is to b e d epr e ss e d

while the Sign at S hows that it is to be rel e as e d
mo d ern e di tion s this d epression and r el eas e of the d amper
n ma ny . I ,

pe dal are more a c curately in dicate d by the S ign L

Th t m nz
e er dini i se l i n lly f d i ld d i t i n i nd i t i g t h t
a s or s a so o ccas o a o un n O e o s, ca n
:

t h d mp
e a p d l ier t b d e p a e d wsh i l o n d in
ei h w t
e h t it i
re sst b l d ,
e co s or s o s a s o e re ease .

Th es e exp in t k n f m
ress o s are g in m i fa e t i g d i ro t m nt i wh i h
a u sa e us c or s r n e n s ru e s, n c

th t m
e er n di i m co s ort h t t h m t ( m ll l m p f m t l i v y
n ea n s a h dw d) e u e a s a c a o e a ,
or or ar oo

i t b
s o ffi d t t h b i dg t hi
e a xe o i g m d ifi t i in b t h p w
e r e, d q li t y f
s ca u s n a o ca on o o e r an ua o

th te T h d mp
o ne . th p i
e a d t i
er o n y w y p nd t t h m t t h
e a no o e s no n an a co rres o o e u e us

u se d t i g d i
on s r n t m nt e d th t m
n s ru b v pl i d
e s , an m t im i g e er s a o e ex a ne a s so e e s o c cu rr n

i pi
n m i
ano n t t b
u s c a re mm d ed
o v n tho gh B t h v n
e re co d t h m in en ,
e e ou ee o e u se e

t his s en se in ll hi li a t s ear er s on a a s .

1 29The wor d s u na corda (lit

. o n e str in g ) in dic at e that .

“ ”
the sof t p e dal (t h e on e at t h e l ef t) is to b e d epr e ss e d wh il e ,

the wor d s tre corde (l it thr ee strings) o r tu tte l e corde (all the .

strings) show that t h e sam e p e d al is t o be r el eas e d Th e s e .

“
expression s r efer to t h e f a c t that o n gran d pian os the so f t
”
pe dal when d epresse d moves t h e hamm ers to o n e sid e so that
in st ea d o f strikin g thr ee strin gs th ey strik e o nl y two (in t h e
O l d e r p ian os o nl y on e h e nc e u na corda) all thr e e strings (tre , ,

corde) b e ing stru ck again a f t e r the r el ease o f t h e p e d a l .

1 30 Oth e r te rms r el ating eith e r direc tly o r indire c t ly to

.

the subj e c t o f dyn amic s are :

C n m o wi t h t d n
a ore en er e ss .

wi t h b ldn
fi
C n v
o ra u ra o e ss .

C n l it o wi t h p i di t y
ce er a ra .

C d l i t zz
on ew i t h d li
ca e y a e cac

C n gi
on e wi t h 7

er gy a en e r .

C p i n
on es wi t h p i n
res s o e — ex ress o .

I i y
1
B o t h mo rien t e an d morendo m e an l t eral l —
dyin g .

2
Fro m s mor a re ( t ) z
t o ex t ng u sh . i i .
60 MUSIC NO TATION AN D TERM I NOLOGY

C on f or za i f
w th o rce .

C on f uoco wi t h fi re and p a ss i on .

Con grand
’
es p ress ione wi t h g rea t exp ress on i .

Con gra ia z wi t h g ra ce .

i i — wi t h m l h ly
C n m
o l a ncon a e an c o .

C n p
o i n ass o wi t h p i
e as s o n .

C n pi it
o s r wi t h p i i t
o S r .

C on t n ezz ere wi th t d n
a en er e ss .

D li t
e ca o d li t ly e ca e .

D l
o ce w t ly g t l y
s ee ,
en .

D l i im
o c ss m t Sw t l y
o os ee .

D l
o ce e can a t bil g t ley d wi t h ien
g i g t an s n n on e .

D l t
} i i y w f y
o en e
p l t l a n ve ll o r so rro u .

D l
o oros o

E p
s iv
ress o
p iv ly
ex re ss e .

G randi osog dl y p m p ran ly ,

o ous .

G zi
ra os og f l ly rac e u .

Gi ocoso h m ly ( f j
u o ro u s ) ,
c . o co s e .

Gi j
o os o j yf ully ( f j y )o ,
C . o ou s .

L acrim nd l a im
o, acr wf l l y
os o so rro u .

L g t
e a o m t hl y s oo .

L gg i
e ero l ig h t l y .

L ggi i im
e er ss m t li gh t ly ; lm t t t
o os a os a s a cca o .

l Lu ing nd
s a o i gly ca re ss n i gly t d ly ,
co ax n ,
en er .

‘
M t m t o m j t i lly
\
aes a , a es os a es ca .

M t ll nd m t ll t
ar e a
l
o, t
ar e a o gly t ed (lit h mm d) s ro n ac cen ,
. a ere .

M ri la z a e m ti l w
ar lika ar -
e .

k M t es o p n i v ly e s e .

M zz ve o wit h h l f v i
oce a o ce .

Mi t i s er os o my t i ly s er ous .

P l nd
ar a w ll
o t d
e a c cen e i t d ; pp li d t m l d y p l yi g (T h w d
o r en u n c a e a e o e o a n . e or

p l d
ar an o m l i t
ean s l l y era
p k i g ) s ea n .

P t l
as ora e i i mp l d fi t d t yl (lit p t l
n s e an l) un a ec e s e, . as ora , ru ra .

P mp i
o p mp
o o ly o ou s .

P c pit
re i oso
p i p i t l
recy ou s .

R it tiv
ec a w llo ei t d (Th i m i g pp li
en u n c a e ly i i t m nt l m i . s ea n n a es o n n n s ru e a us c

in w h i h
c m l dy i t
a e o t d
s t b v th
o s an mp i m nt F d f Of i t t iv
ou a o e e acco an e . or e . rec a e

in v oca l m i u s c , s ee
p .

Ri l tso u o fi m ly r l t ly ,
reso u e .

‘
S S h z
c er a n d h z
o, sc er os o, t j k g l y Th t m e c d iv d f m t h w d
. o in . e se er s are er e ro e or

s h z m
c er o i g m i l jk
ean n a u s ca o e .

S mpl i
e ce i mply s .

S mp m
e re ti im arca l w y w ll m k d i
ss o t r gly a t d a s e ar e ,
. e .
, s on a ccen e .

S tim t
en en o wi t h t i m t se n en .

S ol enn e so l em n .

S ott o voce in su bd d v i ue o ce.

S pirit oso wi th spi it r .

 DYNAMICS 6 1

A S trepitoso i i
p rec p t o u sl y .

T ranqu il l o t ranq u ll i y .

T ris t amente sadl y .

1 3 Many other terms are enc ountere d which on th eir

1 .

fa c e sometimes seem to be q u ite f ormid ab l e but whic h yiel d ,

readily to an alysis Thus e g crescend o p oco a p oco al forte

. . .
,
“
ed nu p ochetti no accel erand o is s een to mea n mer e ly , in
c rease gra d ua ll y to forte an d a cc el erate a very litt l e b it A .

liberal applicatio n of c ommon sen se will aid greatly in the

mt emret at iofiT uCH expressions .
 CHAP T ER X V I
TE RM S R E L AT IN G To F O RM S AND S T YL E S
1 3A form in music is a spe cifi c arran gemen t of the
2 ;

various parts of a c omposition resul ting in a stru c ture so

c hara c ter istic that it is eas il y re c og niz e d by the e ar Thus .

e g
. . al though every fugue is d iff eren t f rom all other fugues
,
‘
in a c tual material yet the arran geme n t o f the various parts,

is S O chara c terist ic that n o o n e who kn ows the fugu e form has

any d oub t as to what kind o f a c ompositio n he is hear in g whe n

ever a fugue is p l aye d The wor d form is therefore see n to be .

somewhat syn onymous with the word pl an as use d in ar c h

it e c t u re ; it is the stru c ture o r d esign u n d erlying music .

Examp l es o f f orm are the c a n o n the f ugue the so n ata e t c , , ,

.

Sp eak n g i b ro a dl yw e m ay s ay t h at f orm in a ny art c on s s t s i in t h e p lac ng t o i

g e t h er o f c e rt a n i
Ip art s in s u ch i
re l at o n s of p ro p o rt i on a n d s y y
m m et r a s t o m a ke a
.

unifi d wh l
e n m i t h i i mp l i
o e . us c s es un ity of 123 11 1 t an d o f g en era l rh yt h m i c e ff e c t ,

asw ll e ity i t h g pi g f
a s un n e ro u n o t h e va r i ou s p art s of the w o rk (p h rases ,
i
p er od s ,
m m nt y
o ve e t w ld t h m i t
s s o as o e e n o on e wh ol e , g i i
v ng i
t h e m p re s s i on Of c o m p l e t en e ss

t o t h e b eare r .

331 The pr
. i ma l bas is of form is the rep et it ion o f some
"

c hara c ter ist ic e ff e c t an d the prob l e m o f the c ompos e r is to

,

bring about these r epetitio n s in su ch a way that t h e e ar will

re c o g ni z e them as bein g the same materia l an d will n ev ert h e
l ess n o t grow weary o f them Thi s is a c comp lish e d by vary .

ing the material (cf thematic d evel opme n t) by in tro d u cing .

,

c o n trast in g material an d by c ho ic e o f key ,

.

1 34 The stu d en t S ho ul d n ote at the outset of thi s top ic

.

the diff erence in meaning between the terms form an d s tyl e:

62
64 MUSIC NO TATION AND TERM NOL OGY I
1 3 8 . I
p olyp honic mu sic ea ch vo ic e is to a c erta in exten t
n
”
mel odic all y in terestin g an d the harm ony is the resul t of ,

c omb inin g severa l me l o di es in su c h a way as to give a p l eas

ing e ffe c t in stea d o f treatin g a mel o d y by a ddi ng c hor d s as

,

an a c c ompa n ime n t or s u pport Coun terpo in t c an o n rou nd .

, , ,

fugue e t c are all p oly p h onic in styl e

,
.
, The word contra .

p untal is o fte n use d syn o nymously with p olyp honic .

(S t i n 3 9 t 43 rl t
ec o p i ll y t t m d sc ibi ng p l yp h ni m i )
s 1 o 1 e a e es ec a o er s e r o o c us c .

39 1 . theC ou n terp oint is

art o f a d d in g o n e or more parts
or mel o d ies to a given mel o dy the l atter being known as the ,
“ ”
c a n tus fi rm u s or subje c t It may therefore b e broa dl y '

.
,
“ ”
d efin e d as the art of c omb ining mel o dies .

T he w ord cou nt er oint co m e s

p f rom t h e t h ree w o rd s
“
pu nctus contra p unctum ,

m ean ng i “
i
p o n t ag a ns t i po nt i ”
w i
T h e o rd po n t as h ere u sed ref ers t o t h e punctu s
.
,

o ne o f t h e n eum ae o f t h e m edia eval sy s t em , t h es e n eum ae e ng t h e mm ed at e p red bi i i

ecesso rs o f m od ern no t e s .

Both v ocal and in s t rum ent a l m us i c h ave b een w i t t r en in c on t rap un t al st yl e .

The f i
ami l ar t wo and t h ree p art
-
“
i nv en t on s i ”
by B h ac are ex cell en t ex am p l es o f

in st ru m en t al c o un t e rp o n t , i wh i l e su ch ch o ru ses as t h o se in
“
T h e M ess i ah
”
by H and e l

I
i ll u s t rat e t h e hig h e st t yp f v e o o cal c oun t e rpo nt i .

1 40 . the repetition by one part o f a subje c t

mitation is
or theme previously in tro d u ce d by an other part f the
im itat io n is exa c t the term s tric t imitation is appli e d but if
,

. I
, ,

o nl y approximate then the term free imitation is use d in refer

,

ring to it The repetitio n n ee d no t have the exa c t p it ches o f

.

the subj e c t in ord er to be s trict; o n the c o n trary the imitatio n

is usually at the in terval O f an o c tave or a fi f th or a se c o n d , , ,

et c Fig 5 7 shows an examp l e O f stric t imitatio n in whi c h the

. .

third part c omes in an o c tave l ower tha n t h e first part .

1 41 A canon is a c o n trapu n tal c ompos itio n in the styl e

.

O f stric t imitat io n o n e part repeatin g exa c t ly (but at any

,

in terval ) what a n other part has p l aye d or sung The term .

“ ”
c a n o nic styl e is sometimes appli e d to music in which the
imitatio n is n ot exac t An examp l e o f three part cano n is .
-

g ive n in Fig 5 7 . .
 TERMS RELATING TO FORM S AND STY LES 65

C AN O N IT H
N R EE V O IC E S; IH N T E UN IS O N AN D O C T A V E

F ig . 5 7 .
MO !AR T

b
n on
e cau se

-
T he w o rd ca n on

t h e ru l e s
fl exibilit y t h at t h e
m eans l aw,
i
rel a t n g

canon
t o it s
is so
and w as
c om po s

i
l t t le
app l ed

iti on

u sed as a
i
w
to th
ere

fo rm a t
i
i s

nv ar a
p arti
i bl
cul ar

e . Ii b
f
t is
orm o f c o m po s

e ca u se o f

t h e p re s en t t m e : t h e m od ern
iti
th s
on

i
c o m po ser d ema nd s a p l an of w i ti
r ng t h at is cap a bl e of bi
e ng var ed i t o su ch a n e x t en t

as i
t o g ve hi m ro o m fo r t h e i
ex erc s e o f his o wn p art i c u lar i d ivi d l i t y
n ua i
o f conc ep t o n ,

and t hi s th e ca non d oes no t do . Fo r t h i s sa m e reaso n t oo th f g e u u e and th e so na t a

h ave s u cc ess vel i yg one o u t o f f ashi o n and f rom S ch uma nn d o wn t o t h e p rese n t t m e i

co m p o se rs h ave as it were c reat ed t he i r o wn f orm s , the if y i
d fi c ul t in l s t e n ng a r s ng i ii
f ro m t he f act t h a t no o ne but t h e co m po s er him s el f co u ld rec o g ni z e f
t h e o rm as a f m
or
66 MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLO GY
b ecau se it h ad no t b ee n ado p t ed to a g rea t en o ug h ex t en t by o t h er com posers t o m ak e
it in any is t h a t in m u ch p resen t d ay m u s c it is ver
sen se u nive rsal . T he res ul t -
i y
i ffi i
d cul t f or t h e b ea rer t o d sco v er any t rac e o f am l ar d es g n , and t h e m p ress on f ii i i i
m ad e
t h e cl a ss
in t h e
by
n ear
i c s ch oo l .

fu t u re for in
i
I
s u ch m u s c is in co nseq u enc e m u ch l ess d e n t e t h an t h a t m ad e

t is p ro
any art
b bl
mu s c o f
a e t h at
it is
a rea c t o n

n ec e ssa r
i f m t hi
y th t th
fi i
ro

a
s s t a t e o f aff a rs

e re Sh o ul d be at
by i
i will m
l e a st
co

eno ug h
e

se m bl an c e of s t ru c t ure t o m ak e t h e a rt w ork ca p bl f t
a e o i
s a nd ng a s a un v ersal i i
t h ng
ra t h e r t h an as t h e m e re t em po ra r y exp res s on i of so m e p a rt i c ul a r c o m p o ser o r o f

so m e i
p e r od o f co mpo si t i on .

1 The c omm on school round is an examp l e o f can o n

42 .
,

ea ch vo ic e repeatin g exa c tly what the first voic e has su ng ,

wh il e th is first vo ic e is goin g o n with it s mel o dy T h e rou nd .

is there f ore d efi n e d as a variety o f c a n o n in whic h the imitat io n

is a lways in u ni so n with the S u bje c t .

1 43 The fu gu e (Latin fuga

. fli ght ) is a f orm Of Co n tra ,

p u n ta l c ompos i t io n in wh ic h t h e im itatio n is al ways in the

d om in a n t k ey i e a fi ft h above or a f ourth bel ow,
. .The, .

“ ”
1m it at io n ( c a ll e d the a n swer ) may be an exa c t repetition
“
of the subj e c t (somet imes c all e d the but is u s
u all y n o t so .

f m t h e n n al in th t t h e bj t i g iven in m p l t f rm
T h e f ugue di fl ers ro ca o so a su ec s co e e o

b f t h n w b g i n whi l e in t h n n t h i mi t a t i n b g i n wh i l e t h bj t i
e o re e a s er e s, e ca o e o e s e su ec s

s t i ll g i g n T h f ug e i no t n e l y
o n o . s t i t in f
e m uth n n nd g i v
s th ar SO r c or as e ca o a es e

co m p se m h g
o r t Op p t n i t y f
uc
p i ng m i l id ea A n n m y b
rea er or u or ex ress u s ca s . ca o a e

p f t in f m n d y et b v y p
er e c or am i ; thi m t t m n t mi g h t o f c
e se be
er oo r us c s sa e s a e e o ur

mad e abou t ny f o m b t i e p ci ll y t u e in t h e st ri ct er ones

a r ,
u s s e a r .
 CHAP TER XV
T ERM S RE LAT IN G To F O RM S AND S TYL E S (C o ntinu ed)
(S t i
ec on s 1 44 t o 1 60 rel a t e p art cul a rl i y t o t erm s u se d in d ec ip t i
s r ons o f mo no ~

phoni c m u s i 1
c .
)

44 1 A p .h ra s e is a S hort mus i c a l thought (at l east two

measures in l ength ) cl osin g with either a c omp l ete or an in
c omp l ete c a d e n c e The typ ic al p hrase is f our measures l on g
. .

The two m e asu re p hras e is Of t en c all e d s ection

-
T h e wor d .

p hrase as used in music term in ol ogy c orrespon d s with the same

word as us e d in l an guage stu dy .

a littl e p ie ce of music typ ic ally eight

either c omp l et e in itself or f ormi ng on e of the
Cl e arl y d efi n e d divisio n s o f a l arger f orm The p eri od (when .

c omp l ete in itse l f ) is the small est mo n opho nic fo

The ess en tial chara c t e ristic of the regu l ar p eriod is the ,

f a c t that it w c o ns ists o f two ba l a n c e d phrases (o f t e n

c all e d an teceden t an d cons equ en t o r thesis an d an tith esis ) the ,

first phras e givin g ris e t o the fe eling of in compl eten ess (by
mean s of a c a den c e in an other k ey d ec eptive c a d en c e , ,

the s ec ond phras e givin g the effe c t of c omp l eten ess by mean s
o f a d efini te c a d e n c e at the Cl ose .

Th d h lf f t h p i d i
e s e co n a m tim o li t e l p t i t i n f t h fi t h l f in
er o s so e es a era re e o o e rs a ,

a ll p t
res t t h
ec s ex c e
p d b t i m ye ca t i t i
e n ce , p titi n f
u n ly n fan c a se s oo s a re e o o on o e o

th l m t
e e e h y t hm i t v l
en s r g l t li
,
f Fig 5 8
n er a s , o r d 59 h w mpl
en era ou ne s . an S o ex a es

o f b t h t yp
o T h p i i pl
es . l m t i nv i b l y h ld t h t t h
e r nc e a i mpl t h m i
os ar a o s a e S er e us c

( f f lk t
c . o ) th m
-
u ne s b vi t h f m f t h pe i d whil t h m
e o re o ou s e mp le t h e
or o e ro ,
e e o re co x

m i th l
us c , g l
e th p i d
e s s re u ar e er o .

Th 1
i v e rey p n n d d i g m n t m ng t h i t ro ou ce t wh t t e m s
sa ree e o

I
s a er e a eo r s s a s o a r ar
t b
o d in
e u se f in g t t in f m
re e rr nd p t f f m
o cer a d it eem i m p
or ib l t
s a ar s o or s an S s o ss e o
m k a e a co mp mi t h t wi l l
ro t i fy se v n a n bl n mbsa s d t m k
e e a re aso a e u er . n o r er o a e
t h m t i l in t h i
e a er a h pt n i t t wi t h i t lf t h
s c a f it h b t h g h t b t by
er c o s s en se e re o re as ee n ou e
s
th th
e au t f ll w t h t
or o mi l gy f
o o m ing l
e er gn i z d w k n f m
no o o nd t h so e S e re co e or o or , a e

g n e l pl n f m
e ra a p h nio f m h e g i n i t h f t h t f t h v l m lled
on o o c or re ve s e re o re a o e o u e ca
M i l F m by B
us ca or l C n ll
,
u ss er -
or e .

67
68 MUSI C NO TAT ION AN D TERMINOLOGY
F lg . 5 8 . M O !AR T
P e riod

2 nd S ect ion

F ig . 5 9 . S C H U ER T
B

a nt e ce d e nt

W
co n se q u e n t

1 46The p rim ary form s are bu il t up by c omb ining two

.

o r more pe r io d s .

The s m all two p art p rimary form (ofte n ca ll e d s ong form

- -

or Lied form ) c o n sists O f two perio d s so p l ace d that the sec

-

‘
o nd c o n stitutes a c o n se q uen t or an tithesis to the first The
'

se c on d ha lf of th is se c on d perio d is o f ten exa c tly the same as

the sec ond half of the first perio d thus b in din g the t wo ,

perio d s together in to absol ute u n ity The theme of the Chora l .

movemen t of the Nin th Symphony (B eethoven) q uote d bel ow

,

is a pe rfe c t examp l e of th is f orm Other examp l es are .

D rink to M e O nly With Th in e Eyes

“ “
an d The L ast Rose ,

o f Summer .

B EE T H O VE N

Fi t P i d rs er o
 TERM S RELAT ING TO FORM S AND STYLE S 69

Se co n d P e rio d

The s mal l three p art primary f the two part p ri -

orm is like -

mary f orm ex c ept that it has a se c t io n of c o n trast ing material

interpol ate d between the two perio d s Th is middl e part is .

usually an e ight measure phrase -

.

T h e l arge t wo and t hree p art p rimary forms usua lly have .

-

S ixteen measure perio d s in stea d of e ight measure ones but

- -

are otherwise sim il ar in co nstru c t ion .

Th v i p im y f m e d in n t t ing m n y v i et ies f m p i
ese ar o u s r ar or s ar u se co s ru c a ar o co os

ti n
o m ng t h m t h t h m
s, a o nd v i ti n th p l k t h w l tz t h m h t
e e e e a ar a o s, e o a, e a ,
e arc ,
e c .
,
as

w l l mos t f t h h t m v m nt in on t q t t t Th y e d in
e as o e s o r er o e e s S a as , u ar e s , e c . e ar us e

vo l m i
ca l b t l pt t b
u s c a so , g l h be ca e t h e fo m f v cal m i c
u are es s a o e re u ar ere us r o o us

i l ge ly d p nd n t p n t h s t r t u
s ar e f t he t e t
e e u o e uc re o x .

A theme is a fragmen t of mel o dy u se d as t h e subje c t

1 47 .

“
of a fugue as the bas is o f the d eve l opme n t se c tio n in
,
so nata
”
f orm et c Sometimes it is a compl ete tun e (of ten in perio d
,
.

f orm ) on whi ch variat io n s are ma d e as e g in the famil iar

, ,
. .

theme and variations .

1 48 . on sists in takin g a Short theme

T h ema tic devel op m en t c

(or sev e ra l S hort themes ) an d by mea n s o f tra n spos it io n in ter ,

val e xpan sio n and c o n tra c t io n rhythmic augme n tat io n and ,

diminutio n inversio n to nality chan ges e t c bu il din g out of

, , ,
.
,

it a l engthy co mposition or se c tion of a c omposition F ig 6 0 . .

b c d e an d f S how how the theme giv e n in F ig 6 0 (a ) may

, , , ,
.

be varie d in a few of these ways There a re hu nd re d s of .

other fashion s in wh ich this same theme might be varie d with

out d estroying it s id en tity For other examp l es of thematic .

d evel opmen t see the d evel opmen t se c tion of So n ata Op 3 1 .

Sec 3 as a nalyz e d in Appe ndix E

.
, .

F ig . 6 0 .

O ig i r n al t h e me
 M USI C N O TATION AND T ERMIN OLOGY

R hyt h m i c au g m e nt at io n

hyt h m i dim i
R c n u t ion I nve rs ion

F f th
o r uri ll t t i o
er u s ra ns o f d evel o p m en t in t h e ca se o f th i s sam e t h em e , see Ch r i s

t i ni
a T h P i ipl
e f E
r nc es o xp ress on i in P i f
ano o rt e p l a yi ng , p . 1 44, ff f
. ro m wh i ch the
f g i g th m h b
o re o n e es av e e en ad ap t ed .

49
1 A .r ond o is an in strume n ta l c ompos it io n (in homo
phonic styl e ) in wh ich a c erta in theme app ears several times
al most al ways in the same f orm n o t thematic a ll y varie d ) ,

the repetition s of this t h em e b em g separate d by c o n trast ing

’

the Ol d est of t h e l arger monopho nic forms and

ond o is

! h i
as bee n use d in ma ny d iff ere n t ways but perhaps it s most ,

v ch arac t erist ic c o n stru c t io n is as f oll ows ()1 P r in c ipa l sub

‘
l j ect ; ()
2 se c o n d sub je c t in d om in a n t k ey ; (3) pr in cip al
~

subj e c t ; (4) third subje c t ; (5 ) first subje c t again ; (6

se c on d subje c t in tonic key (7 ) c o d a (or e n ding)
,
"

,
.

The stu d en t sho ul d n ote partic ul arly the probl em of repe

t itio n an d c on trast (men t io n e d in Se c 1 3 4) as here worke d .

o u t as the ro n d o was the first mo n opho ni c f orm in whi c h thi s

,

matter was at all satisfa c toril y sol ve d an d it s c on stru c tion is ,

espe cially in teresting be c ause it is readily seen to be o ne o f the

dire c t pre de c essors o f the hi ghest f orm O f all —
the son a t a .

Examp l es o f ro n d os may be f ou n d in any vo l ume of so natas

or so n at in as .

1 50 A s uite is a set o f in strumen tal d a n c es all in the same

.

or in n early rel at e d keys T h e first d an ce is usually pre ce d e d

.

by an in tro du c tio n o r prel u d e , and t h e various d an ce s are so

groupe d as to s ec ure Con trast o f movemen t a q uick d anc e
bein g usual ly f oll owe d by a sl ower one .
7 2 MUSIC NO TAT ION AND TERMINOLOGY

ah nos t al ways in rap id tempo Ea ch of these movemen ts is a .

p ie c e o f music with a u nity o f it s ow n but they are all m e rge d ,

together in a l arger whol e with a broa d u n d erl ying uni ty of

l arger s c ope The c omposition re c eives it s n ame f rom the
.

f a c t that it s first movem e n t is c ast in s onata form (See S e c -

. .

1 5 7 f o r d es c ript io n o f so n ata f orm ) -

When the s on ata has f our movemen ts these are usually ,

arrange d as f oll ows :

1 A q uick movemen t (all egro p res to e t
. o f ten pre , ,

c e d e d by a s l ower in t ro d u c t io n f a f
’
z

I
A Sl ow movemen t (l argo a nd ante ad agio

I
2 .
, , ,

A m inuet or s cherz o O f ten with a trio a dd e d in

3
;
.
, ,

“
?
wh i c h c ase the part pre c e di n g the tr io i s repeate d
t A
a f ter the trio is p l aye d .

4 A q u.ic k moveme n t the fi n a l e somet imes a ro n d o , ,

sometimes a n other so na orm S ometimes a theme

W
,

with variation s .
t

These movemen ts are all in cl osel y rel ate d k eys but in ,

a variety O f c o n trastin g rhythms .

1 54 A trio is a son ata for three in strume n ts (su ch as

.

p ian o violin and c el lo) wh ile a qu artet is a so n ata for f our

, , ,

in strumen ts the most c o m mo n q uartet c omb in at io n be in g as

,

f ol l ows : F irst an d se c o n d vio lin s vio l a an d Vio l o n c e l l o , ,

.

T he term cham ber m u s ic is Of ten appl ie d to in strume n ta l

mus ic f or trio q uartet q u in tet and other Sim ilar c omb in at io n s
, , ,

wh ic h are su itab l e for a sma ll room rather than fo r a l arg e

c o n c ert hall .

Th w d t i e or sd q t t e l
r o an pp l i d t o
uar e v calarw k f
a so t h a n d f e o or s or ree a o ur

v i es
o c p t i v
re sl y t
ech h v i g
e n l,
t i w
ese h t
a v n t t h o re an t d es
on ib ed a so e er o e so a a as cr

a b v T h w d t i i l ppl i d t t h e m i ddl
o e . e or r o s a so ati n f m in t
e o he e se c o o u e s, sc rza s ,

m a h es e t
rc ,
th t m c . ig i t i ng in t h ld g f w i t i ng t hi p t f t h e in
,
e er or na e o u sa e o r s
'

ar or r e

t
s ru m nt nl y
e s o .

A n t i a so n ata f r a so l o in strume n t With

55 1 co cer o .s o

orchestral a cc ompa n ime n t t h e f orm being usually somewhat ,

mo dified S O as to a d apt it to a c omposition in wh ich there must

 TERM S RELATING TO FORMS AND STYLE S
'

nec essaril y be oppo rtunity for a goo d d eal of te ch n ic al di sp l ay .

The re are usually but three movemen ts in t h e concert o

_
.

Th g et m j it y rea f n t a or f pi o nd coh t b t mp l
cer os f a re or ano a o rc e s ra
,
u exa es o

co n t f
c er o s vi l i ll
or fl t Obo n , ced th o, l in t m u e, t ( l l wi t h h t l
oe , an o er so o s ru en s a o rc es ra

a c co mp ni m n t ) h v
a l e b n w it t a Af w m d n
e a so eemp h v pp li d t h
r en . e o er co o sers a e a e e

t m
er n t t
co cer o t i l g o g n w
c er a n k ( wi t h n h
ar e o r a t l m p ni m t t h or s o o rc es ra acco a en ,
e

co m p i t i n b i ng w i t t n f
os o e j t th r i t m nt ) b t t h i
e or usf th w d i e on e n s ru e ,
u s u se o e or s so

t
co n rar y t t h pot d d fi i t i
e a c ce t h t i t i eh dl y j t ifi
e b l
n on a s ar us a e .

Wh t i pl y d n t w p i
en a co n ce r o s (wi t h t a h t ) t hi d
e o n t m no an o s ou o rc es ra ,
s o es o ea

t h t tha i n
ere h t l p t b t th t th
s o o rc e s ra i n h tar t p l y it
,
nd u th a ere s o orc es ra o a ,
a so e

p t
ar st h t h lad b p ls y d ouby t h e h t l
a i t m
e n t h v i m p l y b n n
e o rc
g d e s ra n s ru e s a e s ee arra e

I
fo r a seco n d p i n ( m tim a g o ) so e es o r an .

1 A symp hony is a son ata for full orch e stra

5 6 . n ge n era l .

it s c o n stru c tio n is the same as that of the son ata but it is ,

usuall y of mu ch l arger proportion s an d has in it mu ch great e r

varie ty of both ton al an d rhythmic material The symphony .

is ge n era lly c o n c e d e d to be the highest type O f in strume n tal

music ev e r evol ve d .

Th y mph ny w
e s p t ed t nd d f m in t h t i m
o f H yd n ( 7 3
a s a c ce 8 9) as a s a ar or e e o a 1 —
2 1 0

a nd w d l p d
as m l y by H yd n h i m l f M z t ( 7 5 6
ev e o e en or nd Bou sth v n a se ,
o ar 1 a ee o e

( 771 0 h i g p h p i t h i g h
rea ct p i n t i
nn th f m Ni Sym p h i
er a f s s es o e a ou s
“
ne on es
”
o

th l t e m d
as mp
-
na L t ym p h n y w i t w h w k
e co o s er t p
. t b i g a er s o r ers o se o r s are a re s en e n
‘
p f m
er o rd i l d S he m n T h
nc u i k w k y e n d D
c v fuak an ,
sc a o s ,
a o .

T he
word symp h ony was f orm e rly use d syn onymously w ith
ritorn ell e both wor d s b e in g app lie d to in strum e n ta l in t e rl u d e s
,

b e tw e en parts of vo cal works but this usage has n ow en tirely ,

d isapp e are d .

1 57 S ona ta form (som e tim e s c a ll e d s onata all egro) is a

.
— -

p lan f or the c on stru c tion of in strum en ta l music (son atas ,

q uart e ts sympho n ie s ,
in wh i c h three rath e r d e fi n it e ,

divis ion s a lways o cc ur the th ir d di visio n being a more or l ess ,

lit e ral repetitio n of t h e first .

Th th p t f
ese t f m wi t h t h i
ree l
ar s ob d i vi i n s on a a -

or e r u su a su s o s are

I EX O SI TIO N P

( ) P i ip l t h m ( fi t bj t )
1 r nc a e e or rs su ec .

( ) Li k p i d ( m d l t i g
2 n
p)
-
e so e or o u a on ro u

‘
.

(3 ) S d y t h m ( song g p)
e co n l w y in ar n ea l y l t ed key
e e or ro u a a s a r re a

/
, .
.

g“
8;Citdl
g g m p fi s l u

fl y
.

‘
e
-

fl
o u
l r
l m b 1
74 MUSIC NO TATION AND TERM NOLOGY I
II D EVEL O ME NT S EC TIO N P

T t i g th th m i t d
rea n e e es n ro u ce d in t h e exp o s iti on in an al mo st i nfini t e var i
ty f f hi n
e d ing t
o as o s , acco r o i i
t h e p r n c p l es of t h em at i c d evelop m en t .
(See
Sec .

III E CAP I TU ATIO N (O R RE RI SE)

. R L P

C n i t i ng o n ti ll y
s s f th m
es se bd i vi i n f nd in th p iti n b t
a o e sa e su s o s ou e ex os o ,
u

d i ff i g f m t hi fi t er n t i n in n
ro n t i l p in t
s rsvi t h t in t d f
sec o o e es se a o ,
z .
, a s ea o

t t in g t h s a d y t h m in e s econ l t d k y th ar nt i p i t el t i n i in t h
e a re a e e ,
e e re re ca u a o s e

p i n ip l kr y T h i
c t h i
a d t i
e n i . l w y f l l w sd by dr ( w h i h
se cm y o s a a s o o e a co a c a

i t h b v y h t q i t t d d ) b i ng i ng t h wh l m v m n t t
e er e er s or or u e ex en e ,
r e o e o e e o

m d fini t l
'

a o re e e c o se .

Th e nd p se c o t f n t f m (t h d
ar o l pm t so tia a) i f t n t h l ng t
-

or e ev e o en se c on s o e e o es

I
and m t i t i
os t f th t h
n r ca e o d i vi i n nd it i e t t h i p i n t th t t h
ree mps o h ass, a s a s o a e co o ser

an Op p t n i t y f d i p l yi ng t t h f ll hi
or u o s ig in lit y nd i v n t i v k i ll t i p i n
a o e u s or a a n e e s . s r

cip ll y b
a Of t h i d v l pm t
e ca u se t i n th t th
s e t i
e o f enp i s ec
f m o a e so n a a s so ar su e r o r as a or

t it p d
o s re F
e ce s so rs n l yz d . mp l f
o r an a n t f m Ap p nd i E
a e Th
ex a e o so a a -

or ,
see e x . e

g h t h fi t m v m t wi t h
t d nt i
s u

vi w t

or
e

f m wil l f
e

o
d vi d t t k
s a

o b
th se

a
t o

fi d i ng t l t t h t h m i n d i vi i n m t i ned b v
n ea s
nd g a the o

i g l t h t all t h p t i ndi t d nn t b di v ed
co u rse e so rre
e r so n a as a

ree

u ar
n m a

a
th s o

e
o

ar s
ro u

en o a

ca e
e

o
rs

ca
. I
o
o e

so

e
en s

e cases

sco er
a

I
b t th g n
u e l e t li n
e ra f th ouh m wi ll l w y b pes o nt e sc e e a a s e re se .

1 A sonatin a as it s n ame implies is a littl e so nata

5 8 .
, t , .
A

diff ers f rom the so n ata proper prin cipall y in having litt l e or
n o d eve l opme n t the se c o n d se c tio n be in g o f S light importa n c e
,

as c ompare d with the c orrespo n ding se c tion O f a son ata .

A grand s on ata is like an or di n ary son ata in form but is o f ,

u nusuall y l arge dimen sion s .

1 59 P rogram m u s i c 1 5 I n strume n tal music wh ich is sup

.

pose d to c o n vey to the l ist e n er an image o r a su cc essio n o f

images that w ill arous e in h im c erta in emotio n s wh ich have
’
been previously arouse d in the c omposer s m in d by some s cen e ,

even t or idea The cl ue to the gene ral ide a is O ft e n give n

,
.

at the begin ning of the music in the form of a poem or a

short d es cription of the thing in the min d of the c omposer ,

but there are many examp l es in wh ich ther e is n o cl ue what

soever ex c ept the t itl e o f the c ompos itio n .

P g m m i ro ra p t m n b t w n p em
us c rei ( f t h e p i n
re s en s a
so n ta ea e ee ur us c c . a o a or

th t i g q
e s rn t t) th n h nd nd d
u ar e ipt iv m i (i w hi h
on te l i mi t t i
o e a ,
a escr e us c n c ac ua a on s

O f bi d ll w h i t l t h bl wi g f t h wi d t h g ll p i ng f h
r -
ca s, s es , th e ll i g f o n o e n ,
e a o o orses , e ro n o

t h nd
u t ) n th th
e r, e c .M t p g m m i i w i t t n f th
,
o c c ur ,
o h es t
e o er . os ro ra us c s r e or e o rc ra,

e mp l
xa b i g Li szt s T h P él d
es e n S t au ss Till Eul en p i g el et c
’ “
e r u es ,
”
r
’ “
s e ,
.
 TERMS RELATING TO FORMS AND STYLES 75

1 A symp honic p oem (or tone p oem) is an or ch e stra l

60 .

c ompositio n o f l arge dime n sio n s (r e s e mb lin g t h e sympho n y

‘
in Siz e) usually embo dying the program id ea
,
It has n o pre .

s c ribed form and seems in dee d to be O f t en c hara c teriz e d by

an al most tota l l a ck o f d e sign but th e re are a l so e xamp l es o f ,

symphonic poems in whi c h the same th eme run s throughout

the e n tire c ompositio n b eing a d apte d at the various po ints,

at whic h it o ccurs to the particul ar moo d s expresse d by the

program at those po in ts .

T h e s y mphonic poem wa s i nv en t e d by Li z t
I
(1 8 1 1 886 ) and h as i b e e n u se d
—
s 1 s n ce

i y by S
e x t en s v el t ra u s s , a n t S i S -
aen s a n d o t h e rs ” ; t c am e i
n to i
ex s t en c e a s a part of

t h e g eneral m o ve m en t wh i h h
c as cau s e d the f u g u e an d the so n at a s u cce ss veli yt o go
o ut o f f i
ash o n , viz .
,
t h e t en d en c yt i o nv e n t f o rm s wh i ch w o l
u d no t h am p er t h e co m
po s er in an y w ay , bu t w o ul d l eave him a b so l u t e ly f ree to exp re ss i
h is d eas in h is o wn

i divi du
n al way .
 CHAP TER XV I
T E RM S RE LAT I NG T o VO CAL M U SI C
1 61 . Ana sa c re d c horal c ompositio n usually
an th em is ,

base d o n B iblic al o r liturgica l word s It may or may n o t

1
.

have an in strumen tal a cc ompa nime n t and is usually written ,

in f our parts but may have five six eight or more

, , , ,
.

T h w d nth m i d i v d f om
e or a t if n ( e t iph ) m ni g
s p lm r
er e r an o a o r an ona , ea n a sa o

h ym n ng p n i v ly i
su nt iph n lly by t w
re s o s h i e by h i nd ng g t i n
,
. e .
, a o a ,
o C o rs , o r c o ra co re a o .

A fu ll o n tainin g no sol o parts ; as ol o anthem

anth em is on e c

is o n e in wh ic h the so l o part is pre d omin a n t over the c horu s ,

whil e a vers e anthem is o ne in which the chorus parts a l tern ate

with passages for c o nc erte d so l o vo ic es trios q uartets , ,

1 62 . A p ella (sometimes spell e d capp ell a) or all a cap ell a

ca

m u sic is part Singing (either sa c re d or sec ul ar) without acc om

-

p ani m e n t .

Th i s t erm m ea n s l t erall i y in ch ap el s t l e , y and re e rs f to the f ac t t h a t in t h e

.
earl y
day s of t he ch u rch all s ng ng i i w as u n a ccom p ani ed .

1 63 . A m otet is a s ac re d
horal c omposit ion in c gntrap un c

It has n o so l o part s thus c orrespo nding to the ,

r music T h e motet is in te nd e d for .

a u ce but is o f ten given with organ ,

a cc ompanime n t .

1 64 A ch oral is a hymn tu n e of the German P rotestan t

.
-

C hurch It is usuall y harmo niz e d in f our voic es The choral

. .

( somet imes spe ll e d ch or a l e) is d es c r ibe d as hav in g a p l a in

”
mel o dy a stro n g harmony an d a stately rhythm
,
It diff ers ,
.

f rom the or din ary E nglish an d Am e ric a n hym n tu n e in bein g -

A lit gy i
1
p ur i bed f m m t h d f du t i ng r li g i s rvi nd
s a rescr or or e o o co n c a e ou se ce , a

th p
e t g in
a r s s unh vi ( g t h h l y com m ni n b p t i m et )
suc a s er re t e
ce as e . .
,
e o u o ,
a s ,
c . a

f er ed t o t h m i l lit g y
r as e us ca ur .
 TERMS RELATING T o V OCAL MUS IC 77

usually su ng at a much sl ower tempo and in having a pause ,

at the end O f ea ch line of text l

.
3

1 65 The m ass is the liturgy for the Celebration of the

.

’
Lord s Supper in the s e rvic e of the Roman Catholic Church .

As use d in the termin ol ogy o f music the wor d ref ers to the six
hymn s which are always incl ud ed wh en a c omposer writes a
mus ical mas s an d wh ich f orm the basis of the c elebration of
,

the Communion 1
These s ix hymn s are as foll ows : .

Kyrie
Gl oria (in cl u ding the Gratias agimus Qui tollis Q uonia m , , ,

Cu m S ancto S p irito)
Credo (in cl u d ing the Et ncarnatus Crucifixus an d El
Res urrexit)
.

I , ,

S anctus (in cl u di n g the H osanna) .

B enedictu s .

Agnus Dei (in cl u ding the D ona nobis ) .

T he requ iem ma s s is t h e m ass fo r t h e d ea d

”
and di ff e rs cons i d b ly f
era rom th e
ord na r i ym a ss . Bot h reg ul a r and req u e m i ma ss es h ave b een w itt r en by m ny a of the

g rea t co m p o s e rs (B ach ,
B ee t h o ven , V e rdi , Go un od ) , and in m y an ca se s t h e se mass es
a re so co m p l ex t ha t t h e y are no t p rac t ca i bl e fo r t h e a c t u al s er vi f th
ce o e C h u rch , a nd

a re t h e re f o re per f orm ed o nl y by l a rg e ch o ral so c e t es , a s co n cer i i t w k or s .

A cantata is a vo ca l c ompositio n for chorus and so l o ists

1 66 .
,

t h e text being either sa c re d o r se c ul ar The ac c ompanimen t .

may be writte n for p ian o organ or orchestra , ,

.

Wh n d i he t th nt t
sa cre diff f m th
n c arac e rt
i in b i ng h t
e ca a a e rs ro e o ra o r o
!
e s or e r

a nd l d m t i in n t
ess ll y h vi g d fin i t
ra a c, h t o d in b i ng w i t t e n f
u s ua a n e e c a ra c ers , an e r or

c h h urc wh i l t h
u se , t i i int d d f e n t p f m n
e o ra o r o s en e or co cer er o r a ce .

Wh n ul in bj t t h e nt t d ifl f m t h p in n t
e s ec ar su ec ll y h v i ng
ca a a ers ro e o era o usua a

d fini t
e h t e c nd in b i g l w ay
ara c ers , a nd d wi t h t n y ti n
e n a s re e re ou sc e er o r ac o .

E mp l f th
xa d nt t es o S t in Th C
e s acre ifi i n C l g h L ig h
ca a a are : a
’
er s
“
e ru c x o ,
”
ou -
e

T h Ri g h t T h Ho ly Ci t y E mpl Of th s
’ “ ” ’ “ ”
t er s , B n h e nd G l eo u s ra c ,
a au s e . xa es e ec

C l i d g T yl Hi w th “ “ ”
A me i
’ ’
ul t t B
ar ca n a a are : h ru c s r n us, o er e -
a or s a a a .

1 67 . An
a c omposition o n a l arge s ca le f or
ora torio is
c horus solo ists an d orch e stra t h e text usually d ealing with
, , ,

some religious subj e c t T h e orat orio as n ote d above is n o t

I
,
.
,

1
t sh o uld be u nd ers t ood t h a t t hi s s t a t em en t re ers t o t h e serv f i ce called
“
the

m bi i i wi
” “
h ig h as s onl y , there e ng no mus c at all in connect on th th e so call ed
-
low
mass
’
.
 7 8 MUS IC NOTATION AND TERM INOLOGY

in te n d e d f or the c hur ch service but ,

is written for c oncert
performan c e .

1 68 An
pera is a c omposition fo r vo cal sol oists chorus
o

I
.
, ,

an d or c hestra w ith c hara c ters a c t io n s c e n ery and d ramatic

, , , ,

movemen t t I S a d rama s e t to mus ic

. .

G nd p rai Op wi t h
o i p l t in whi h v y t hi ng i
era s era
g th b ing a se r o u s o ,
c e er s sun ,
ere e

p k
no s o d i l g t ll
en a o a a .

Op miq i
era co p i f Op i w hi h p t f t h d i l o
ue s a s g p k n nd p t
ec e s o e ra n c ar o e a 1S s o e a ar

su

co
ng

m iq
d p
ra n
Op
i
.

d p
o
miq
Oft n
ue i
i
s as

miq
era an
t
era yn ym
t
co

i b i g b k
e

o
wi t h mi p f t h p l t f Op
d w
era co
ue

th l tt t m
s no

f t t h t i di t i t i n b t w n th t m
s er o u s as n o

f i g m ly
ue
s

s
.

e n
on

I n
o us

ac

ro en
e en

o
co

n,
re
c

e
o era ,

a
nc

er
o
or

er
e
e

re err n
ee
o o

e er
era

g ere

t o o
p fi t g i v t t h O p C m i q i P i nd t h e f m t m t t h
e ras rs en a e e ra o ue n ar s , a or er er o ose

g iv t th G
en a d Op H e i th
ran m it y e ra ou se n e sa e c .

an
A mi p
d t h wh l
A light p
e
co i h m
d i g h p p ily
i
c o

o e en

wi th n
t
Op erat h p l t p vi d i ng m

p
s a

d wi t h t h
n
y m i g it ti
u

m dy in l i t
d i g l y t i vi l p l t in w hi h
a t
o ro u s

. I e ra ,

corre s on
e

s
o ro

e co e
an a us n

era u re
’
s

.
ua ons

o era s one gs d n nd
a ex cee n r a o ,
c so n ,
a c e s, a

p tt y
re y t ib t t t h m m nt f t h d i
s ce n e r c on r u e T h m i i l i v ly
o e a u se e o e au en ce . e us c s e ,

b t u ll y
u su a t i i l th pl tas r v a as e o .

Th t m m i d m w e er u d by W gn
us c i f i g t h i wn p
ra a nd
as se a er n re err n o s o o eras , a

i l
s a so so m t im p p li d t e th m d n p
es a in w h i h t h d m t i
e ol m nt i
o er o er o eras c e ra a c e e e s

su pp d t p d m in t
os e vo th m re i l o a e o er e u s ca .

1 A libretto (lit
69 . l ittl e book) is the wor d text of an .
— -

opera oratorio c an tata or some other S imil ar work

, , ,
.

1 70 Recitative is a styl e o f vo c al s Ol o c ommo n to operas

.
,

oratorios an d c an tatas espe cially thos e written some time

, ,

ago Its ma in chara c teristic is that the word text is of para

.
-

moun t importan c e both rhythm an d to n e progression b eing ,

-

govern e d by rhetoric al rather tha n by music al c on sideration s .

R it t i v ec nd a b t edly ig in t d in t h i n t n i ng O f t h p i t in t h e i t li t i
e u ou or a e e o e r es r ua s c

se r vi f t h Ch
ce o h b t wh n pp l i d t t h
e urc , p u it b e m n i m po t nt m
e a n e o e o era ca e a r a ea s

o f i g d m t i ff t p ci ll y in i t t i n in wh i h t h e t i n f t h e p l y
s e cu r n ra a c e ec s , es e a s ua o s c ac o o a

m v d l ng

o
o

I
e

n th

nl y n in to
p
ly
i
a od l y
mpl
R
e ea r

m t (lik t h
e s ru
i t
f
t
ra iv i t h
it tiv t h e
ex a
. n

w
t b

ll ) b i ng m p l y ed t p l y
en
es o

e
p
ly
i
ec

y
fa m i l de l
mp im t Oft n
rec

t f bb l i g t m l d y
e ce o
m t is

a
n

e
e
u s see

e
re

o
o

as s ca rce
e a s

o a
ec e s o

an

a so r
acco

o
u s ca

o
an

a o
ec a

en ,
a

e o
o

e
.

:
‘

wh n f ll h d w p l y d t h ey w n t w i t t n t in t h co b t w e m ly
e u c or s ere a e e re o r e ou e s re , u re e re

i ndi t ed in m
ca l g n
a l w y by
o re o r t i n ig n
es s nd fi g e era (S th o gh a c er a s s a ures . ee
“
ro u

b ass ,
”
p 85 S .
,
ec .

B t b t t h m i dd l y lig h t ly d i ff n t t yl f
,

u a ou f th ev nt nt h nt e o e se e ee ce ur a s e re s e o

r it ti v w
ec a i nv t d nd in t h i t yp t h
e as en e ,
h t a w mp l y d m h m o e f s ly e e o rc e s ra as e o e uc r ree

in t h m p ni m n t
e a cco p i l l y in t h p t b t w n t h p h
a e ,
es ec a f th t t b t t e ar s e ee e ra se s o e ex ,
u o

so m t en t l so t
e ex pp t a t h v i w
o suh i l i ng i ng T
orh i n w t yle w l l ed i
o ce t e s . s e s e a s ca rec a

tiv t m nt
o s ro e m p ni ed re i t t i v ) w h i l e t h e
o a c co i gi nal t ype w s call ed recit tivo
a c a e ,
or a a

secco d ry reci ta tive) .

 “

80 MUSIC NOTATION AN D TERMINOLOGY

1 A l ied o r art s ong is a vo c al sol o in wh ic h the t ext

7 2 .
-

the mel o dy an d the a cc ompanimen t c o n tribute more or l ess

,

e q uall y to the eff e c t of t h e whol e .

S t i t ly p ki g t h w d li d m
rc s ea n p mt e or e ea n s a oe o be sung , and th i s m ean i ng wi ll
ex pl i t
a n a t h d i ff
o n ce b t w t h li d n t h
e ere n c e e ee n e e o e on e h and , and the I t li
a a n re c ita

ti d
ve an i th th
ar a o n f i t h li d t h t t
e o e r, or n e e e ex is of g rea t imp o rt an c e , bu t t h e
m i ius c l i t t i g wh il i t h
s a so n ere s i t t iv t h t
n ,
e n e rec a e e ex t i
w as m p o rt a n t bu t t h e m u sic
v y lig h t
er S d i th ,
i th t t w
an n l ly i
e ar a e ex as u sua n con se q u e n t al i wh i l e t h e m us i c h eld
th t
e cen e r o f i t t n eres .

The most pro n ou nc e d c hara c terist ic o f the l ied is the fa c t

that it usually portrays a s ingl e moo d sen t imen t or p ic ture , , ,

thus diff ering f rom the ball a d whi ch is n arrativ e in st yl e ,

.

“
It will be n ote d that this Singl e moo d or sen timen t or , ,

p ic ture was originally c o n ceive d by the poet who wrote the

word text and that the c omposer in writing music to this text
-

has first trie d to get at the thought of the poet and has then ,

attempte d to c ompose music which woul d in ten sify an d mak e

more vivid that thought This in ten s ifi c ation of the po e t s .
’

thought c omes as of ten through the rhythm harmo ny and , ,

d yn amic s of the a cc ompa nimen t as through the expressive n ess

o f the vo ic e part .

T he st yl e o f so n g w i t ing in wh i h
-
r c e a ch verse is sung to the sa m e t u ne is call ed

the
“
s t rop h e f o rm ,
”
wh i l t h t i w h i h
e a n c each v erse h as a if
d f eren t m el od y is o ft en r e
f nt i f
“ ” “ ”
e rred to as th e co n uo u sth gh or ro u -
c om p o s ed o rm (G er d u rch
.
-

co m p onie rt ) .

73 1 A b al l ad was
. orig in a ll y a S hort s imp l e so n g the , ,

I
wor d s be in g in n arrat ive styl e i e the word text tellin g a -

. .
, ,

story n the earl ier bal l ad s ea c h verse o f the poem was

.

usually su ng to the same tu ne (strophe f orm ) but in the art ,

ball ad as d eve l ope d by Loewe an d others the c o n tinuous styl e

O f c omposit io n is emp l oye d thi s g ivin g the c ompos e r greater
,

opportu nitie s of mak ing Vivid through h is music the e ven ts d e

s c ribe d by t h e poem These l ater ball ad s are in c o n se q uen c e
n e ither short n or simp l e but compare in stru c ture with
t h e lied itself .
 TERM S RELAT NG TO V OCAL MUSIC I 81

7 4
1 A f ol.k s ong is a short so l
n g su n g by an d usua ll y
originating among the c ommon peop le Its d omin an t c har .

a c t eris t ic is usually s implicity th is applying to word text ,

-

m elo dy and a c companimen t (if there is on e) The t ext of the

,
.

folk s ong is usuall y base d o n some even t c onn ec te d with ordi

-

n ary l if e but there are a l so ma ny examp l es in whi c h bi stori

,

ott l an d l ege n d ary happe nings are d e a l t with Aul d Lang .

’
Syne and Comin thru the Rye are exampl es of fol k s ongs
, ,
-

Th h b n m d iff n f Op i
ere as ee so t wh t h e g th
ere mp ce of n 1 o u as o e er a so n ,
e co o se r o

whi h i k w
c s n v
no n tit t n , ca l f l k ng
e nt w i t
er co s m t b t k i ng
u e a rea o -
so : re ce r ers se e o e a

th ibl Vi w f t h m t t vi t h t i f
e se n s e e o g h
e th h a t i ti
e r, f f lk
z :. a a so n as e c ara c e r s cs o a o

ra th th n n
er t a g d i f it
a m in p p l
ar -
son f m t im
,
an m ng t h mm n
re a s o u ar o r so e e a o e co o

eo
p p l t h n
e,it i j et m h f l ksong w
us h t h ast h mp h pp n t be k n wn
uc a o -
s e er e co o ser a e s o o

o r no t .

75 1 A m ad rig
. al is a se c u l ar vo c a l c ompos it io n hav in g
f rom three to e ight parts It is in c on trapu n tal styl e like .
,

the motet an d is usually su ng a c apell a

,
.

1 76 A gl ee is a vo cal c omposition in three or more parts

.
,

being usually more Simpl e in styl e than the ma d rigal an d ,

som e times having mor e than one mov emen t The glee may .

be eithe r gay or sad in moo d an d seems to be a c omposition ,

pe c uliar to the E ngl ish p e opl e .

1 77 A p art s ong is a c omposition fp r two or more voic es

.
-

( usua ll y f our ) to be su n g a c ape ll a It is wr itte n in mo n o .

phoni c rather than in pol yphoni c styl e thus diff erin g f rom ,
“ ’
the ma d rigal and gl ee Morl ey s Now is the Mo n th o f May .

” “ ’
ing is an examp l e of the p art s ong as is a l so Su ll iva n s O -

,
”
Hush Thee My Baby The term p art s ong is O f ten l oosely
,
.
-

applied to gl ees ma d rigal s et c , , .

 C HAP TER XV I I
RHY THM , M E L O DY HARM O NY ,
AND I NTERVAL S
1 The four elements Commonl y attribute d to music
7 8 .

( in the or d er o f the ir d evel opmen t) are : Rhythm Mel od y , ,

Harmo ny an d Timbre (or to n e c o l or)

I
-

.
,

1 79 Rhythm is the regul ar re c urren c e o f ac c e n t

. n mus ic .

it is more spe cifi c all y the regul ar re curre nc e of groups of

a cc en te d an d n on a cc en te d beats (or pul ses) a cc or ding to
- —

some spe cifie d measure system S inc e rhythm i mplies con -

t in u it y there must usually be at l east two su ch measure

,

groups in or der to mak e music al rhythm possib l e (See p 44 . .

,

Sec .

1A mel ody is a su ccession of singl e to nes of various

80 .

pitches so arran ge d that the e ffe c t of the who l e will be u nifie d ,

c ohere n t an d p l eas in g to the ear

,
.

Th p an p t f h ym n t n
e So r nd th i mp le h m ni z ed c mp i t i n s is
o ar o u es a o er S ar o o os o
-

O f t n f ed t the m l dy
“ ”
e re e rr o as e o .

1 81 . H arm ony is the s cie n c e of c hord c o n stru c tion and

Comb in atio n .

T h e t erm harmony re ers f t o t o n es so u n d ng i sim ul t aneou sl y ,

i . e .
,
to chords , as

diff eren t i at ed f ro m t o n es so un d ng i co n s e cu t vel i y ,

as in m el od y . T he w o rd harmony
m ay t h ere f o re be i
ap p l ed to an y g ro up of t on es of if i
d f e ren t p t ch es so u n de d a s a ch o rd ,
al t h o u g h sp ec
“
h arm on
y
y .
”
I
ifi
f
call yw e u su all

b
t is p o ssi l e t o u se t h e sam e co m
y f
h arm o n ; in act t h ese t w o el em en t s as app l ed t o m od ern m u s c h ave d evel op ed
re e r to a s uc cess ion o f s uch ch o rd s

i
bi
h en w e sp eak o f
i
na t on o f
w
t o n es in e t h er m elod
i
i y or

y
t og e t h er and t h e s t l e o f p res en t d ay m el od is d re c t l ased u p o n t h e d ev el o p m en t
-
y i yb
t h at h as rece n t l yt a k en p l ace in h arm o n c co n st ru c ti o n i .

Harmony (as c on t ra s t ed t h coun terpoi nt) wi

rs t eg an t o b e fi b an imp o rt an t f a c t or

in m u s i b
c a o ut 1 60 0 A D . .
,
ii wh
. e .
, at t he t me en Op era and ora t o r o c a m e i i i
nt o e x s t

e n ce , wh n f
e o rm was est a b l i h d d wh ns e , an e o ur m od ern maj or a nd m in o r s cal e s w ere

ad op t ed . B efo re t h i s p rac t i l l y ll m i w
ca a us c as co m p o se d o n a c on t rap un t al b i
as s .

1 82 . that pe c uliar q uality of soun d which e n ab l es

T imbre is
on e to distin gu ish a ton e pro du c e d by one in strumen t (or
82
 R HYTHM ,
MELODY HARMONY , ,
ET C .

voic e) f rom a tone pro du ce d by an equal number of vibration s

on a n other in strume n t .

T h w O d t imb i e yn nym o wi th t h e t m qu lity f t n nd t n q lity

r re s s o us er s a o o e, a o e ua

(G er . Kl g f b ) t h
—
an f i ng it b ing t h t it p
— ar e ,
e ex cu se d q t l y in or us e a ex re ss e s a e ua e

o n we d n id
or t h t in a l g g t k ea t l a t tw thi o ur w l d di pp ea
an ua e a es a ea s o: s ex c u se ou sa r

( nd i i d t ll y m h m i p
a nc en a n d w d w ld b
a uc li m i n t d ) i f th
-
s i ng l w d
ro n o u ce or ou e e a e e s e or

q lity w
ua t b d pt d
ere th q iv l n t O f t imb
o e a o Th
e g th
as p n v ie e u a e re . us, e . .
,
e So ra o o ce

s i ng i ng h q lity d iff
c
’
t f m th
as a nt
ua lt v i ing i ng t h m t n
eren ro e co ra o o ce s e sa e o e .

(T h m ai nd f thi
e re h pt nd ll f C h p t
er o X VIII d l wi t h t m m
s c a er a a o a er ea er s co

m n l y nc nt
o ed in t h t dy
ou f h m ny
ere C in t h i
e s u bj t l ly b g i n
o ar o . o u rs es s su ec u su a e

wi t h t dy f l b t in t h i bj t h l d y b n m wh t t n iv ly
’

a s u o s c a es , u s ce s su ec a s a rea ee so e a ex e s e

trea et d t hi h pt
,
wi ll mi t it nd wi ll b gi n wi t h t h e n t t p i c in h m ny
s c a er o , a e ex o ar o

s t ud y vi —
,
th i t v l ) z . e n er a .

I An in terval is the re l atio n

1 83 . two tones with regard to of ,

pit ch f the two to n es are sou n d e d simul tan eously the

.

resul t is an harm onic interval but if soun de d c on se cutively the ,

'
resul t is a mel odic i nterval F ig 6 2 represen ts the p itches f . .

'
an d a as a harmo ni c in terva l whil e F ig 6 3 represen ts the
“

.
,

same p it ches arrange d as a mel o dic in t e rval .

F ig . 6 2 . F ig . 6 3 .

kept in min d :
84 . I n cl assifying in terva l s two f a c ts S houl d be c on stan tly

I
() T h
’

the in terval (thi r d fifth sixth

e n um ber name o f , , ,

e t c ) is d erive d f rom the or d er o f l etters as f ou n d in

.

the di atoni c s cal e Thus the in terval C E is a .

—

‘
third be c ause E is the thi r d to n e f rom C (c ou n tin g C
as on e) in the diatonic s c al e C G is a fifth be cause .
—

G is t h e fif th tone above C in the diatonic s cal e

I
.

t sh ld b n t d h w v
ou th t th m n mb n m
e o e pp ly v n t h
o
g h ne
e er a e sa e u er -
a es a e e ou o

or b th l t t
o f th i t v l
e q li fi d by h p fl t
ers o e t Th g C
n er a Gfi i are ua e s ar s , a s, e c . us e . .
,
—
s

I
st ill a fif th ,
as are al so Cfl’
f — G b and C b— Gfi .

( ) thed eterminin g
p i i ame f i terva l
‘

f
‘
2 n s ec c n O any n

(p erfect fif th m ajor thi r d the half st ep and

, ,
-

whol e step (often referre d to respe c tively as minor

-
84 I I
M U S C N O TAT O N AND TERM NOLO GY I
s econd , an d major s econd ) are use d as u nits of mea sure
me n t .

T h e ha lf -
s te p is u su all y de fin ed a s th e sm all e s t u sa bl i e n t erval b tw
e een t wo
t on es .
”
T us , C Cfl: is
h — a ha lf -
s te p, as are al so B — C , F— G b, et c .

A whol e s tep -
i
co n s s t s o f t w o h al f -
st ep s . C —
D is a whole -

s te p, a s are al so Eh— C ,
E — Ffi, Fit — Git , O h —
Ah, et c .

T he exp res sio ns half -

s te p and whola s tep are m u ch t o be p re erred t o half tone and f -

whol e t one ,
-
as bie ng m o re cl ear and d e fin t e i . Th u s e g , t h e sen t en ce T h e t wo t ones
. .
“

are a ha lf s t ep ap art
-
”
is mu ch b e t t er t h an
“
T h e t w o t o ne s are a half tone ap art
-

C18 5 A p rime is the rel ation betwee n two to n es whose

.

p it ches are properly represe n te d by the same d e gree o f the

sta ff .

A p erfect prim e is o n e whose to n es have the same

p it ch M iddl e C soun d e d by p iano an d viol in at
.

I
the same t ime woul d o ff er an examp l e .

An au gm ented prime is o n e whose se c o n d to n e is o n e

'

half step h igher than the first Ex C C

-
—
. .
'
.

1 86 A s econd is the rel ation betwee n two ton es whose

.

p it ches are properly represen te d by a dja c e n t d egrees o f the

s t afl (T he
. first l in e an d first spa c e are a d ja c e n t d egr e es as ,

are al so the th ir d l in e an d f ourth spa c e ) .

A min or s econd is on e c omprising one half step Ex -

. .

I
B —
C .

A major s econd is on e c omprisin g two hal f steps -

. Ex .

I
B —
.

An au gmen ted s econd is on e c omprising three half st eps -

Ex . F —
G$ .

1 87 . A third is an in terval omprisin g two se c ond s

c .

A diminis hed third has two min or se co nd s two

half steps) -
. C —
Ebb .

A minor third has on e min or and on e major se c o n d

three hal f steps) C Eb — -

. .

A major third has two major se con d s (i e f o u r half .

steps) C E —
. .

1 88 A fourth is an in terv al c omprisin g three se c on d s

. .
 R HYTHM , MELODY H ARMONY , ,
ET C . 85

A diminished fourth has two min or and on e major

sec on d C fi F .
—
.

A p erfect fourth has min or an d two major se c o nd s

"

one .

An au gmented fourth (tritone ) has three major se c o nd s .

1 89 . A fifth is an in terval omprisin g f our se c on d s

c .

A diminished fifth has two min or an d two major sec ond s .

C —
Gb .

an d three major sec ond s

I
A p erfect fifth has o ne min or .

C —
G .

An fifth has f our major s e con d s C G

augm ent ed .
—
.

1 90 A six th is an in t e rval c omprisin g five s ec o n d s

. .

A minor sixth has two min or an d three major se con d s .

A major s ixth has

I
m in or an d f our
'

on e major sec o nd s .

An has five major se con d s C A

au gmen ted s ix th .
—
.

1 91 A s even th is an in t e rval c omprisin g Six s e c on d s

. .

A d i m i n i s h ed seven t h h as three min or a n d three ‘

majo r

s ec on d s C B bb .
—

A minor s eventh has two min or an d f our major se cond s .

C —
Eh .

A m ajor s eventh has on e min or an d five major sec ond s .

1 9 2 . An octave is an in t e rval omprisin g seven se c on d s

c .

A dim inis h ed octa ve has three min or an d f o u r major

°

s ec on d s C C b .
—
.

A p erfect octave has two min or an d fi ve major s e c on d s .

C C

I
—
.

An augment ed octave has o ne min or an d six major sec

C —
C .

is
usually treate d as a sec on d a tenth as a ,

third ,
et c . The in terval O f two o c taves is o f ten refe rre d to as

M M il - d d é
86 I
M U S C NO TAT I O N AND T ERMINOLOGY

94 1 the major .di I

ato nfic s c a l e be wr i tte n a n d the in terval
between ea ch to n e and the key to n e n ote d it w ill be observe d -

that the in terval s are all either major or perf ec t See Fig 6 4 . . .

F ig . 6 4 .

P e rf e c t PM e M ajo r 2 d Major 3d P e rf ec t 4t h P e rf e ct st h M aj o r 6 t h M aj o r 7 t h P e rf e c t O ct ave

% 3% 4% 5% 6
’

st e p st e p 2 st eps 2 st eps s t e ps s t e ps s t e ps st eps

I
0 1

thi s c o nn e c tion al so it will be n ote d that the in terval

n

n ext sma ll er tha n m aj or is al ways m inor wh il e that n ext ,

small er than p erfect o r min or is al ways diminis hed : but that

the in terval n ext l arger tha n both major and p erfect is aug
mented .

1 95 . An in terval is sa id to be inverted when the to n e

origin all y the upper be c omes the l ower Thus . C —
E, a major
thir d inverte d be comes E C a min or sixth
,
—
,
.
88 M U SIC NOTATION AND TERM INOL OGY

tria d on the se cond ton e is min or ,

et c . The f oll owing figure
will mak e this cl ear .

F ig . 6 5 .

M aj o r M aj o r M ino r D im in is hd Re d pl i ca t io n

I d
e u

I
t ria
V
d t ria

V
d t ria
V I
d tr a

V1 1
i d
°
of st t ria

The tria d s inthe m in or s ca le are as f o llows

M ino r hd
D im in is e Au g m en t e d M ino r M aj o r M aj o r D im in is hd e Re d u p l ica t io n
t ria

1
d i d
tr a
11
°
I
I
I
t ria d t ria
I V
d t ria
V
d
I
t ria
V
d i d
tr a
v u
°
o f rs t t ria d

I
I
I
or
'

99
1 A tr ia d i
.s sa id to be i n fu nd am en tal p os iti on whe n it s

root is the l owest to n e It is sa id to be in the fi rs t inversion .

when the third is the l owest to n e and in the s econd inversio n ,

when the fi fth is the l owest to ne Thus e g in Fig 6 6 the . . .

, .

same chor d (C E G) is arra n ge d in three diff eren t positio ns

— —
,

at (a) in fu nd amen tal posit ion at (b) in the first invers ion , ,

and at (c) in the se c o n d in vers io n .

F ig . 6 6 .

200 . When the root

the bass n ote figures are some is not ,

t imes use d to S how what chord is to be p l aye d or Written .

Thus e g the fi g ure 6 over a bass n ote mea n s that the note
,
. .
,

given is the third o f a chor d the root being f ound by go ing up ,

a s ixth from the bass n ote : i e the chord is to be sou nd e d in

it s first invers io n n the same way the fi g ures 2 in d ic ate
. I . .
,

that the n ote give n is the fifth of the chord the root an d fif th ,

be ing f ou nd by go in g up a s ixth an d a f ourth f rom the n ote

given ; i e the c hor d is to be sou nd e d in it s se co nd in versio n
. .
,
.
.
 C HORD S , CADENCES ,
ET C . 89
‘

The use of these an d other similar figures an dsigns is

c all e d fi gured bas s (or thorou gh bass ) nota tion . An exampl e of
a figured bass is given in Fig 6 7 . .

F ig . 6 7 .

6 7 3 8 7 21 6
; 4

8 7 8 7 8 7

T horough bas s notati on w a s f y u ed

orm erl s ex t en s vel i y i w i ti n r ng ac co m p an im en t s

t o vo ca l w ork s , th e acco m p an st i ha vi g t
n i t o n e rp re t t h e no t e s and ig
S ns g i v en , and

t h en t o m ak e up an i n t erest ng a cco i m p ni m t
a en as he w en t al o ng . M u ch of Hand el s ’

mus i c w as w itt r en in t h i s w ay , b u t in m od ern ed i ti o ns of t h e se w o rk s t h e ch o rd s h ave

b e en i
p r n t ed in f ull and th e i gn
s s om itt ed .

A s eventh chord con sists of a fun damen ta l ton e w ith

20 1 .

it s thir d fi f th an d sev en th ,
T h e fif th is sometimes omitte d
,
. .

A ninth ch ord con sists of a fun damen tal with it s thir d fi fth , ,

seven th an d nin th ,
.

20 2 A cad ence is the cl ose of a musical phrase : in mel o dy

.

it ref ers to the l ast two to n es ; in harmo ny to the l ast two

c hor d s .

Th w d d n i d iv ed f m
e or d L t i n w d m ea ni ng t f l l th e
ca e ce s er f ro ca ere, a a or o a , re er

en ceb i g t t h f lli ng f t h v i
e n ot h d pp i ng t
e t h e norm l p i t h )
a o t th e e o ce e ro o a c a

cl o se o f a sen t en ce .

3 20 The most
. f re q ue n t c a d e n c e in harmo n y i s that in
vo lvm g the chor d o n I pre c e d e d by the Chor d o n V

o f it s direc tn ess the c a d en c e V

204
B e cause
is c all e d the au thentic cad ence
The most satisfa c tory form (to the ear) of the au t h en
.
-

I .

t ic c a d e n c e is that in whi ch the h ighest vo ic e (the sopra n o ) o f

the fin al chord is the root of that c hord Wh en the fin al chor d .

appears in th is position the c a denc e is c alle d p erfect au thentic1

,

I
M ny t h i t (i l d ing D nd i hi m m n t l T i H y
1 “
a eo r s s nc u ura n s o nu e a rea t se o n arm on
co n s id th V er d n t b th
e l y n wh i h m y l g i t i m
— ca e ce o e e on o e c a e at e ly b e call ed perf ect ,
bu t th m j ity f w i t
e a or m t t k t h Vi w t h t i t h
o r ers se e o a e e e a e er au t h en ti c o r p l ag al
c ad e n m y b i th p f ct
ce a i mp rf t d p nding up n t h
e e er er e or e ec ,
e e o e so p rano t one, as no t ed
 9 0 MUSIC NOTATION AND T ERMINOLOGY
.

an d when the third or fi fth of the Chord appear in the sopran o ,

the c a d en c e is c a ll e d imp erfect au thentic Fig 6 8 S hows the . .

c hor d G
— .B D c a d e n c in g to C E G in three d iff ere n t
— — —

ways The first o ne (a) is c all e d a p erfect au thentic cadence

.
,

but the l ast two (c) an d (d) are imp erfect au thentic .

F ig . 6 8 .

205 A . p l ag al cad en ce is o n e in wh ic h the

pre ce d e d by the sub d omin an t Chord (I V ) The pl agal
-
to n ic c hor d is
—
I .

ca dence (sometimes c a l l e d the church cad ence or amen cad ence) , ,

lik e the authe n tic is d es c ribe d as be in g p erfect whe n the sopra n o

,

o f the to n ic chor d is the root o f that c hor d an d imp erfect whe n ,

the sopran o o f the fi n al chor d is the third or fif th o f that c hord .

Fig 6 9 shows the c hor d F A C c a d e n cin g to C E G in

.
— — — —

three ways The first o n e (a) is c all e d a p erfect pl agal cad en ce

.
,

the l ast two are imp erfect p l agal .

20 6 A half cad ence o cc urs when the d ominan t chord is

.
-

u se d as the fi n al c hor d o f a phrase and is imme di atel y p re

s
,

c e d e d by the to n ic c hor d Thi s f orm is use d to give variety

.

in the c ourse o f a c ompositio n but is n o t ava il ab l e at the e n d

,

J
be c ause it d oes n o t give a d efinite c l ose in the to nic key .

F ig 7 0 shows the use o f the h alf cadence at the cl ose of su ch

.
-

a phrase .
9 2 M U SIC NO TA T ION AND T E RMI N OL OGY
F ig . 7 3 .

209 . M odul ation is a c han ge

key without any break in of

the c on tin uity of chord s or mel o dy to nes H armonic modul a .

~

tions are usuall y e ffe c te d through the me d ium of a C hord ,

some or all of whose ton es are c ommon to both k eys Ex .

ampl es of both harmonic and mel odic modul ations are shown
in Figs 7 4 an d 7 5 . .

F ig . 74 .

The c use d in mo dul ating is the

hor d most f re q ue n tly

I
I
dominant s eventh i e a seve n th c hor d (see Se c 2 0 1 ) o n the
,
. .
,
.

d omin an t to n e o f the k ey n the key o f C thi s c hor d is .

G B D F ; in the key of D it is A C
— — —
E G ; in the — — —

key of Ab it is E h—
G — Eh —
D b, et c .

F ig . 7 5 .

A sus p ension is the temporary substitution of a to n e

210 .

a d egree h igher than the regul ar chord ton e this t e mporary -

,
.

ton e being l ater rep l a c e d by the regul ar chor d ton e See -

Fig 7 6.
()a .

F ig . 7 6 .
()
a
 CHORDS ,
CADENCES ,
ET C .
93

21 1 A retardation is the temporary substitutio n o f a ton e

.

a d egree l ower than the re gul ar ton e this tone (as in the c ase ,

o f the Suspen sio n) being l ater repl a c e d by the regul ar chord

tone See Fig 7 7 (a)
. . .

F ig . 7 7 .
()
a

T he reg ul ar chord to n e to whi ch both suspen sion an d

retard atio n resol ve is c all e d t h e tone of res olu tion .

21 2 The anticip ation is a c hord ton e in tro d u c e d just be

.
—

fore t h e r e st o f the c hor d to whi ch it bel on gs is sou n d e d See .

F ig 7 8
.
()
a .

F ig . 7 8 .

21 A p ed al p oi nt (or organ p oin t) is a to n e susta in e d

3 .

through a suc c e ssion of harmoni c progr e ssion s to the chor d s ,

o f som e o f whi c h it usua ll y be l o ngs The term p ed al p oint .

originat ed in organ pl aying (where the f oot on a p e d al c an

,

sustain a ton e whil e the han d s are p l aying a su cc essio n of

harmonies) but as n ow us ed it may be applie d to any kin d o f
,

music The d ominan t an d to nic are the to ne s most o f ten

.

used in this way Se e Fig 7 9 . . .

94 M U SIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

F ig . 7 9 ,
S C H U M AN N

21
4 W he
. n the upper thre e vo ic es
o f a f our vo ic e com-

positio n are writte n cl ose tog e ther (the sopra n o an d ten or

n ever appearin g more than an o c tave apart ) t h e t e rm cl os e
,

p os ition is app lie d B ut when t h e u p p e r vo ic es are n o t wr itte n

.

cl ose together the term op en p os it ion is app lie d

,
.

2 1 5 By transp osit ion is me an t p l aying S ingin g or writing

.
, ,

a p iec e of music in some other key tha n the origina l Thus .

e g
. . if a so n g writte n in the key o f G is too h igh in ra n ge fo r a
,

so l o ist the a ccompanist somet imes transp os es it to a l ower

'

key (as F o r E ) thus c aus in g all to nes to sou n d a se c o n d or a

,

third l ower than they di d whe n the same so n g was pl aye d in

the original k ey .
96 MUSI C NOT AT ION AND TERM INOLO GY
B is t wi ce . U sed i di t
to n p ti t i (R
ca e a re ) e on . a re .

B race t h e S g n u se i d t j i o l t ff h wi ng t h t ll t
o n se v e ra s a s, S o a a on es rep res ent ed

on t h ese s t afl s are t o be p f m d
er o r t g t h T h et m i ft n d
o e er . e er s o e u se al so in re err ngf i
to t h e m us i w itt
c r en o n s a t fl j i d; s so B g i wi t h t h
o ne pp as
“
e n e u er brace .
”

B roken chord
'

a c h d wh
or t n t ll
ose nd d i m l t on es are o a so u e s u a n eo u sl y ,
as e .
g .
,

in an acco m p a n im en t g ro u p .

B roken octa e
v —
an o c t ave wh ose t on es are so und ed on e a t a i
t me i n s t ea d of

S im ul t an eo u sl y .

Cacophony h arsh , d i sco rd an t , unp l easan t ,

esp e c al l i y incorrect co m bi na t o ns i
Of T h e Op pos t e o f eu phony
t on es . i .

Cad en a z
A r ll an t p as sag e , u su all in an
-

bi i y i ns t ru m en t a l co mpo si t i on ,
in t ro

j bf
d uc ed u s t e o re t h e cl o se o f a m o ve m en t T he z w f m ly i m p v d . caden a as or er ro i se

by t h p f e e r o rm er, (t h u s g i iv ng an Opp t n i t y f d i p l yi ng h i t h n i cal ski ll ) b t

or u o s a s ec ,
u

sin B t h
ce ee o ve n , co m p o se rs h ave u su a lly w i t t en t h i wn d nzas r e r o ca e .

Canta bil e in a s n g ng s t i i yl e .

Cant and o sa m e as ca n ta bile .

Ca nt o t h e h g h e s t vo i ip art ; i e , t h e sop rano p a rt

ce . . .

No t e t h e d er vat i i on o f ca nto , ca nta bil e , e t c , rom t h e La t . f in w or d cant us m ean i ng ,

a s on g .

Carol a y
h m n of j yf
o p ra se , u su al l
ul i y sung in co nn e c t on i wi t h E a s t er o r C h r st i
m as f t ivi t i es T h w
es . e o rd carol m ean t o r g i i nall y a da nce, h en ce t h e happy ch ara c t er

o f so ng f t h i t yp
s o s e .

Catch a ro un d se t t o h u m o rou s w o rd s .

Chroma tic (n o u n) a t e rm s om e wh at l oo sel y app l ed i to any t o n e no t b el o ng ng i

t o t h e k ey as i di
n ca t ed by t h i g t e s n a u re . M ny a t each ers are rep l ac ng i th e w o rd

chromatic in t hi s se n se wi t h t h t m i e er ntermedia te ton e, t h i s t erm bi e ng ap p l ca i bl e

wh e t h er the f o re ig n t on e i t lly
s a c ua d u se fo r orna m en t al p u rpo se s as a chrom a tic, o r

to eff ec t a m od ul a t i on . Th u s e .
g .
,
Fit is t h e i ntermediate t on e b twe een F and G in
”
t h e key of C .

Cl avichord wi t h k y m bli g th
an q i pi
ns t rum e n t
in p p n e s , rese n e s uare ano a eara ce .

Th t e w on e
p d d by fas i g w d ro
g h p d piu ce f m t l g in t t h t i g
o rc n e e s
-
a e eces o e a a a s e s r n s,

th t t i g t h m i vib t i
u s se n Th e l vi h d w n f t h i mm d i t p d
ra on . e c a c or as o n e o e e a e re e ces

so rs of th pi m h f th m i w it t
e an o , by B h b i g mp d f it l t h g h
uc o e us c r en ac e n co o se or ,
a ou

thi m i i
s us c w pl y d n t h m d
s no pi a e o e o ern a no .

C ll v o a wi t h t h v i
oce i pl y t h m p ni m n t ed i ng t th
o ce : . e .
,
a e acco a e ac cor o e

l i t f i l y di g t t h h y t h m i nd i t d in t h
’
so o s p ms t h
er o r t h t t an ce ra er an s r c acco r n o e r ca e e

sc ore .

Colla part e sa m e as colla voce .

Col orat u ra fl id or p assag es in i i

s ng n g . Al so app l e i d t o t he st yl e Of sing ing

em p l o y ed in ren d er i ng su ch p assag e s .
(SCe 7 9 , Se c
p . .

C on sona nce A co m bi t i na on o f t on es ag reea l e t o t h e b ea r and req u r ng no reso ii

l ut ion t o o t h er t one -

co m bi ti na ons in o rd e r i
t o g v e t h e efl e c t o f fin li t y
a . T h e ma j or

i
t r ad C —
E— G is an e x am p l e o f a con so nan t ch ord .

Contral to sam e as al to .

Con varia zi ni wi t h v i t i
o ar a ons .

Direct ig n (i f ) p l ed t
a s ac a th e e nd o f t h e l as t s t aff o n a p ag e , t o i ndi t e wh ca at

th e fi rs t no t e on t h e nex t p ag e is g o i ng t o be . This S ig n i s now p rac t i lly b l t

ca o so e e .
 MISCELLANEOUS TERM S 97

Dirge h a f i
u ne ral c m d f m th fi t w an t . T h e d rg e is na e ro e rs o rd o f a ch ant u sed

i thn fli e f “
th d
o d ce w or b i Di ig D mi
e D ea ,
hi ch eg n s r e o ne , eus meus , i n con s pectu
t vi m m
uo am (D i t 0 L d M y G d m y w y i T hy ig h t )
ea re c ,
or ,
o ,
a n S .

Di d g ly
s cor h m i an u m bi t i f t ,
un ar o n o u s co na on o o n es .

Di — h m
ssona n ce i m bi t i f t a gi i g i
ar t on c co na on o o nes v n r se o t he f li ee ng of ih
comp l t t d th
e e n es s or u n res f q i i g l ti t m ,
an ere o re re u r n re so u on o so e o t h e r co m bi n at o n i
wh i h h c g asb l fi
an a l f l i g (f
re e a ) Th e or na ee n . c . co n so n an c e . e i i i
d m n s h ed tr i ad

C Eh O h i
— —
m pl f di
s an e x an t h d e o a s so an c or .

Divi i d i id ds A i d i ti v h wi g t h t t h fi t vi li
e . n n ca on s o n a e rs o n s, o r t h e SO p rano s ,
o r any th b dy f p f m
o er o di ily o di g i i er o r ers o r nar so u n n n un son are now t o d v d e nt o i i i
t wo or m o re p art s
D uet
Ecol e
a co m p o s t
.

ii
fo r t w o p er orm ers on(Fro m t h e t
y
a s ch oo l o r s t l e o f c om po s t o n o r p er o rm an ce
ord d u e f
ii
.

f
Iw .
. t wo .
)

Et ud e a s t ud y
Al so an n st rumen t al co m po s t on in t h e st l e o f
. i ii y a s t ud y ,
bu t
i n t end ed fo r i i
art s t c p er f o rm an c e .

Euphony ag reea bl e t on e c om bi na t ons ; i the o ppo s it e of cacop h o n y .

(From
t h e Greek w o rd m ea n ng well i -
s ounding .
)

F anf are a t ru m p e t cal l .

F antas ia An i n s t rum en t al c om po s iti on no t b ased o n any reg ul ar f o rm .

F iasco a co m p l e t e f il
a u re o r b reakd o w n .

Th i s u se o f t he w o rd fias co (whi ch m ea ns in It li a an a fl ask , o r b t tl ) i

o e s sa id to
f th b i b i b t tl b i
.

h ave re ere nce to e urs t ng o f a o t t l e, t h e com p l e t e ru n o f th e o e e ng co m

p ed
a r wi t h the co m p l e t e f il
a u re o f a p er f o rm an c e .

Gam u t all t h e t o n es o f a s cal e .

4

Glis s and o —
p la yi ng a scal e o n the yb ke o ard by d wi ng t h fi g
ra e n e r al o ng o ver

t h e ke y s, t h u s d ep ress ng t h em in ver i y p id ra s u cces s o i n Th w d i d . e or s e r v edi f ro m

t h e F ren ch w o rd glisser t o g l de i .

Ha rps ichord -
O ne o f t h e m m ed i i at e p red e c ess ors o f t he p i ano . l
! u k
c - J 4
.

I
Humores qu e ii f t t i mp i t i n
'

a cap r c o u s , an a s c co os o .
(C f f a ntas ia )
. .

Idyl
n a ll p
h t
i t h i
m
a s ti pi
th fi t
or

c t
f m i in i m p l
es
,
ro

b v t h t r bln
an

e
c

rs
e ce o

o c a ve a
us c

o e
s

e e
e and u nafi e c t

e s t aff . Th us
ed
e
st

.
g
yl
.
,
e .

“
C in al t
”

is t h e
I
I
C
n a
pre

l ti im
t d by t h
res en e

pi t h
ss oi th
d dd d li
t
b v th
b v t h lt c es
e s eco n

n e o c av e a
a e ne a

o e
o

e a
e e

oc t a v e
b
t re l e s t afl .

I
.

ns tru menta tion se e orches tration .

n t erl ud e a sh o rt m o v e m en t b tw e ee n t w o l arg er m o vem en t s .

Loco —
p l ac e ; i . e .
, pl a y as w itt r en .
(See p . Sec .

Lungo trill o a long t r ll i .

 CHAP TER XX
M IS C E LLANE O U S T E RM S (Continued)
Lyric a Sh o rt , so ng -
i
l k e po em of s i mpl e ch ara ct er . Al so app l ed i i
t o nst ru m ental

pi e ce s o f i
l ke ch ara c t er .

M aggiore m aor j .

M arca to il cant o t h e m el od yw ell m arked ; i . e .

,
su bd ue th e ac co m p an im ent so

t h at t h e m el od ym ay s t and o u t s t ro ng l y .

M el os m el od y . Th i s w o rd m el os is al so ap p l ed i t o t h e p e cul i ar s t yl e o f vo cal

so l o f o u nd in W ag n er s
’
m us i c d ram as . See recitative (p .
7 8 , Sec .

M ellifl uons p l ea si ng ; p l ea san t so u nd i ng .

M cunett e menuet sam e as m inu et

, (See p 7 1 , Sec . . .

M ezzo s opran o a w o m an s vo i c e o f SO p rano q u ali t y w

’
—
bu t f so m ewha t lo
’

,
O er

com p a ss t h an t h e so p rano vo ce i . Rang e app rox im a t el yb to g .

”

M inere m i no r .

Noct urne (so m e t m es sp ell ed i n octurn , n otturna , n oktu rne , e t c .

) a n ig h t p i e ce ; a

qu i et , m el od i o u s , so m e wh at s en t im en t al co m p o s iti o n , u s ual l yf or p i ano so l o .

l Nuanc e d el i ca t e sh ad ng i ; b tl v ri t i in t
su e a a o ns em p o and d y n am cs i wh i ch m ak e
the rend iti on o f i m m us c o re ex p iv
re ss e .

‘
l O bbl iga t ( m t im
o soi e es n correc t l y p ll d blig t )
s e e o a e an accesso r y m el od y a ccom

p an yi
T he
ng h ar
w
m ni z d m i
o

o rd obbligat o
e us c,

I
( t bou .
(u sua
nd
l ly v l m i )
blig d )
,
or of t
o ca

e
us c

re ers
.

o the f act t h at t h i s is u sual l y a

m el od y of i nd ep end en t val u e , so i mp t n t t h t it or a a can no t be om i t t ed in a comp l et e

p er o rm an c ef .

(so m et i m es fi ertorium) i i y
'

fi ertoire
'

Ofi ert ory Sp ell ed o ,

or o a p e ce o f m us c p la ed

o r su ng i
d ur ng t h e t ak ng up o f t h e ofl e ring in t h e ch u rc h serv ce i '

i . T he w o rd is Oft en

app l ed i by co m p p s ers t o any sh o rt , s m p l e p ec e o f m u s c (u s uall i i i y fo r o rg an ) t h a t is

'

i b
su t a l e fo r t h e a ov e p u rpo se b .

O pus L w k; or u sed by com p o sers t o d es g na t e t h e i o rd er in whi ch th e i r co m p o s i

t i on s w ere w ittr en , as e .
g B ee t h ov en , O p 2 , N o 1
.
,
. . .

O rches rat ion

t —
the art o f wii
r t ng for t h e o rch es t ra , t h i i m pl yi
s ng an i tim
n at e

kno l edg e w of the rang e , q u al t iy ,

and po s s ibi li t i es o f all the o rch es t ral i n s t ru m en t s .

O ss ia or el se ; u s ed m os t o ft en to call the a t t en t o n o f i t h e p er f m or er to a Sim

p l er p a ssa g e t h a t m ay b e s u s t t u t ed f o r t h e o r g n al o n e a p l a r b i
ose sk l l is no t i i by y e wh i
eq u al t o t h e t a sk h e is a t t em p t ng t o p e r orm i f .

O vert u re ( om
r over t — Op )e n — anf n s t ru m en t al p rel ud e t o an Op e ra o r o ra i
t or o i
T h e Ol d er overtu res
. i
ere ii b
nd ep e nd en t co m p o s t o ns and w
ore no p arti cu la r

re a l t i n t t h w k wh i h w
o o t f ll w b t i m d n m i ( f W g
e or St
c as o o o ,
u n o er us c c . a n er, rau ss ,

th v t i t d th p i
e o er ure ip l t h m t h t
n ro t in t h w k i t l f
u ces e r nc a e es a are o o ccu r e or se ,

a nd t h i t d ti eth b m
n ro i t g al p t f t h w k
uc on wh l T h w rd
us ec o es an n e r ar o e or as a o e . e o

v t
o er u re i m tim pp li d t
s so i nd p d t h t l mp i t i n t h t h v n
e es a e o e en en o rc es ra co os o s a a e o

co nn t i n wi t h v
ec l w k
o t h H b id Ov t by M nd l ssoh n
o ca or s , as e e r es er u re e e .

98
I OO MUSIC NO TAT ION AND T ERMINOL O G Y

S ext u plet a g ro up o f six no t es t o b e p er fo rm ed in t h e t m e i o rd nar i i l y g iv n e to

f o ur o f th e sa m e val u e . T he sex t up l et d ifl ers f ro m a pa i r of triplets in h a vi g b t
n u on e

ac cen t .

S im ile, s imil it er
— th e sam e ; i di
n ca ting t h at t h e sam e g en e ral eff e c t is t o b e
co n t nu ed i .

syll bla
S olf eggio ,
t i i g th im pl
es c o n a n n
se l f ége
es e S
a vo cal ex erc se s ung e

e vo w
i
el sou nd s .
i th
I er o n s

t s p u rp o se
i mp l e vo

i t d v l p t
s o
w bi t y
e
q
el s o r o n ar

li t y
e o o ne ua
rar

and fl ibil i t y Th t m
ex . ese er s are al so O f t en app l i ed to c l asses in ig h t i g i g w h i h
s -
S n n c u se

th l i yll bl
e so — a s a es .

S p o ra bv a o e .

S p o t h h igh t f m
ran o e es e al e vo ce i . Rang e ap p ro x im a t el y b— c .

S t t
os en u o t i d su s a ne o r co n n ec t ed th e Op po si t e o f s taccato .

S ott o u nd er . EG . .
, s otto voce u nd er t h e vo i ce , i . e .
, wi t h su bd u ed t one .

So l miz a tion S igh t i g i -

s n ng by yll b l
s a e .

S tac cato d e t a ch ed ; t h e o pp i t
os f l g e o e at o .

S u bil o s u dd enl y .

T enor i
t h e h g h e s t m al e vo i ce . Rang e app ro x i m t l y d—
a e c .

.
T enut o (f ro m t enee , t o h ol d ) a d i rec t o n s i ig ni fying t h at t h e t on es are t o be

p rol o ng ed f ll v l i nd i t d by t h n t
to the u a ue ca e e o es .

T t b i lli nt mp i t i n f pi n
occa a a r a g lly h
co t i d by
os o or a o o r o r an , u sua c arac er ze

m h uc p id t ra t o p l ying
s acca a .

T ipl t r g e p f th a t n t b p f m ed in t h t i m
rou o d i n i ly g i v n t
re e o es , o e er o r e e or ar e o

tw f t h e sam e v l
o o Th fi t t n f t h t ip l t i
a ue . l w y li g h t lye n t ed
rs o e o e r e s a a s s acce .

T tti (d e i ved f om t t
u rt ti L t i n ll ) r di t i n i g ni f yi g t h t
o us , o ll ,
a — a —
a re c o s n a a

f m t t k t Al ed o cca i n l l y t o
e e f t
ar o w he
so u s ll s o a r er a
p er or ers are p o a p.
g e assa re a

p f o
er m er s dro t a k e p rt a .
V y b
''

AP P END IX A
T HE H I STO RY OF M U SI C NO TAT I O N
Many conflic tin g statemen ts have b een ma d e r egarding t h e
history an d d evel opmen t of music writin g an d the stu den t ,

who is seekin g light on this subj e c t is o f ten at a l oss to d e te r

m ine what a c tually d id happen in t h e rise of o u r mo d e rn system
of writ in g mus ic We have on e wr it e r f or exampl e assertin g
.

that staff n otation was begu n by d rawing a sin gl e re d l in e

a cross the page th is lin e repre s en tin g the p it c h f (fourth l in e
, ,

bass sta ff) t h e n eu mae (t h e pre de ce ssors o f o u r mo de rn n otes)

,

sta nding eith e r fo r this p it ch f o r for a h ighe r o r l ow e r p it ch , ,

a ccording to their position on the lin e Or above or bel ow it , .

“ ” “
An other lin e c on tin ues this writer this t ime of yell ow
, ,

c ol or was soo n a d d e d above the re d o n e an d th is l in e was to

, ,

repre s en t c (m iddle C ) Soon t h e c ol ors o f th e s e l in e s were

'
.

omitte d an d the l etters F an d C were pl a ce d at t h e beginnin g

O f ea c h o f them From this aros e our F and C cl ef s which
.
,
”1
pre ce ded the G cl ef by som e c e n turie s .

Another write r give s a somewhat diff eren t e xpl a n at io n

2
,

stating t hat t h e staff system with t h e u se o f cl ef s came about

through writin g a l e tt e r (C o r F ) in t h e margin of t h e man u
s c ript and d rawin g a lin e from this l ett e r t o t h e n e um e which
was t o repre sen t the tone for which this partic ul ar l e tter stoo d .

A third writer asserts that b e caus e t h e alphab e tical n ota

3

t ion was n o t suitab l e f or r e c ord ing mel o dies because of it s

1
E lso n M us i c Di t i
c y ti l N
o nar ,
ar c e, i
o t at o n .

2 Go d d a rd T he Ri f M i p
se o 77 us c , . 1 .

1
Wi lli ams in Gro v Di t i
’
e s y ti l
c o nar ar c e, No t a t i on

II
, .

O
1 0 2 MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

in c o n ve ni en c e in i
s ght singin g
—
poin ts were pl a c e d at d efin ite

I
di sta n c es above t h ewor d s an d above an d bel ow o n e a n other ”
.

“
n th is system eve rythi n g d epen d e d on the a c c ura cy
with which the poin ts were in tersperse d an d the s c rib e s as a , ,

guid e to the eye began t o s c rat c h a stra ight line a c ross t h e

,

page to in dic ate t h e position O f on e partic ul ar s cal e degre e

f rom wh ich all the others c oul d be Shown by the rel at iv e dis
tan c es of th eir po in ts B ut th is was n o t f oun d su ffi c ien tly
.

d efinite an d the s c rat che d line w as there fore c o l ore d re d an d a

se c ond lin e was a d de d c ol ore d yell ow indic ating t h e in terval
, ,
”
o f a fi f th above the first ,
.

It will be n ote d that all three wr iters agr e e that a certa in

thing happen e d but as in the c ase o f the f our Gospel s in t h e
,

New Testamen t n o t all the writers agree o u d eta il s an d it is

,

diffi c ul t to d e termin e whi ch a c c ou n t is most n earl y a c c urat e

in d eta il as we ll as n ge n eral stateme n t I Commu nicatio n .

was mu ch Sl ower a thousand years ago than n ow an d id eas .

about new m e tho d s o f d oin g things di d n o t sprea d rap idl y ,

c o n se q ue n tl y it is e n t irel y poss ib l e that various m e n or groups

o f m e n in var ious p l a c es work e d o u t a system o f n otat io n

di fferin g som ewhat in d etail s O f origin an d d evel opmen t but

alike in fin al resul t The poin t is that the devel opmen t o f
I
.

music al kn owl e dge (rise O f part writin g nc rease d in terest in

-

instrume n tal music ,

d eman d e d a more exa c t system o f
n otat io n tha n h ad pre viousl y e xiste d just as the d evel opme n t
,

o f s cien c e in the ni n ete e n th c e n tu ry n e c ess itate d a more a cc u

rate s cien t ifi c n omen cl ature an d in both c ases the n ee d gave

,

rise to the resul t as we have it to day -

Out of the chaos of c onfl ic ting statemen ts regar din g the

d evel opmen t o f music n otat io n the stu d e n t may gl ean an
,

outlin e kn owl e dge of three fa irly distinc t perio ds or stages

-

ea ch o f these stages bein g in timately bou n d up with the de

v el op m en t O f music itself in that perio d These three stages .
 1 04 MUSIC NOTAT ION AND TERMINOL OGY

mo d ern staff n otation d oes yet they serve d ve ry well to ,

re call to the eye the gen eral outlin e of a mel o dy p reviously

l earn e d by ear an d theref ore e nab l e d the singer (the system was
use d fo r vo c al music o nl y) to differen t iate between that par
t icu l ar me l o dy an d the d o z en s o f others wh ic h he probab l y
kn ew . Neume n otation was use d mostly in c onn e c tion with
“ ”
the p l ain son g mel o di es of t h e Chur ch and S inc e the word s
-

o f these cha nt s were su n g as they woul d be pro n o un ce d in

rea ding the d efi cien cy O f the n eume system in no t expressing

, .

d efinite d urat io n val ues was n o t fe l t B ut l ater on with the

.

“ ”
rise o f so c all e d measure d music (cf inven tion of opera
-

.
,

d evel opmen t o f in d epen d e n t in strumen tal mus ic ,

this
l a ck was see n to be on e o f t h e chie f di sa d va n tages of the system i .

v
The el emen ts of n eume w rit ing as given by Riem ann i n his
-

‘
-

m
L

are :
()1 The S ig n r a S in g l e n ote : V irga (V i rgu l a) a n d F u n c

tus (P un c tum) (2 ) The S ign for a rising in terval : P es (PO

.

d at u s) .
(3 ) The S ig n f o r a f a llin g in terva l : C lin i s (F l exa ) .

(4) Some s ign s f o r spe c ia l ma nn ers o f per f orma n c e : T remu l a

( B ebu n g ) ,
Qu ili sma (sha k e ) P lic a (tur
,
n ) e t c The ,
others
.

were either syn onyms of the above name d or c omb in ation s of -

them
‘ 1 S in c e music in the middl e ages was always cop ie d by hand
‘

it will rea dily be und erstoo d that these n eu m ae were n o t u ni

f orm either in shape o r s iz e an d that ea c h writer ma d e use o f ,

c erta in p e cu l iarit ies o f writ in g wh ich al though perf e c t ly in te l

, ,

l igib l e t o h imsel f c oul d n o t rea dil y be in t erprete d by others (c f

,
.

writin g shorthan d) Here then we observe the greatest

.

weakn ess of the n eume system it s l a ck o f unif ormity an d

it s c o n se q ue n t inab il ity a ccurat y to express music al id eas
l i i S W
f or universa n terpretat o n .
S

E m p l es f se ve l n m es a
xa o ra eu g i ven m er
reel y i n o rd er t o g ive t h e b e g i nn er a

i i
I
g e n eral d f
ea ot h e r a
pp ea ran c e .

V irg a P t un c u sQ P es
or
J o o r
A 4
 HISTORY OF NOTATION 1 9 5

As music gr ewmore an d more c ompl ex an d e spe cially as ,

'

writing in s everal parts c ame in to u s e (cf ris e of organ um .

,

d e s c a n t an d c ou n t e rpo in t) it b e c ame in c reasingly diff i c ul t to

, ,

e xpr e ss mus ic al id e as o n t h e bas is o f t h e O l d n otatio n an d ,

n um e rous att e mpts were ma d e to in v e n t a more a cc urate an d

usab l e sy st em Among th e s e one of t h e most in t e re sting was

.

that in whi ch the wor d s o f the t ext wer e writt en in the spa c es
b e twe en l ong paral lel lin e s pl a cin g the initial l etters of t h e
, ,

word s ton e an d s em i ton e at t h e beginn in g of t h e line t o in dic at e

-

the s cal e in terval An e xamp le will make this cl ear

. .

S w eet l an d
My c o un

Thi s indic at e d the pre cise m el o dic in terval but did n ot

give any ide a of the rhythm an d t h e n atural a c c en ts of the ,

t ext w e re t h e onl y gu id e t h e Singe r h ad in this dire c t ion as

"

was the case in n eume n otation and in early staff n otation

-
-

al so Various oth e r att empts t o inven t a more d efinite n ota

.

tion w ere ma de but all wer e spora di c an d it was n o t u n til the

, ,

id ea of usin g the hu es (l ater lin e s an d spa c es ) to r epr e s en t

d efinit e p it ches an d writin g n otes o f various shapes (d eriv e d
,

f rom t h e n eu m a e) to in di za t e rel at ive d urat ion val u e s it -

was onl y wh en thi s c ombin ation of two el emen ts was d evise d

that any o ne syst e m b egan t o be u ni versall y use d .

Just h O w t h e tra n s it io n f rom n eu me to s tay? n otat ion was

ma de n o one kn ows : it was no t d on e in a d ay nor in a ye ar
but was the resul t O f a gra dual pro c e ss O f evolution an d irn
provem en t N or is it probab le that any o ne m an d es e rves
.

t h e e n tire c r e d it f or t h e in v e n t io n o f sta ff n otatio n a l though

,

thi s f eat is c ommonly attr ibut e d t o an Ita lian monk n am ed

Guid o d Arez zo (approximate d at e s 9 9 5 1 0
’
T o this same —

monk we are ind ebte d however f or the inven tion o f the

, ,
fe e M U SI C NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY
"

syll ab l es (UT RE MI e t c ) whi ch (in a somewhat mo di

, , ,
.

fi e d f orm ) are so wid ely use d fo r S ight Sin gin g purposes (For -

a more d etail e d a cc ou n t O f the tran sitio n to staff n otat ion

l
,

see Grov e op cit art icl e notation ) It will n ow be rea dil y

,
. . .

s e enthat o ur mo d ern n otatio n is the resul t o f a c omb in atio n

o f two pre c e din g metho d s (the Gree k l e tters an d the n eumes) ,

tog e ther with a n ew el emen t the staff emphasiz in g t h e id ea ,

that h igher tones are writte n higher on the staff then l owe r on es .

T h e d eve l opme n t o f the n e umes in to n otes o f var ious S hapes

in d ic at in g rel at ive t ime val ues an d t h e divis ion O f the sta ff
in to m e asur e s w ith a d efini te m e asure s ign atur e at t h e begin

I
nin g are n atura l d evel opmen ts o f the earlier primit ive id ea

n the syst e m O f
“ ”
music a m en su rabilis or m easu red music
whic h was in augu rat e d a little l ater the virga (whi ch h ad
.

m e anwhil e d evel oped in to a s q uare hea d e d n eume) was —

a d opte d as the l ong a or l ong n ot e and the pun c tus in two o f ,

it s f orms as breve an d s emibreve (Short an d ha l f short) The -

l on ga is n ow ext in c t but the mo d e rn f orm o f t h e breve is st il l

,

us e d as the d oub l e whol e n ote an d the semibreve 1 8 our mo d e rn

- -

whol e n ote
-
.

Re d c ol ore d n otes were sometimes use d to in d ic ate c ha n g e s

-

in val ue an d bef ore l o n g outlin e n ot e s (c all e d emp ty notes)

c ame in to use these be in g eas ier to mak e tha n the solid o n es
,
.

The tran sit ion f rom s q uare an d diamon d Shape d n otes to -

roun d an d ova l o n es al so c ame about be c ause o f the greater

f a cility w ith whic h the l atter c ou l d be written and for t h e ,
“
same reason n otes of smal l d en omin ation w e re l ater t ie d
”
togeth er or s troked Thi s l at t er usage b e gan about 1 70 0 AD
. .

”
i

It is in terest in g to fin d that when measure d music was

fi n all y in augurate d there were at first but t w o measure sig
‘

n atur e s viz ,
the circl e stan ding for three beat measur e
.
,
-

p rfect m easu re) an d t h e sem i c ir c l e (

( the s o-

c a ll e d e or broke n -

c ir cl e ) wh ic h in dic ate d t w o b e at m e asur e O cc asion ally three

-
.

beat measure was indicate d by three vertical s t rokes at the

1 0 8 I
M US C NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

f our to fif teen at various times an d in various pl a c es (four ,

being the stan d ar d n umber for a l on g time) These lines .

(wh e n there were q u it e a n umber in t he sta ff) w e re O f t e n

d ivid e d in to grou p s of fou r by red lin e s whic h were n o t them ,

sel ves use d for n ot e s These re d l in es wer e gra d ually omitte d

.

an d the sta ff di vid e d in to se c t io n s by a spa c e as in mo d ern ,

usage The n umber o f lin es in ea ch se c tion was chan ge d to

.

fi ve (in some cases six ) for the sak e o f having a l arger ava il abl e
ran ge in ea ch se c tion .

The cl ef s at the beginn in g of the staff s are of c ourse s imply

al tere d f orms O f the l etters F C and G wh ich were written
, , ,

at first by Gu id o an d others to mak e the ol d n eume n otation

more d efinite .

The sta cc ato sign seems not to have appeare d u n til about
the t ime of B a ch the l egato sign being al so inven te d at about
,

the same time The f ermata was first use d in imitative part
.

writin g to show where ea ch part was to stop but with the ,

d evel opmen t o f harmo ni c writ in g the prese n t pra c t ic e was

in au g urate d Leger line s c ame in to use in the seven teen th
.

c e n tu ry .

Sharps an d flat s were in ven te d be cause c omposers fou nd

it n e cessary to use other to n es tha n those th a t c oul d be rep re
sen te d by the staff d egrees in their n atural c on di t ion The .

h istory o f their orig in an d d evel opmen t is somewhat c omp li

c at e d an d c ann ot be give n her e but it shoul d be n oted o nc e
,

more that it was the n ee d O f expressing more than c oul d be

exp resse d by the Ol der symbol s that call e d f orth the n ewer
an d more c omprehen s ive metho d

I
The use of sharps and flats
.

in k ey s ign atures grew up early in the seven tee n th c e n tury n .

the earl ier sign atures it was customary to d up lic ate sharps
o r flats o n sta ff d egrees hav in g the same p it c h n ame thus :
—
,

(The u se o f the G cl ef as here shown di d

not O f c ourse exist at that time ) .

 HISTORY OF NOTATION 1 09

The d oub l e sharp be came n ec essary when

-
an d d oub l e fl at -

”
e q ual temp e ramen t (making possibl e the use of the c ompl e te
c y cl e o f k eys ) was a d opte d This was in the time of Ba ch .

( 1 685
S ign s of expression (rel at ing to tempo and dyn am ic s) d ate
ba ck at l east as far as t h e y ear 1 0 0 0 A D but t h e mo d ern . .
,

t e rms use d for th is purpose did n o t appear un til some years

after the inven tion O f op e ra the d ate given by C F A Wil ,
. . .

liams in Grove s D ic t io n ary be in g 1 6 3 8

’
Th e se word s an d .

signs of expression were at first use d only in c onn e c t ion with

in strumen tal music but were gra d ually app lie d to vo c al ,

music al so .

Other systems of n otation have been in ven te d from time

to time in t h e c ours e o f the l ast two o r thre e cen turie s but in ,

most cases th ey hav e die d with th eir in v en tors an d in n o cas e ,

has any su ch syst e m b e en a cc ept e d with anyth in g e ven ap

p r o a chin g u n a n imi ty T h e to n ic s o l f a system 1
is us ed q u it e .
- -

an a t t e m p t i
t o n ve n t a s i mp l er no t a t o n i t b o e

used by b g inn ( p i ll y in t h l w g d f t h p b l i h l )
e e rs , es ec a e o er ra es o e u c sc oo s an d by i g s n e rs

in h l
c o ra i t i wh h soc e es v l n d t
o i t p t t fl t ti
ave n e er d wh t h
ea r e o n e r re s a no a o n an o ere

o re

n th i

t n b ing
o e
I
f find m imp l h m f t t i
e i d ti
so

s s
e s

y t m t h yll b l d
arr ve
s e

h
er s c

fi t by m
a
mie s

n ea c
t
e y if t h y t
(i p ha
e o

es

f fi m ly t bl i h d
ca se ,
ti
no a

rs
d m i
p l li g )
o, re,

ft
t ll
o n n ec e ssar

d th ,

lit y
e c

ea n s o
.
,

a
n

r
e

on e

es a
a re

c s
o rea

s
e

e
n
us c a

are use

s e n se o o na
a

,
.

an d d by
se con i t i g h di t i t
asso c a n wi t h m ea c i v lly f l t m t i l
a on c o ne so e un ers a e e o on a

f li g t h d i f d t
ee n : us o th
s re erret g t n mi tho as lm e s ron d l th d o e, as e ca o n e , an a as e sa

to ne ,g t mph i b i g pl
re a e d p
as s d e n th t f th m j
ac e u t
on lit y o as d e cen e r o e a or ona ,
an

u on
p l t h
a as t f t h m in
e c en e r o T h y t m i the t h
or . dv t g e s s e s u s s een o a ve o n e a an a e

o v t ff
er s a t ti vi
no a th t i p
on, t i g it t h t
z : . h a i mp ll d t b gi with
n res en n e eac er s co e e o e n a

p nt t i
res e a f t lt on o wh il in m y
ac ua on es , th t h e f t ff t tian b g i bycases e ea c er o s a no a on e ns

p ti g f
rese n tn g d i t h
a c s re ar
g t ff n d t h e n y m b l b f
e s a t h p a
p il kn w o yt h i g
r s o s e ore e u o s an n

b tt
a ou d h yt h m
o n e an r h as s u c .

Th ym b l f
e s h di t
o i t
or ea c i t h i it i l l t t a on c f th yll bl
on e s d f e n a e er o e s a e or

d f
o, r o r re, t h k y b i g i di e t d by e l tt e n t th b gi n i g f th
ca e mp i a e er a e e nn n o e co os

ti on Th d
. ti e l u ra f t i i d i t d by
o n va u e o
-
yt m fb d t
ones s n d p ca e a s s e o a rs , o s, an s a ces ,

th b e b i g d t i di t t h t g t p l f h m
ar e n u se o n ca e ( i t ff
e s ro n est ti ) u se o ea c e as ure as n s a no a on

th b e t being
—
ea s
W d h i d i t i g t h ti t i f
a t h as m n ca n e con nu a on o e sa e

th b t If b t h t w t t hi i i d i t d by w i t i g t h
-

to ne gh ro uth a no er ea . a ea as o ones s s n ca e r n e

t w i it i l l t t
o n a p e t i g t h m wi t h
ers re re s e nb t w t h m A m d l t i i i di t d
n e a e ee n e . o u a on s n ca e

by gi vi g t h w k y l t t
n e ne d by p i t i g t h
e e yll b l i i t i l f m t h t dp i t
e r an r n n e s a e -
n a s ro e s an o n

o f b th th e O ld and t h
o w d p it i n T h fig
e ne b v nd t t h i g h t f t h
o -
os o . e ure a o e a o e r o e
 1 1 0 MUSIC NOTATION AN D TER M INOLOG Y

exten sively in Engl and for vo cal music but has gain e d l ittl e ,

grou n d an ywhere e l s e and the chanc es are that the p resen t

system of n otation with possib ly slight a ddi tio n s an d mo di ,

fi cat ion s will remain t h e stan d ard n otatio n f o r some time to

,

c ome in sp ite o f the atta ck s that are per io d ic a ll y ma d e upo n

it o n the grou n d of c umbersomen ess diffi c ul ty in tea chin g ,

c hil d re n etc The main c hara c teristic s O f sta ff n otat ion

,
.

may be summe d up as f oll ows :

1 P it ch e s represen te d by l in es an d spa c es O f a staff
.
,

the hi gher the l in e the h igher the p it ch repr e sen te d .

, ,

s ign s c all e d cl efs at the beg inn in g of ea ch staff m ak

in g cl ear the p it ch n ames o f the l in es and spa c es . .

2 Duratio n val ues shown by s hap es O f n otes

. .

A e ts h b i i f
‘

3 cc n s o w n y .po s t o n o n otes o n the sta ff w ith

regar d to bars i e the stro ngest a cc en t always f all s ,
. .
,

just a f ter the bar an d the beat rel atively l east ,

a cc en te d is f ou n d just bef ore the bar .

i di t
l e t t er n ca e s t h e t o ne in t h e o c t a ve a b o ve , whil e t h e sam e fig u re bl w
e o an d t o th e
righ t i di t n c a es t he o c t a ve bl w e o . A bl an k sp ac e i di t
n t ca e s a res . T h e t un e of My
C nt y T i T h ee p i t d i i t ti b l w will i nt
’
ou r ,
s of ,
as r n e n t on c sol -
ia no a on e o make t h ese p o s

c l e ar

I I I I I I
.

I I I I I
Key F

I I
d : d : r t, . d : r m m : f m — . r : d r : d : t' d
s 5 5 s -
f : m f : f : f f m : r m
!
.

l f . : m r d —

T he a d van t a g es o f the sy s t em a re ()
1 t he s t ro ng s ense o f key -
f e li n g
e aro u se d and

t he ea s e wi t h whi ch m od ul a ti on s are f el t ; an d (2 ) the f a ct t h at it is ne ces sa r yt o l earn

to s ngi in b u t o ne k ey , t h u s m ak i ng s ig h t i g i -
s n ng a m u ch s imp l er ma t t e r, an d t ran s ;

po s it i on the i
e a s es t p ro ce ss m ag i i blna e . B ut t h es e are ad van t ag e s f ro m the s t a nd p o n t i
of t h e vo ca l i st (p rod u cin g but o ne t on e at a i t m e) o nly nd d t pp ly t
,
a o no a o in st rum en
t al m u s i c .will t h f p
T he sch em e lm iere o red ro b b ly b
a e alw y t i t d t
a s res r c e o vo ca us c an

will h dl y m i t v y t i v
ar co e v n i n o er e x en s f m i i e u se e e n t hi fi l d f
s th t e h ,
or e ea c er o us c s

fin di g it p f t l y p ibl t i mp v m t h d
n e r ec oss e o t t th t ro e e o s o fp t ti t
re s e n a u h on o s c an ex e n a

lear ni g t ni g f m t h t ff b m
o s n v y im pl m t t
ro e s a v t th y g h i ld
e co es a er s e a er e en o e oun c .

A d n the ven
g h t h i w t tou t h t i l t s wi l l l w y b
e re n oh m p d by t h
ru e , e on c so — a -
a a s e a e re e

f t th t i
ac a ll l t t p
s n ce a i t d i t i g het h i z
ers ar et l l i th d r n et h n a s ra or on a ne e ea r o es no av e

th i t n f t h y in pp i t i g t h i
e ass s a ce o e ed f ll f m l d y
e a i th re c ain n e r se an a o e o ,
as s e case

s t aff n t at i n
o o .
 !
U W M W '

APPENDIX B

M U SI CAL I N S TRUM E NT S
1 B roa dl y speaking music al in strumen ts may be divide d
.
,

mto two cl asses viz : (1 ) those that have a k eyboar d and are
,
.

7 there ore c apab l e of sou ndin g several ton es S imul tan eously ;
i those that (as a ru l e) soun d onl y one ton e at a t ime as the ,

violin and trumpet The p ian o is of c ourse the most famili ar

.

exampl e O f the first cl ass and a brief d es c ription is therefore ,

gi ven .

a
T h pia n w
n I t li n
a
e

t w
a . I
i nv nt d b t t w h und d y
o

n n
as

m
as a
e

e
e

or
g by C i t f i ( 6 5
a

o us
ou o

i m p v m t v t h t yp f k y b d i n t m n t
ro e en
re

o er
ears a o

e es o
r s o or

e -
o ar
1

s ru
1

th t w
a in
ere t t h t t i m ( l vi h d h p i h d p i n t vi g i n l ) nd h
u se a a e c a c or ul t ed
,
ar s c or ,
s e ,
r a a as re s

in n nt i l y d i ff
a e re nt t yl f
ere mp i t i n
s S n t
e o n m b lli h m n t p
co os 6 o . ee o e o e e s e s, . 2 .

2 The most c hara c teristic thi ngs about the p iano as con
.

t rast e d with it s imme diate pre d e c essors are ()

I that on it

the l ou dness an d sof tn ess of the ton e c an be regul ate d by the

f or c e with whic h the keys are stru ck (he nc e the n ame p ian o
for t e mea n in g litera ll y the s oft l oud ) ; (2 ) the f a c t that the -

than it s pre d e cessors .

sounding for some littl e t ime af ter the key is stru ck wh il e on

I
p ian o is c apab l e O f susta inin g to n e t o a mu ch greater exte n t
n other wor d s the to n e c o n t in ues

the earlier in strumen ts it stoppe d al most insta ntly a fter bein g

s oun d e d .

The essen tial s O f the p ia n o me chanism are

.

1 Fel t hammers c o n troll e d by keys ea ch hammer

.
,

strik ing two o r three strings (which are tu ne d in

u nison) an d imme diatel y rebou nd ing f rom these
s trings all owm g them to vibrate as l o ng as the k ey
,
 MUSICAL INSTRUME NTS

held do wn The mechanism that all ows the ham

is .

mers to reboun d f rom the strings an d fall sit io n

for an other b l ow is c all e d the escap emen t a

2 A damper (ma d e O f sof ter fel t) pressin g

. ea ch
string an d preven tin g it from vibratin g un til it is
wan te d .

3 A. keyboar d a c t io n that c o n trol s both hamm ers an d

d ampers c aus in g the d amper to l eave t h e strin g at

,

the Same in stan t that the hammer strikes it .

4 A. pe d a l (d amper pe d a l ) c o n tro ll in g al l O f the d a m

pers S O that at any momen t all the strings may be
,

r el ease d S O as to be free to vibrate .

Other in terest ing d e tail s are :

1 The strings are stret che d over a thin Sheet of woo d
.

c all e d the soun d boar d

‘
-

Thi s a id s greatly in in t en
.
~

sify ing the to n e .

2 The sof t pe dal (the on e at the l ef t) in an upright

.

piano causes the hammers to move up n earer the

strings an d the shorter swin g thus aff ord ed causes a
,

I
l ess viole n t b l ow an d c on s e q ue n tly a so f ter to ne
'

n the grand p i an o thi s same p e d al shif ts the me c h

an ism to on e s id e so that t h e hamm e rs str ik e o nl y

o n e or t w o O f the str in gs this resul tin g in a sof te r

,

ton e of som ewhat mo di fi ed q uality .

These d etail s r egardin g the m echani sm O f the p ian o can

easily be verifie d by rem ovm g t h e fron t O f any ordin ary up
right p ian o an d observin g what takes pl a c e when the k eys are
stru ck or the pe dal s d epresse d .

3 . There are two f am il iar types o f or ga n i n use at t h e

presen t tim e (1 ) t h e reed organ (2 ) the p ipe organ

, ,
-

The reed organ is v e ry simpl e in c on struc tion the ton e ,

b ein g pro duc ed by the vibration o f metal ree d s (fix ed in littl e

c ell s) through whi ch air is f orc e d (o r su cke d) f rom t h e bel
,
~

l ows t h e l atte r b e in g usuall y worke d by the f eet o f t h e p l ayer

, .
I
I 4 MUSIC NOTATION AN D T ERMINOLOG Y

More power may be se cure d either by d rawin g a dditional

s t ops thus throwin g on more sets of ree d s or by openin g the
, ,

kn e e swell s whi ch either throw on more ree d s (sometimes

o c t ave c oupl ers) or el se open a swell box in whi ch some of the
r e e d s are en cl ose d the ton e bein g l ou d e r when the box is open
,

than when cl osed More to n e may al so be se cure d by pump

.

ing har d er .

4 .T he esse n t ia l c hara c ter ist ic of the p ip e or an is a num

g
-

ber of sets or registers of p ipes c all e d s top s ea ch set bein g cap ,

e

ab l e (usually) of soun din g the en tire chromatic sc al e through

a range o f five or six o c taves Thus for examp l e when t h e .

stop mel odia is d rawn (by pull in g o u t a stop kn ob o r t il ting a -

tab l et) one set o f p ipes onl y soun d s when the k eyboar d is
, , ,

pl aye d on : but if the stop fl u te is d rawn with mel odia two ,

p ipes speak every time a k ey is d epresse d Thus if an organ .

has forty sp eaking s top s al l running through the en tire key

,

boar d then ea c h time on e k ey is d epresse d f orty p ipes will

,

speak an d if a chord o f five ton es is pl aye d two hundred

, ,

p ipes will speak The obj ec t of having so ma ny p ipes is n o t

.

merely to make possib l e a very powerf ul ton e but rather to , , ,

give greater variety o f ton e c ol or -

The p ipe organ usually has a pe dal k eyboar d on wh ic h the

.
—

f eet of the perf ormer pl ay a bass part this part o f te n soun din g ,

an o c tave ( o r more) l ower than the n ot e s in d ic ate .

An eight foot s top on the organ pro d u c es to n es of the same

-

p it ches as the p ian o when c orre spo n ding keys are stru ck : A
f our -
f oo t s top sou n d s to n es a n o c tave hi gher a n d a two foot s top -

tones two o c taves higher A six teen foot s top soun d s tones an
.
-

o c tave l ower than the p ian o and a thirty two foot stop tones ,
-

two o c taves l ower whil e some organ s have al so a six ty four foot
,
—

stop which sound s three o c taves l ower Thi s gives the organ an .

ex c eedingly wide range it s c ompass bein g grea ter than that of

,

any other S in gl e in strume n t an d c omparab l e in both ra nge

,

Of it c hes an d variety o f c ol or o nl y with the mo d ern or chestra

p .
1 1 6 MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

cl arin et , an d ba ss cl arin et
bassoon . The E nglish horn ,
d oub l e -

bass cl arin et an d p icc ol o are n o t c all e d for in t h e O l d er c ompo

,

1 0
,

I
sit ion s hen c e are n o t alwa s prese n t in the o r chestra
y
n the thi r d group (t h e bras s ch oir) are f o im d t h e
.

F ren c h horn (usuall y referre d to as the horn) trumpet (some

.

, ,

times repl a c e d by the c o m et) trombon e an d tuba ,

.

I I The f ourth group (p ercu ssion ) c on sists of k ettl e drums

. .

1 2 I
bass drum cymbal s sn are d rum trian gl e bell s e t c
,

n an or chestra of about 1 0 0 p l ayers the proport ion o f

.

in strum e n ts is as about as f oll ows al though it varies some

, , , ,
.

what a cc or din g to the taste o f the c on d uc tor the styl e of ,

c ompos itio n to be perf orme d e t c ,

1 8 fir st vio lin s 1 6 se c o n d vio lin s 1 4 v io l as 1 2 c e ll os

, 1 0 , , ,
,

basses I harp 3 flutes 1 p icc ol o 3 O boes I E n glish horn 3

, , , , , ,

Cl ar in ets 1 bass cl arin et 3 bassoon s 1 co n tra (or d oub l e)

, , ,

bassoon 4 horn s 2 trumpets 3 trombon es 1 tuba 3 k et tl e

, , , , ,

d rums 1 bass d rum 1 sn are d rum 1 ea c h o f tria n gl e cymbal s

, , , , ,

bell s and other in strumen ts o f p e r cussion severa l of which are

, ,

O ften manipul ate d by on e perform e r .

I 3 The c uts an d brie f d es c ription s here a dd e d will give

.

at l east atru dim en t ary idea o f the appearan c e and poss ib il it ies
o f the in strumen ts most c ommo nl y use d in ba n d s an d or ches

tras F or full er d es c ription s an d partic ul ars r e gardin g ra n ge

.
,
“ ’
ua l ity t the stu d e n t is re ferr e d to Maso n s The Or c hes
q e c ,
.
,

t ral I n strume n ts an d Wh at Th ey D O
“ ’
L avig n ac s Music ,
”
an d Mus ic ia n s an d to the var ious art icl es wh ich d es c ribe
,
’
ea ch in strumen t u n d er it s ow n n ame in Grove s D ic t ion ary or
in any goo d en cy cl opae dia F o r st ill full er d eta il s some work .

o n or chestrat io n w ill have to be c o n sul te d .

1 4
‘
The violin has four strin gs tun e d thus
. these ,

making avail abl e a range of about three an d one hal f o c taves -

g T s ra ge may be exte n d e d upwar d somewhat

( hi 1
n
1
Th ng n t d in
e rann t i n wi t h t h
es d ip t i n f i n t m nt e
o e co ec o ese e s cr o s o s ru e s ar

o din
r i ly t h p ti l o h t l r b nd ng
ar e rac th t h n t h e wh i h
ca rc es ra p ible o a ra es ra er a os c are o ss

in sol p f m nce
o e r or a .
 MUSIC AL INSTRUMENTS H 7

urther by m a s f h m o n ic s these bein g by d

pro u c e d l ightl y
f e n o a r ,

tou ch ing t h e strin g at c ertain poin ts (wh il e t h e bow is m o vm g

a cross it ) instea d of ho l di n g it d ow aga st
n in t h e

boar d The hi ghest str in g O f the vi o l i n

fin g e r— .

v o l a an d c ll e o a l so ) i o f te n c a ll e d the c h a n
( i s

b ause it i most o f te n use d f o r p l ay i n g

terell e e c s

the mel ody The vi olin or dinarily pro du c es but

.

to n e at a t ime but by s t opp i n g two str in gs

o ne ,

simul tan eousl y a n d so d raw in g t h e bow as t o set

both in vibration two ton es may be pro du ced at
,

the same t ime w hi l e,

three a n d f our to n es c an be
soun de d a l m o s t s imu l ta n eous l y .

The m u te (o r sordin o) is a
V ro L rN

smal l cl amp ma d e o f me tal L g h ,

en t ,

woo d o r ivory which when L g h f b w

, , en t o o ,

clipp e d to the t op o f the

bridge causes the vibration s to be tran s

m it t e d l ess fr eely to the bo dy o f the
violin givin g rise to a ton e mo difie d in
,

ua li ty an d d e c rease d in power
q ,
.

F or c erta in Spe cial e ffe c ts t h e pl ayer

is dire c te d t o p l u ck the strin g (pizzicato) ,

this metho d O f p layin g givin g rise to a

d ry d e ta che d to n e in stea d o f the smooth
, ,

flowing o ne that is so chara c teristic of

the violin as c o m mo nly p laye d .

Violins in t h e or ch e stra are di vide d

in to firsts an d se c o nd s the firs t viol ins ,

b eing always seate d at the l ef t of the

VI O L A.
au d ien c e an d t h e s econd s at the r ight .

L g h 6 i L g h fb
en t , 2 n . en t 8 o ow, 2
The vi ola has four strings al so
.

tuned in fif ths thus ,

The viola l ooks exa c tly like
t h e vio l in at a l itt l e d istanc e an d is reall y only a

I
,

l arge r size d vio lin having a range a fifth l ower

'

.
,

t s to n e is n ot So in c isive as that o f the vio l in be ing ,

1 1 8 MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

rather h e avie r more gl oomy ,

as it is o f ten d es c ribe d .

viol a is not so useful as the violin as a sol o in strumen t

be c aus e it is n o t capab l e O f pro du cin g so
many varit ies o f col or n everth el e ss it is
in val uab l e fo r c erta in e ff e c ts n or ches

tral music it is o f c ourse o ne o f the most

,

. I
val uab l e in strumen ts for fill in g in the
harmony The viol a p l ay ers are usually
.

seate d behind the se con d violin pl ayer s

. .

in the or chestra .

1 6 . The viol oncello or cello (some

t im e s c al le d bass viol ) has four strin gs ,

tun e d thus Its ran ge is about

half o c taves (from C to e

three an d o ne -

or but in sol o work this range is

som e t imes ext en d e d mu ch h igher The .

c ell o is mu c h more u n iversall y use d as a

sol o in strumen t than the viol a an d it s

ton e is capab l e O f a mu ch great e r d egree
o f var iat io n n the or c h e stra it p l ays
.

the bass O f the strin g q uartet (reinf or c e d

I
VI O O N O L by the d oub l e bass) but is a l so O f ten
C EL L .
-

,
‘h
nig fggfbfit jifi
’
use d f o
n,
r so l o passag e s C on s ord in o a n d .

p izzicato passages o ccur as O ften fo r the cell o as for t h e violin .

1 7 The dou bl e bass diff e rs fr om the other members of

.

the strin g f amily in that it is tu n e d in fourths in st e a d O f in

fif ths Its f our strin gs are tun e d as f oll ows 5
.

ran ge o f t h e in strum en t bein g f rom EE to a E

the en tire
n music . , I
written for d oub l e bass t h e n otes are always prin te d an o c tave
-

h igher than the ton es are to soun d : that is when the bass ,

p l ay e r sees t h e n ote g ; h e pl ays E this being d on e

to avo id l e g e r l in e s . The ton e of the bass is mu ch heavier an d
1 20 MUSIC NOTATION TERMINOLOGY

Ran g e

O
C NT R A B A S S OON .
I J
P CC O L O

b b
(D o u l e as s o o n .
) L h i
e ng t , 1 3 n.
E N G L I SH h h
Leng t h 6 ft R an g e HORN (N ot e t at t is

xi
.

w
.

ab o u t an o c t av e lo er is ap p ro
(C o r
l h lf h
F LU T
h b
.

E“
b ut n ot m at e y a t e
t an as s o o n , An g l ais )
al l t o n e s in t is h ran g e
L en g t h 2 ft l h f h
en g t o t e L e ng t h ,

p bl
, .

26 3 in
a re rac t ica e. 1 1 5 in . fl ut e .
) .
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 1 21

20 . The n ext to be d es cribed (oboe

f our in strumen ts ,

bass oon Englis h horn and con tra bass oon ) are O f t en re fe rr e d
, ,

to as the oboe family S ince the principle O f to n e pro du c tion an d

gen eral mani pul ation is the same in all four The ton e in thes e .

in strumen ts is pro du ce d by the vibratio n o f two ve ry thin

'

p iec es of c ane whi ch are c all ed together a dou bl e reed

,
-

The oboe is espe cially valuab l e in the orch e stra

as a sol o in strumen t an d it s thin n asal ton e s are
, ,

sugg e stive of rustic pastora l simplicity both oboe

, ,

an d En glis h h orn b ein g o f ten us e d by or chestra l

c ompos e rs in passages In te n d e d to expr e ss t h e id e a

O f rura l o u t O f d oor lif e

-

T h e Eng
-

lis h horn is a l so o f ten use d in pas

sages where the idea O f m el an choly
an d su ff e r ing is to be c o n v ey e d to

t h e au die n c e n a mil itary ban d

.

t h e Oboe c orre spo n d s t o t h e first

I
v iol in o f t h e or ch e stra .

T h e bass oon an d contra -

bas soon
use d mostly t o provide a bass
are

part f o r t h e harmony o f t h e woo d

win d group but th ey are al so som e
,

tim e s emp l oye d (e sp e cially t h e

bas soon) to d ep ic t c omic or g ro
t s e s qu e e ff ec ts .

21 T h e n ext two typ e s o f in

.

s t ru m en t s to be d e s c r ib e d ( cl arin et

an d s ax op h on e) are a lik e in that t h e

ton e is p ro du c e dfiby t h e vibration

o f a s ingl e strip o f c a n e ( c a ll e d s in

g l e r eed ) w hi c h is h e ld aga i n st t h e Lifi

gfgf ggm
l ow er lip O f t h e p l ay e r The cl arin et an d bass cl arin et are ma de
.

o f woo d an d are use d in both ba n d s an d or chestra s but the

,

s ax op h on e is usually ma d e o f metal an d t h e to n e be ing more, ,

1 22 M USIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

strid en t an d p en etrat in g the in strum en t is ordin aril y use d o nly

,

in c omb in at io n with oth e r win d in strumen ts i e in ban d s ,

. .
, .

S in c e t h e fi n gerin g O f the cl arinet is ex c essivel y d iffi cul t

t h e perf orm e r can p l ay in o nl y c erta in k eys o n the same in
strum en t h en c e t o pl ay in diff eren t k eys cl arin ets in sev eral
,

k eys must be provid e d there bein g usually three in all The ,

.

music is writt en as though it were to be p l aye d in t h e key o f

C but t h e ton es pro d u ce d are a c tually in oth e r k eys F o r th is
,
.

r e ason t h e clarinet is c all e d a transp osing instrum ent The .

ran ge o f t h e clarinet is t h e great e st possesse d by any o f the

wind in strum en ts that of t h e cl arinet in C being from
,

S O R A NO
P . AL T O . B ASS .

L en g t h , 1 5 2 in . L e ng t h , 3 ft .
9 in .
1 24 I
M U S C NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

variation but in sp ite o f this l a ck o f variety the tone itself is

,

so wond erfully beautiful that t h e in strumen t is on e Of the most

useful in the orchestra both in sol o passages an d to fill in the
harmony The horn (as well as t h e trumpet an d trombon e)
.

di ffe rs f rom most of the woo d w in d in strumen ts in that it s -

mouthp ie c e c o n tain s n o ree d the lips o f the pl ayer c on s t it u t

,

ing t h e vibra t ing bo dy as they are stret ch e d a c ross the mouth

p ie ce an d air is f orc e d aga in st them The h orn is use d in .

ban d s as well as in orc hestras .

23 . The ran ge of t h e tru m p et is th e typ ic al ton e

bein g brillia n t an d rin gin g It is us e d in both band an d o r

.

ch e s t ra p l ay in g the h igh e st parts ass ign e d to t h e brass c ho ir

, .

T RUM P ET . L en g t h ,
2 2 } in .

T h e tru m p et is o f ten r epl a c e d in both ban d an d or ch e stra by

it s l e ss refin e d c ous in the corn et be c ause o f the e ase with wh ic h
the l atter c an be pl aye d as c ompar e d with the trumpet an d ,

the l arg e r n umber of p l ayers that are ava ilab l e in c o n se q uen ce

o f thi s ease o f exe c ut io n .

24 . The corn et l ooks something like the trumpet but is ,

n o t so Slim an d gra c e ful in appeara n c e Its tube is o nly four .

an d o n e half f eet l o n g
-
as c ompare d with a l en gth of about
,

e ight f e et in the trump e t an d s ixteen f e e t in the Fre n c h horn

I
, .

T he ran ge of the corn et in B ? is f rom

E 92 1 to
The to n e is somewhat c ommonpl a ce as c ompare d with the
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 1 2 5

trumpet but b ecause of it s great agil i ty in the rendi tion

, of

trill s repeated ton e s et c it is uni versal ly use d in all sorts

, ,
.
, of

c omb in at io n s even (as n oted ,

above) taking the p l a c e of the .

trumpet in many small orches

52 p
. it h
T he
c sou n d e d by
the trom bon e is al tered by
l e n gthenin g or short e nin g the
tube of whi ch the in
strumen t is c on stru c t
e d thi s b ein g possib l e
,

because the l ow e r part

slid es in to the upper
an d can b e pu ll e d o u t

to in c re as e the total
l ength of t h e tube
through whi ch the air
passes There are u s .

n a ll y thr e e trombon es

in t h e O r chestra ea ch ,

pl aying a s eparate
part and the c omb i ,

n atio n o f th is trio with

t h e tu ba re in f or cin g -

t h e bass parts is ma

j es t ic a n d thr il lin g ,

S m T m
u , , being powerful en ough to d ominate the en tire
orch e stra in F ortissimo passage s But the .

R g an fe o mb trom bones are use ful in so f t passages al so an d

t en o r t ro one
,
( h m “ m ay
t e e d) us e

th eir ton e when p l aying p ianissimo is rich ,

s eren e an d son orous ,

.

26 The bass tuba is a member of the saxhorn f amil y and

.
1

1
T he h n w s axi nv nt d b t 8 4 by Adolp h e S
-
or as e Fr nch man
e a T he
ou 1 0 ax , a e .

saxophone is t h e invent i on f t h m man o e sa e .

1 26 MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOG Y

supp lies the l owest part of the brass choir as t h e d oub l e bas s ,
-

d oes in the s t rin g ch o ir It is use d in both or ch e stra an d ban d

.

b eing of ten supporte d in the l arg e r

ban d s by a still l ower t on e d member -

o f the same f a mil y t h e con tra bass -

tu ba The ran ge of the tu ba is from .

The dru m S the most im I

portan t memb e r of t h e p w
C

is a lways use d either m pa irs or

Siz e O f thes e in st ru
men ts varies somewhat with the make ,

but when t w o d rums are us e d t h e diam

BA SS T L
UB A g h 3 f
.
3 i eter is approx imately tha t give n u n d er
en t , t . n .

th e ill ustration The ran ge of a p an of drums I s one octave

.

B A SS D RU M . D iam e t e r a b out 2 1 } ft . C Y M B A LS . D iam e t e r, 1 3 } in .

an dwhen but two d rums are use d the l arger on e takes the to n es
from F to about C O f this ran ge an d the small er tak e s those ,
1 28 MUSIC NOTATION AN D TERM NOLOG Y I
The other importan t members of the per cuss ion f amil y
are sh o w n on th is an d the f o ll ow in g page their use being so
,

obvious as to re q u ire n o d etail e d exp l an atio n .

T A M B OU R I N E .

Diam e t er, 1 0 to 12 in .
 M USICAL

T R rA N G L E . H e ig h t . abo u t 8 in
.

s u m D RUM . D iam e t e r, b
a out 1 5 g in .

28 . T h e h arp is the on e of

o lde st of instrumen ts (d atin g

ba ck over 6 0 0 0 years) but it
‘

is onl y in c omparat ively r ecen t

fi

years that it h as b een us ed in

t h e symphon y or ch e stra Its .

ran g e is f rom to

The mo dern dou bl e action -

h arp has f orty Six strin gs -

w hi ch are tun e d in half steps —

an d whol e st eps S O as t o soun d

I
-

the s cal e O f C l? major t has .

a series of sev en p e dal s aroun d

it s base ea ch p e da l havin g two
,

n otches bel ow it in to e ither of

,

which t h e pe dal may be l ow

ere d and h el d fast T h e fir st .

p ed al shorten s t h e F l? strin g so Hm . h 5f 8i
H e ig t, t . n.

that it now sound s F (givin g the key of 1

G ) ; the se co n d
7
,
1 3 0 MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

shorte n s the C l? string so that it sound s C (giving the key

o f D b) ; the th ir d pe d a l shorte n s the G 7 str in g so that it soun d s

G (giving the k ey of Ab) the f ourth chan g e s D b to D (givin g

I
.

the key of Eb) an d so on u n til when all the pe d al s are fix e d

, ,

in their first n ot ches the s c al e o f C is soun d e d in stea d of C ? as

,

was the c ase bef ore any of the pe d als were d epresse d B ut .

if t h e first pe d al 1 5 n ow pushe d d own in to the se c on d n ot ch the

I
origin al F b strin g is still f urther shorten e d an d n ow sound s
the p itch F (givin g us the key of G) an d if all the other

II
,

pe d al s are lik ewise su cc essively l owered to the se c on d no t ch

we get in turn all the s harp keys D A E B P an d C the
, , , , ,

l ast n ame d k ey bein g obtain e d as the resul t of havin g all the

-

pe dal s fixe d in their se c on d n ot ches thus makin g all the ton es

I
-

o f the origin al C b s cal e a whol e step higher so that they n ow

-

soun d the C ; s c al e .

Chord s O f n o t more than f our ton es for ea ch han d may be

pl aye d simul tan eously on the harp but a rpeggio an d s cal e
,

passages are the rul e an d are more su cc essful than simul

,

t an e o u s c hor d s . The n otation of harp music is essen tially

like that of pian o mus ic .
1 3 2 MUSIC NOTAT ION AND TERMINOLOGY

ta c t with other su ch p a rtair

if
cl e s , str ik e these others t h e l att e r ,

in turn strikin g yet others an d so on both a f orwar d an d ba ck

, ,

war d movemen t being set up (os cill at io n ) Th e se particl es .

lie SO cl ose together that n o moveme n t at all c an be d ete c t e d ,

and it is o nl y whe n the di sturba n c e fin a ll y rea c hes the air

particl es that are in c o n ta c t with the ear d rum that any eff e c t -

is evid e n t .

This phen omen on of sound tran smission may perhaps b e -

mad e more cl ear by the ol d ill ustration of a series of eight

b illiard ball s in a row on a tab l e : if the first ball is tapped
lightl y strikin g gen tl y again st ball n umber 2 the l atter (as
, ,

well as n umbers 3 4 5 6 an d 7 ) will no t apparentl y move at

, , , ,

all but ball n umber 8 at the other end will roll away The
,
.

air part icl es ac t upo n ea ch o t her in mu ch this same f ashio n

-

the diff erenc e bein g that when they are set in motion by a
vibrating body a c omp l ete vibration ba ckwar d and f orwar d
'

c auses a S imil ar backward and forward movemen t o f the parti

cl es (os cil l at io n ) in stea d o f s imp l y a forward j erk as in the

c ase o f the b ill iar d ball s .

An other way of d es c rib in g the same pro cess is this : the

vibratio n of some bo dy pro d uc es waves in the air (cf waves .

in the o c ean whi c h c arry water f orwar d but d o n o t themsel ves

,

move o n c on tinuously) these waves sprea d ou t sphericall y

,

(i e. in a l
. l d ire c t io n s ) an d fi n a ll y rea c h the ear where they S
,
e t
the ear d rum in vibration thus sending c ertain sou nd stimuli
-

,
-

to the n erves of hearin g in the inn er ear and thus to the bra in ,
.

An importan t thin g to be n ote d in c o nn e c tio n with soun d

transmission is that sound will no t travel in a va cuum : some
kind o f a me dium is essen t ial fo r it s tran smiss io n This .

me di um may be air water a bar o f iron or steel the earth e t c

, , , ,
.

4 T he .r a t e at wh ic h sou n d trave l s through the air is

about 1 1 0 0 f eet per se c on d the rap idity varyin g somewhat
with flu c tuatio n s in temperature an d humid ity
rate is mu ch h igher t han in air (about f our times as great)
,

n water the . I
 ACOUSTICS 1 33
.

whil e t h e vel o city of sound through other me diums (as e g . .

,

steel ) is sometimes as mu ch as sixtee n t imes as great as

through air .

5
. Sou n d lik e
,
light may be ,
i n ten s ifi ed by a su itab l e re

fl ec t in g surf a c e dire c tl y ba ck of the vibrat in g bod y (cf sou n d .

ing boar d ) ; it may al so be refle c t e d by som e surfa c e at a d is

ta nc e from it s source in su ch a way that at a c ertain poin t (the
f oc us) the so un d may be ve ry c l early hear d but at other p l ac es , ,

at all . I
even those nearer the sour c e of soun d it can s car c el y be heard
,

f there is su ch a surf a c e in an au ditorium (as o f ten

o ccurs) there will be a c erta in po in t where everything can be
h eard very easily but in t h e rest of t h e room it may be very
,

diffi cul t t o un d erstan d what is bein g sa id or su n g .

Echoes are c ause d by so u n d refl ec t ion the d istan c e of the

-

reflec tin g surf a c e from the vibrating bo dy d etermining the

number o f syll ab l es that w ill be e choe d .

The acous tics of an au ditorium it s hearin g propert ies)

d epen d upon the posit io n an d n ature o f the refle c tin g surfa ces

I
and a l so upo n the l en gth o f t ime a soun d pers ists a f ter the

vibratin g body has stoppe d f it pers ists l o n ger tha n 2 3

.
g 01
2 % se c on d s the room will n o t be suitab l e f or mus ic a l perf orm

an ce s be c ause o f the m ixture o f persist in g to n es with f oll owing

ones this causing a b l urre d eff e c t somewhat lik e that obta in e d

,

by playin g a series of u n rel ate d chord s on the p ian o whil e the

d amper pe dal is hel d d own
-
The duration of the reverbera
.

t ion depend s upon the siz e an d height o f the room material ,

o f floor an d wa ll s f urniture s iz e o f au d ie n c e e t c
, , ,
.

6 Soun d may be cl assifie d roughl y in to tones an d nois es

.

al though the lin e of cl eavage is n ot always sharply d rawn

‘

I throw stones at the s id e of a barn soun d s are pro du ce d but

f . I
, ,

they are caused by irregul ar v ibrat ion s of an irregul arly con

stru c te d surfa ce and are ref erre d to as noise But if I tap the .

hea d of a kettl e d rum a regul ar S eries o f vibrat ion s is set up

I
-

and t h e resul t in g soun d is re ferre d to as tone n ge n era l the .

1 34 MUSIC NO TAT ION AND TERMINOLOGY '

materia l of mus ic c on sists of ton es but for spe cial effe c ts ,

c erta in n o ises are a l so ut iliz e d (c f c asta n e ts .

,

7 . Mus ic a l to n es have three propert ies v iz : ,

.

I P it ch
. .

2 I n ten sity
. .

3 Qua .l ity (t imbre ) .

pend s upon rate of vibration I

B y p itch is mean t the h ighn e ss o r l ow ness of ton e It de
f a bo dy vibrates o nl y 8 or
1 0 t imes per se c o n d n o to n e is hear d at all :
.

but if it vibrates
.

p it ch is heard . I
regul arly at the rate o f 1 6 o r 1 8 per se c on d a to n e of very l ow
f it vibrates at the rate of 2 4 t h e p it ch is h igher
at 3 0 hi gher st ill at 2 0 0 yet h igh e r an d wh en a rate o f about
,

, ,

per se c on d has been rea ch e d the p it ch is so high that

most ears cann ot per c eive it at all The h igh e st ton e that can
.

or dinarily be heard is the El? f our o c taves higher than the

highest El? of the p ian o The en tire ran ge O f sou n d h um anl y
.

au dib l e is therefore about el eve n o c taves (rates 1 6

but only about eight of these o ct aves are utiliz e d for music al
purposes The ton es o f the p ian o (with a ran ge of 7 % o c tav es)
.

4 2 2 4 . nI
are pro du c e d by vibration rates approx imately between 2 7 an d
the or c hestra
the rates be ing f rom 3 3 to 4 7 5 2
the ra n ge is s light
.
l y more exten de d ,

Certa in in t e rest in g f a c ts regardi ng the r el ation betwe en

vibrat ion rates an d p it ches have be en worke d out : it has been
-

di s c overe d f o r in stan c e that if the n umber o f vibrat ion s is

d oub l e d the p it c h o f the resul t in g ton e is an o c tav e hi gher ; i e
,
. .
,

if a strin g vibrat in g at the rate o f 2 6 1 per se c o n d gives rise to

’
the p it ch c then a string on e half as l o n g an d vibrat ing twic e
,
-

higher than c ’
I
as rap idly (5 2 2 ) will give rise to the p it ch c i e an o c tave
n the same way it has bee n f ou n d that if the
.

rate is mul tip lie d by f the p it ch O f the to n e will be a m ajor third

. .
,

higher ; if mul tip lie d by i a p erfect fi fth h igh e r e t c Th e s e

, ,
.

l aws are O f te n state d thus : the rat io o f the o c tave to the fu nd a

men tal is as two is to one ; that o f the major third as five is to
1 3 6 M USIC NOTATION AN D TERM N OL OGY I
bu t this fu nd amen tal is pra c tic ally al ways c omb ined with a
greater or l ess n umber o f f ain t and elusive attendi ng ton es
c all e d overton es o r harm on ics The first of these overto n es is
.

the o ctave above the fun d amen tal ; the se c on d is the fif th

above thi s o c tave ; the thi rd two o c taves above the fun dam en
,
f

t al an d so o n through the series as sh ow n in the figure bel ow

, t .

The presen ce o f these overtones is a cc ou n ted f or by the fa c t

that the string (or other vibrating bo dy) d oes n o t merely
vibrate in it s en tirety but has in a dditio n to the principal
os cill ation a n umber of se c tion al movemen ts al so Thus it .

is easil y prove d that a strin g vibrates in ha l ves third s e t c , ,

.
,

in a d ditio n to the pr in cipal vibrat ion of the en tire strin g an d ,

it is the vibratio n of these hal ves thi r d s e t c Whi ch gives ri se

, ,
.

t o the harm onics or u pp er p artials as they are O f te n c al l e d

,
.

The figu re shows Great C and it s first eight o verto n es A .

simil ar series m ight be work e d out from any other fundame ntal .

1 2 3

i i im y)
I
(N O TE : T h e E h in t h s se r es is app rox at e o nl .

will be re c all ed that in the se c tion (1 0 ) d ea ling with

t
u ality the statem e n t was ma d e that qu al ity d epe n d s upo n the
q
s hape o f the vibrat io n s ; it S houl d n o w be n ote d that it is the

f orm of these vibratio n s that d eterm in es the n ature an d pro

portio n of the overton es an d henc e the q uality . Thus e g a . .

ton e that has too l arge a proportion of the f ourth upper partial
the third of the chord ) will be ready an d som ewhat u n
“

p l easan t Thi s is the case with many voices that are referre d
.

to as n asal Too great a proportion of overton es is what

.

“ ”
c auses c erta in p ia n os to sou nd t in panny The ton e pro -

.
~
 ACOUS T ICS 1 37

by a g OO d t uning fork is al most en tirely f ree f rom over

'

du ce d -

ton es : it has theref ore n o di stin c tive q uality an d is said to be

a simp le ton e T h e chara c teristic to n e of the Oboe on t h e
.

other ha n d has ma ny overton es an d is theref ore highl y in

divid u alis t ic : thi s en ab l e s us to re c ognize the to n e of the in
strum en t even though w e ic ann o t se e the p l ayer Su ch a tone .

is said to be comp l ex .

1 2 .T h e mathematic al ratio re ferre d to on page 1 3 4 if ,

stric tly c arrie d o u t in tu ning a keyboard instrum en t woul d

c ause the ha lf steps to vary slightl y in S iz e
-

an d p l aying in ,

c erta in keys (e sp ec iall y thos e havin g a n umber o f sha rps o r

flats in the Sign ature) woul d th er efore sound out of tu ne .

The re woul d be many oth e r di sa d van tag e s in su ch a system ,

n otab l y the in ab ili ty to mo d ul at e f r eel y to other keys an d ,

Sin ce mo dul ation is on e of the pre d omina n t an d most strikin g

c hara c teristic s o f mo d er n mus ic thi s wo ul d c o n stitute a seri ous ,

barrie r to a dvan ces in c omposition To obviate these dis ad .

van tag e s a system of equal temp erament was inven t e d and has _

be en in uni versal u se sinc e the time of B ach (1 6 8 5 1 7 5 0 ) who —

was t h e first promin en t c omposer to use it exten sively E qual .

t emp eram en t mean s simp ly di viding the o c tave in to tw el ve

e q ual parts thus causin g all s c al es (as pl aye d on keyboard
,

in strum en ts at l east) to sou nd exa c tl y al ik e .

T h w the p
o s o t i bi l i t y f q l t m p
rac ca m nt B a h wrot e a seri es f 48 p l d
o e ua e e ra e c o re u es

an df g
u ues , t w in h m j
o n d t wo in
ea c h m in o key
a or a He call ed t h e ll t i n
e ac r . co ec o

T h W ll t m p d Cl vi h d
“ ”
e e -
e ere a c or .

13 V .ar ious s ta nd ar ds of p itch have ex iste d at diff ere n t

times in the l ast two c en turies and even n ow there is n o abso ,

l

l ute u nif ormity al though c o n d ition s are mu ch bett e r t ha n

they w ere e ven tw en ty five years ago S cien tists u se what is
-
.

“ ”
kn own as t h e s cien tifi c stan dar d (sometimes c alle d t h e
“
philosoph ic viz 2 56 d oub l e vibrat io n s f o r .
,
”
middl e C This p it ch is n o t in a c tual use for music al pur
.

poses but is retaine d for theoretical purposes be cause of it s

,
1 3 8 MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

c onvenienc e of c omputation (bein g a power of n 1 885 a

c o nf e re n c e o f musicia n s at Vie nn a ratifi e d the p it c h g iv in g

I
I
“
m iddl e C 2 6 1 vibratio n s this having been a d opted by t h e ,

F ren ch as their offi cial pit ch some 2 6 years bef ore n 1 891 a .

c o n ven t io n o f p ia n o ma n u fa c turers at P hil a d e lph ia a d opt e d

th is same p it ch for the Unit e d States an d it has been in p rac ,

ticall y u niversal u se ever sin c e This p it ch (giving M iddl e C

'

I
“ ”
2 6 1 vibrat io n s ) is k n own as I n tern atio n al P it ch .

C oncert p itch is slightl y h igher tha n n ternational the dif ,

f eren c e between the two varyin g somewhat but bein g ah n o s t ,

always l ess than on e half step Thi s h igher pit c h is still O f t en

-

use d by band s an d som e times by or chestras t o give greater

brill ian cy to the wind in strumen ts .

R E ERE NCE S
F

La vi g n ac M usi c an d M iiu s c an s , pp . 1 —6 6 .

B roadh o u se T he St u d en t s
’
H elm h ol z .

H el m h ol t z S e n sa ti
ons o f To n e .

Ham il t o n S o un d an d it s Rel a t i on to M i us c .

N OT E : For a s impl e an d i ll m i t i g t
u na n rea t m e n t o f t he su bj ect f ro m the s t a n d.

i
po nt o f t he mus i c s t u d en t , the b k by L vig
oo s a n ac and H am ilt o n a re e sp e c all i y re co m

m ended .
1 40 MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

terminol ogy every d ay for a mon th o r three mo n ths or a , ,

year whatever l en gth of t ime may be n e c essary in ord er to

t the n e w hab its fix e d in m in d an d mus cl e
g e .

The Termi n ol og y Committee was appoin te d by the De

t m n t o f Mus ic o f the N E A in 1 9 0 6 an d ma d e it s first
p a r e . . .

report at L os An gel es in 1 9 0 7 S in c e then the in d efatigab l e

.

c ha irma n o f t h e co m m it t e e (Mr Chas I Ric e O f Wor c ester

‘

. . .
, ,

Mass ) has c o n tribute d gen erously of both time an d stren gth

.
,

an d has by hi s a nn ua l reports to the D epartme n t set ma ny o f

u S to thinkin g a l o n g c erta in n ew lin es an d has c ause d some o f ,

us at any rate to a d opt in our own tea c hin g c erta in chan ges
o f termin ol ogy whi ch have e n ab l e d us to ma k e our work more

“
I
effe c tive .

n hi s first report Mr Ric e says .

Any o n e who has O bserve d the tea chin g o f s chool music

°

in any c o n sid erab l e n umber of p l a c es in thi s c ou n try c ann ot

fa il to have remark e d the great diversity o f statemen t em
pl oye d by d ifferen t tea chers regar ding the fa c ts which we
are engage d in tea chin g an d the e q ual di versity of termin ol ogy
,

use d in tea ching the symbol s by which musician s seek to

rec ord these f a c ts To the t e a cher o f exa c t s cien c es our
.

pic tures q ue use o f the same term to d es c ribe two or more

en tirel y diff eren t things n ever c eases to be a marvel .

Thoughtful m en an d women will be come impresse d with the

u n truthf uln ess of c ertain statemen ts an d littl e by littl e change
their pra c tice Others will f oll ow influenc e d by exampl e
.
, .

T h e revo l ut io ni sts w il l d er id e us f o r n o t movi n g f aster whil e

the c on servatives will be su Sp C O us of any chan ge I
I ”
.

At thi s meeting in Los An gel es a l ist of thirteen poin ts was

re comm end e d by t h e c omm ittee an d a dopte d by the Music

I
Depar t men t These poin ts are given in the N E A V ol ume
. . . .

o f P ro c ee di n gs for 1 9 0 7 p 8 7 5 ,
. .

Sinc e 1 9 0 7 the c ommitt e e (c o n sist ing o f Chas Ric e . .

,

P C Hay d en W B Kinn ear L eo R L ewis and Co nstance

. .
,
. .
,
.
,
 TERMINOLOGY REFORM 1 4 1

B arl ow Smith) have ea ch year sel e c ted a number of top ic s for

-

dis c ussion an d have submitt e d val uabl e reports re c ommen din g

,

the a d option of certain reforms Some o f t h e poin ts re com .

men d ed have usually been rej e c t ed by the D epartmen t but ‘

,

many of them have be en adop t e d and the reports o f the com

m it t e e have se t many tea ch e rs thinkin g an d have ma d e us all
more careful in the u se and d efini tion of c ommon terms A .

c omp l ete list o f all po in ts a d opte d by the Departme n t s m c e

1 90 7 has bee n ma d e by Mr Ric e f or S ch ool M u sic and thi s .

,

l ist is here reprin te d f rom the Jan uary 1 9 1 3 n umber o f that , ,

magaz in e .

T ERMrN O LO GY ADOP TI O N S , 1 90 7
—1
91 0

1 . T one : S p e cifi c n am e for a m u sical so u n d o fd efini t e p it ch . Use

n eit h er s ou nd , a

ap p lica
2 . I
b
n terval :

le t o a
gen eral t erm ,
T h e p it ch rel at io n b e t w e e n two t ones
singl e t o n e o r s c al e d e gre e Ex am p l e :
n o r n ote, a t erm o f n o t a t ion

.
.
.

No t p rop erly
S ing t h e fif t h

I
”
t one of t he scal e . No t
“
s in g the fi ft h in t erval of t h e s cal e .
”

3 . Key : To n es in rel at ion to a t o nic . EXam p l e : n t h e k ey of G .

N ot in t h e scal e o f G S cal es , m aj o r and m ino ra re . com p o s e d o f a d e fini t e

sel ec t i on fro m t h e m any t o n es o f t h e key , an d all s cal e s e x t en d t h ro u h g
at l eas t o n e o c t av e o f p it ch . T he ch ro m at ic s cal e u t il iz e s all t h e t on es
of a k ey wit h in t h e oc t av e .

4 . N atural : No t a suit a ble c om p ou n d to u se in n amin g p it ch es .

Pit ch n am e s are e it h er s im pl e : B, o r com pound : B sh arp , B d o ub l e

B d o u b l e fl at , ”
“
sh arp , B fl at or -
an d t h ere is n o p it ch n am e d B n at u ral .

“
Ex am pl e : Pit ch B , n ot B n at u ral .

NO TE : L R L th
. . . i nks t h at B n at ural sh o ul d be t h e n am e wh en t h e no t at i on

sugg e s t s it .
4

5 . S tep, Half -
ste p : T erm s of int erval meas urement . Avoid tone,
s emi tone
-
or half tone -
. M aj o r seco n d an d m ino r se c o nd are int erval
nam es Ex am p l e : Ho w l arg e are t h e foll o win g int erval s ? (1 ) M aj o r
I
.

se co n d , () 2 mino r s e co n d , (3 ) au gm ent ed p rim e . A n sw e r ( ) a s t ep ,

( ) a h al f st ep , (3 ) a h alf s t ep
2 - -

6 Chromatic : A t on e o f t h e key wh ich is no t a m em b er o f it s diat o nic

.

scal e (N. B ) A n ac cid e n t a

.l (a n o t a
.t io n s ig n ) is n o t a ch ro m at ic Sig n

unl ess it makes a s aff t -

d egree rep resent a ch rom atic t one .
1 4 2 MUSIC NOTATION AN D TERMINOL O G Y

7 . M ajor; M inor: M aj o r an d M ino r k eys h avin g t h e g

s am e si na

t ure sh o u l d be c all ed rel at ive m aj o r an d m in o r . M aj o r an d min or k eys

h avin g t h e sa m e t onic , b u t differe n t g
si n at u re s , sh o uld be call e d t o n ic
”
m aj o r an d m ino r . Not p aral l e l m aj or or mi no r in e it h e r c ase .

8 . S tafi : Five h oriz o n t al l ine s an d t h eir sp ac es . S t aff l ines are

n am e d ( num b ered) u p w ard in o rd e r, fi rst to fif t h . S paces : S p ac e b e
lo w , fi rs t seco n d t hird fo u rt h sp a c e , an d sp ac e ab ove
- - - -
l
.
( x in
Si all .
)
Ad dit ion al sh ort lines an d t h eir Sh o rt sp a c e s n um b ere d o u t w ard bot h
wa ys fro m t h e m ain s t aff , viz : l in e b el o w ,
se co n d sp ace b el o w . T he
bo u n d ary of the s t aff is al w a ys a sp a c e .

9 . G Cl ef F Cl ef C Cl ef : Th ese cl efs w h en pl ace d up on t h e s t aff

, , ,

give it s d eg rees t h eir fi rs t o r p rim ary p it ch m eanin g Eac h m ak es t h e

, .

d e gre e it occ up ie s rep rese n t a p it c h of it s resp ec t iv e n am e . Ex am p l e :

m ak e s t h e
“
T he G c l ef s ec o n d l in e t h e p it ch G Av o id
rep re s e n t .
fixes

G on . T he s t aff w it h cl ef in p osit io n rep res e n t s o nl y p it ch es h avin g

s im p le o r on e -

word n am es , A, B , C ,
et c .

1 0 . S harps , F l ats : Given a s t aff wit h cl e fin p osit io n as in ex am p l e

a b ove ,
sh arp s an d fl at s m ak e s t aff d eg re es up o n w h ic h t h ey are p l ac e d

rep res e n t it h h al f s t ep h igh er o r l o w e r T h ese p it ch es h av e c om

'

p c es a -
.

p o u n d o r t wo -
w o rd n am e s Ex am pl e : T h e . se co n d l in e s t an d s fo r t h e
p it c h G (sim pl e n am e ) . S h arp t h e se c o nd l in e an d it w ill s t an d fo r t h e
p it c h G s h arp (C om p o u n d
. n am e .
) T h e t hird l in e s t an d s fo r t h e p it ch
B .
( p
Sim l e n am e ) F l at it .
,
an d the l in e wil l s t an d fo r t h e p it ch B fl at .

”
(C o m p o u n d n am e ) N B . . . T h ese g do
Si n s not rais e or l ower
n o t es , t o n e s , p it ch e s , l e t t ers o r s t aff d e gree s .

1 1 D ou bl e s harp D ou bl e fl at : Given a s t aff wit h t h ree or m o re

.
-

,
-

d e grees sh arp e d in t h e sign at u re d o u b l e Sh arp s are u se d (su bj ec t t o t h e ,

-

rul es g ov e rn in g c o m p o sit io n ) t o m ak e cert ain o f t h es e d eg ree s al re ady ,

sh arp e d rep re se n t p it ch e s o n e h al f st ep high e r y e t

,
S im il arly wh en -
.
,

t h ree or m o re d e gree s are fl at t e d in t h e sign at ure d ou b l e fl at s are u se d ,

-

t o m ak e c e rt ain d egre es al ready fl at t e d rep re sen t p it ch e s o n e h alf st ep ,

-

l ow e r y e t Ex am pl es : T o rep re sent sh arp 2 in t h e k ey o f B m aj or

.
,

d o u bl e sh arp t h e C d egree o r (e qu ally g oo d) d o u bl e sh arp t h e t hi rd

-

,
-

sp ac e (G cl ef ) T o rep res ent fl at 6 in t h e k ey o f D fl at m aj or d o ub l e

.
,

fl at t h e B d egree o r (e qu ally g o o d) d o u b l e fl at t h e t hird l ine (G cl ef)

,
.

” “
b a rp o n C
“
Do n ot s ay : P u t a d o ub l e sh arp o n 6 or p u t a d o u l e Sh - -

,
” ”
indi cate a hig h e r o r l o w er p it ch on a sh arp e d o r fl at t e d d eg ree
“
or .

1 2 S ignatu re : S h arp s o r fl at s u s e d as sign a t u re s aff e c t t h e s t aff de

.

1
N OT E: No t sp ac e b l w th
e o e s t aff or sp ace a ove b t he s t aff .
1 44 M USIC N OTATION AN D TERMIN OL OGY

sol -
f asyll ab l e s , w h e t h e r in Sigh t re ad in g ,
ro t e sin gin g ,
or m em ory work .

“ ”
S ing by syllabl e w o ul d be c orrec t in e ach case .

ADOP TI O N S OF THE 1 9 1 1 M EET I N G AT SAN F RA N C I SC O

A rab ic n u m eral s , e it h er 2 , 3 4 , 5 ,
6 , 9 ,
or,
1 2 , p
l ac e d o n t h e t
s a ff

dire c t ly a ft e r the g
s i n a t u re b v
an d a o e t h e t h ird l in e , Sh o w t h e n u m b er of
b eat s in a m easu re .

A n ot e , eit h e r a qu art er or a do t t e d q uart er , p l a c e d in p are n t h e sis

un d e r t h e n u m eral , rep res e n t s t h e l en t h g of one b eat an d is call ed t h e

b e at -
no t e .

T he n u m eral an d the b eat -

no t e t h us gro up ed con st it u t e t h e m easure

I
A m erica
”
ll u st rat ive verin g prop er t erm inol o gy : t h e t une
s t a t e m en t s

is writ t en in t h re e qu art er m easure T h e ch oru s : How

co

-
.

l ovely are t h e M e ss en gers is w rit t en in t w o d o t t e d qu art e r m e a su re -

.

T h e ab o ve f o rm s o f s t a t em en t w ere a d op t e d at D enver in 1 9 0 9 and ,

are reco m m en d e d f o r g en e ral u s e w h en sp e a kin g o f m u sic writ t en wit h

I
.

t h e co nven t io n al m eas u re s ign s e t c -

,
.

t wo t w o t im e t h ree e igh t t im e fo u r fo u r t im e
“
n p l ac e o f : -

say ,
-

,
-

T h is p iece is writ t en in t w o h al f m easu re t h re e eigh t h

“
as ab ove : -

,
-

m easure fo ur q u art er m easu re

,
-
.

M I N OR S C AL E S
P rimitive M in or (as cending)
T h e m ino r s cal e fo rm h avin g m in o r six t h an d m in o r s even t h a b ove

e
Ig
t onic t o be

fl at , f ,
ll u s t rat iv e
a
c all ed

fl at ,
P rim it ive M in o r
e x am p l e s

b c .
. A m in o r :
.

a, b ,
c, d, e, f, g ,
a; C m in o r : c, d,
, ,

P rimitive M in or (descending)
S am e pit ch e s in re verse o rd e r .

Harmon ic M inor (ascend ing)

T h e m in or scal e f o rm h avin g m in o r six t h an d m aj
or se vent h ab ove

c, d,
I
t oni c t o b e
ll u s t rat ive
e fl at , f ,
cal l e d

g ,
a
H arm o n ic M ino r
e x am p l e s

fl at , b
.

,
c .
A m in o r :
.

a b ,
c, d, e, f, g sh arp , a; C m ino r

H armonic M i nor (descending)

Same pitch es in reverse order .
 TERMINOLOGY REFORM 1 45

M elodic M inor (ascending)

T h e m in o r scal e fo rm h avin g m aj o r six t h an d m aj o r se vent h ab ove

min or :
I
t onic t o b e

c, d,
cal l e d

llu st ra t ive
e
M el o d ic M in o r
ex am p l es

fl at , f , g
.

a, b
A m in o r :
c .
.

a, b ,
c, d, e, f sh arp , g sh arp , a ; C
, ,

M el odic M in or (des cending)

S am e as t h e P rimit ive .

ADOP TI O N S OF T HE 1 9 1 2 M E E T IN G AT C H I CA G O
P ul se and B eat

T he C o m mit t ee fin d s t h at t h e w o rd s : P ul se and B eat are in general '

‘
u se a s syn o nym o u s t e rm s m ea n in g o n e o f t h e su c c es sio n O f t h ro b s o r
,

im p ul se s o f w hich w e are c o n s cio u s w h e n l is t e ni n g t o m u sic Each o f .

t h e s e p u l s es o r b ea t s h as a n e x a c t p o in t o f b e gin nin g a d ura t io n an d an , ,

e x ac t p o in t o f e n di n g t h e l a t t e r c o in c id e n t w it h t h e b e gin ning o f t h e
,

n ex t p ul s e o r b eat Wh en t h u s u sed b o t h w ord s are t erm s o f ear

.
, .

B eat

O ne of t h es e w ord s , B e at , is
. al s o in u n iversal u se , m eanin g o ne o f a

s erie s o f p h ys ica l m by m eans o f w hi ch a co nduc t or h ol ds his group

o t io n s

o f p erf o rm ers t o a u n if o rm m ovem e n t .

Wh en t h u s u se d it b e com e s a t erm of ey e .

T h e co n d u c t or s b at o n if it is t o be au t h o rit at ive canno t wander

’
, ,

ab o u t t h ro u gh t h e w h o l e d u rat io n o f t h e p u l se bu t m u s t m ove qui c kl y

t o a p o int o f c o m p arat iv e rep o se rem ain in g u nt il j u s t b efo re t h e arrival ,

o f t h e n ex t p ul se w h en it ag ain m ak es a rap id swin g finishi n g co in cid e nt ly ,

wit h t h e init ial t o n e (or sil enc e ) of t h e n ew p ul s e .

Th u s it is p rac t ical ly t h e en d o f t he con d u ct or s

’
b eat t h at m ar ks t h e
b egin ning of t h e p ul se .

T he C o m mit t ee is o f opinion t h at B eat m igh t p ref erab ly be u se d as

in dic at ing t h e out ward Sign .

B eat N ote -

“
T hi s t erm b eat -
not e l s al re ad y in u se in ano t h er im p o rt ant co n

nec t io n (se e T ermin ol o gy R ep o rt , 1 9 1 1 ) a nd t h e C omm it t e e rec om m en d s

u sin g t h e ab o v e t erm s sh al l say :
“
t h at t h os e T hi s n o t e is an o u t h e b eat - -

”
no t e ; t his o ne is an aft er -
the -
b ea t no t e ; t his o ne a b efore -
the -
b eat n ot e .
1 46 MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

D EF I N I TI O N S
M atters of Ear
P ul se : T h e unit o f m ovem en t in m u sic , o ne of a s erie s o f re ul arl g y
re cu rrin g t h ro bs or im p ul s es .

M e asu re : A gro up of p ul ses .

P ul se Gro up : T w o-
o r m o re t o n e s groupe d wit h in t h e p ul se .

M a tters of Eye

B ea t : O ne o f a s e rie s o f co n v e n t io n al m ov em ent s m ad e by t h e con

d u ct o r . T h is m igh t in cl u d e any u n c o nv en t io n al m o t ion w hi ch s erv e d

t o m ar k the mo vem e n t of t h e m u sic , w h e t h e r m a d e by c on du c t or, p er

f orm er o r au d it o r .

B eat -
No t e : A not e o f t h e d en o m in at io n in dicat e d by t h e m e asure
Sig n as the u nit o f n o t e -
val ue in a given m easu re .

Example

Given t h e foll ow in g m easure sig n s : -

2 -

4, 2 2,
-
2 -
8, quart er ,
h al f, or

g
e i h t h n o t es , re sp e c t iv el y ,
are b eat -
n o t es .

B e at Gro u p : A-
gro up o f no t e s or no t es an d res t s , o f sm al l er d eno m i
n at io n t h an t h e b e at -
no t e w h ich rep res e n t s a f ull b eat from b eginning t o
e nd an d is e qu al in val ue to t h e beat no t e (A b eat g ro up m ay b egin
~
- -

wit h a res t .
)
i
O n -
t h e B ea t -

No t e (o r res t ) : Any no t e (o r re s t ) ran g ng in val ue

f rom a ful l b eat d o w n , w h ich cal l s fo r m u sical ac t io n (or inac t ion) sy n

c h ro no u sl y w it h t h e
.
co n d u c t o r s
’
b eat .

Af t er t h e B eat N o t e : Any n o t e in a b e at grou p w h ich indicat es t h at

- - -

a t o n e is t o b e so un d e d af t er t h e b eginnin g , an d b efore o r a t t h e m iddl e

of t h e p ul se .

B e fore t h e B eat No t e :- -
Any no t e in a b eat g roup-

which in dicat es
t h at a t o n e is t o b e so u n d ed af t er t h e m id dl e of t h e p ul se .

T o il l u s t rat e t erm inol o gy b et we en P ul se and

an d t o differen t iat e
B eat as t erm s , re sp e ct ively o f ear and ey e t h e f ol l owing is s ubm it t ed : ,

Wh en ever a b rief t o n e invol v es t h e m u sical id ea o f synco at ion it

p ,

m ay be reg ard ed as an af t er t h e p u l se t on e an d t h e n o t e t h at c all s f or it - -

as an af t er t h e b eat n o t e ; w h e n it invo lves t h e id e a o f ant icip at ion o r

- -

rep arat ion it m ay b e re g ard ed as a b efore t h e p ul se t one , and t h e not e

p
- -

t h at c all s f or it , as a b efore t h e b eat

- -
not e .
1 48 M U SIC N O T AT ION AND T ERMINOLOGY

II
a ccurate To say that a p ece s written in the key of B 17 is
.

more c on venien t tha n to say that it is written in the tonality

of which B b is the t on ic The truth is that some o f the nic e
.

ties of expression up On whic h in sis ten c e is o cc as io n a ll y l aid are

merely fussy n o t bec ause they have n o t some s ort of reason
, ,

but bec ause they fail to tak e in to a ccoun t the pra c tical diff er
'

e nce between c ol o q u ial or O ff hand spee ch an d the dic tion of

-

a s cien tifi c treatise Thi s is said without f orgettin g that col

.

l oq u ialism a lways n ee d s wat ch in g an d that some peop l e f orm

the hab it of bein g c arel ess o r positively u nc outh as if it were
a mark of high artistic genius
,
.

’
P ro fessor P ratt s report is thus see n to be ph il osophic rather
tha n c o n stru c tive an d termin ol ogy ref orm will u nd oubte dly
,

mak e more imme diate progr ess through the efforts of the
N E A Committee with it s spe c ifi c re c ommen datio n s (even
. . .

though these are sometimes a d mitte dl y fussy) tha n through

the policy of the M T N A of waitin g for some on e to get
. . . .

time to ta ke up the subjec t in a s chol arly way Neverthel ess .

the phil O SO p hi c view is sometimes ba dl y n ee d e d especially ,

when the spirit of reform be c omes too rab id an d atta ches too
great importa n c e to t rifl es A ju dicious In term ingling of the
.

two c o m mittees in a series of join t me etings woul d u nd oubte dly

resul t in mutual help fuln ess and possib ly al so in a more t an
,

ibl e a n d c o n vin c in g stateme n t of prin cip l es tha n has yet

g
been formul ate d by either .
 ANALYSIS O F SONATA 1 49

AP P ENDIX E
S o na t a O p 3 1 N o 3 .
,
. by B ee t h oven
A l y i by A R T H U R E
na s s . H E Ac o x,
O b li C t y er n o n s e rva o r of M i
us c

F i rs t S bj u ect 1 7 m e as u re s , E b m a j o r,f ll w 8 m
as p o o s : e as . re s e n a t tio n, on e

m e as l in k , 8 m e as
. . ii
re p e t t o n o c t h g h e r
. i . Rh yt h m i l m t A c e e e n s a re , B, C, all p re
s e nt e d in fi rs t 8 m e as .

IS
st ub .

L in k in g m e as u re .

O rna m e n t a dd d e .

A o rn am e nt a dd de .

En d of 1 st Sub . A re p . in b
ri at t ut a .

R hy hm
t

T he Epis o de h as t h re e di i i
v s o n s , rs t div m e as
. 1 8 -
2 5, 2n d d iv . 2 —
5 3 2 , 3 d d iv
1 5 0 MUSIC N O TAT I O N AND TERMINOLOGY

A do . b
A ri at t u t a P a rt o f C d e ve l o p e d in t o a

2d S ub . 1 8 m e as .

D re p . E (f ro m A, m eas . 20 )

A d e vice in ins t ru m e nt a l m us ic wh b y ph
e re a ra s e o f t w o n o t e s is ac c e l e ra t e d ,
e ve n to th e e x t e nt

of b e c o m in g a t ril l .
1 5 2 MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

6 4, 6 5 , 8 2 m
. C ro s s hy hm
r t .

F ro m C , s ee m e as . 2 6 1 6 th s b e co m in g 8 ths .

B re
p . B re p .

Mod u l at in g .
 ANAL YSIS O F SONATA 1 53
O rnam e n t e d .

A wi h
t tr .

do . rib .

A rib .

A in ve rt e d . A in ve r .

IA
11 “

rib .

A rib .
1 54 MUSIC NOTATION AN D TERMINOLOGY

m eas . 1 1 4
—1 1 5 re p . h ig h e r.

in t e rval e x p an .

R e capit u lat ion

B re p .

En d of 1 st S ub .

B rep .
1 5 6 MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLO GY

L ink e xp d d f
an e ro m f o u r bars t o s ix a ddi g b il l i
n r an cy .

D var .

E va r .

F var .

1
9 0 -
1 91 80 a
2 nd Ep is o de (o r c l o s in g Gr .
)
AN ALYSIS OF SQN AT A 1 57

Co d et ta . co m p
a re 82 87
-
.

m e as .
1 5 8 MUSIC NOTATION AND TERMINOLOGY

B rib . c h ro m at ic p as s a g e .
(Se e 2 35
1 60 I
ND EX
And an t e sos t enu t o (sohs t eh no o to) 5 2 (behr
’
- - -

,
B erc e us e 95
i
An m an d o (a h n ee mah n —d o) 5 5
'
- -

,
Bi nar yf o rm , 95
i Bi ym
’
An m a t o (ah n ee mah to) 5 5 - - -

,
nar e as u re , 95
i ’
An m at o co m e so p ra (co m eh s o pra h) , 5 5 - -

B is (bees ) , 9 6
i ’
Andant no (a hn—dahn —t ee no) , 5 0 -
B o le ro (bo l eh
'
- -

ro ) , 71
An t eced en t , 6 7 B o urree (boo 71
An t h e m , 7 6 B race , 9 6
ii i
Ant c p at on 9 3 ,
B rass ns t rum en t s , i 1 1 6
i y ’
Ant p h o n (an t if o ny ) , 9 5 - - -
°

i
B r ll an t e (b ree l l a h n fi t eh
), 5 5 -

i i
Ant t h es s (an tit h
’
67 -
B ro ken ch o rd , 9 6

i ’
A p ace re (pee ah cheh reh ) 5 4 - - -

,
B ro ken o c t ave , 96
i —
’
Ap po g g a t u ra (ap pod jea t oo rah) d ef
y ’
)
- - -

C acop h o n ( kak o o ny
—
f 96
.
, - -

,
25
C ad e n ce , 8 9
A q uat re m a ns (kahtr mahng) , 9 5 i -

C a d en a , 9 6 z
b
Ara es q u e , 9 5 ’
C al ando (kah lah n d o) , 5 9 - -

i
Ar a (ah ree ah) , 7 9
’
- -
“

C ancel , 3 , 8
i
Ar oso (ah ree o s o) , 9 5
'
- - -

bi l ( ) , 96
'
C an t a e ka h n t a h —bee—l eh -

i
Arp eg g ando (ar ped jee - -
21
C an t ando (k ah n —ta h n
’
—do) , 9 6
Arpe gg i
’
at o ah t o) , 2 1 -

C ant o (kahn t o) , 9 6
-

'
-

’
Arp egg ien t o en t o) , 2 1 - -

C ant us firm us , 6 4
’
i
Arp eg g o (ar ped jee o) , 2 1 - -

C anon , 6 4
-
b
Art allad , 8 0 ’
C an t at a (kahn tah tah) , 7 7 - -

i ’
Ass a (ahs s ah ee) , 42 - -

C arol , 9 6
A t e m p0 5 4
"

1
C at ch , 9 6
A t emp o p r mo 54 i C cl e 3 , 6 f
A t e m p o ru at o (roo bah t o) , 5 4
'
b - -

C ello (chel l o) , 1 1 8
’
-

’
At t acca (aht t ah kah) 9 5
— -

,
C h aco nn e (s hah 71
’
At t a c ca s u t o (s oo bee—to) , 9 5 bi -

C h am b m us i
er c, 72
bi
At t ac c a s u t o il s eg u ent e (cel s eg wen
'
-

C h an t erell e (shong tah 1 1 7

-

t eh) . 9 5
i
C h nese scal e , 2 7
At t ack , 9 5
Ch o ral , 7 6
B agp ip e 9 5 . C h o rd s d e f . an d kinds, 8 7
B all ad 8 0 ,
i nv i e rs o n s o f, 8 8

B and , 1 1 5 co mm o n , 87
B ar, d e f . an d u se , 1 2 s e ve n t h , 89
do u l e , b 1 2 d o m inan t se vent h , 92
B arca ro le (ba r
'
-
cah—rohl ) , 95 C h ro m at i c, 96
i
B ar t o ne , 9 5 C hro m a ti c s cal e, 38
B ass , 95 C l a r ne t , i 1 21

B ass i
cl ar ne t , 1 2 1 C l as s e s of i n s t rum en t s in o rch es t ra,

B asso (bahs
'
-
so ) , 95 i
C l av ch ord, 9 6
B assoo n , 1 2 1 f
C le s , 3 , 5
B as s st aff , 6 C l o se p o s t ii on , 94
B ass t u b a, 1 2 5 Cod a , 7 0
B ass i
v ol , 1 1 8 Coi ( co
’
-
ee ) , 42
B en (behn) , 4 2 C 0 1, 4 2
’
B en m arcat o (ma hr kah to) , 4 2 - -

C olla , 4 2
 INDEX 1 61

C o ll a p art e (par teli) , 9 6 f ti

’
-
C re s cen d o al or ss im o , 58
C o lla vo ce (vo cheh) , 9 6
'
-
C res cend o ed afl re t t an d o (ahf f ret - -
t ahn
’

C o lle , 4 2 do) , 5 8
C o ll o , 4 2 C re scendo e d an im an d o p oco a p oco (ah
C o lo ra t ura i i
s ng n g , 79 , 9 6 i mah n —d o) , 5 8
u —
’

C0 1 o t t a va (ot t ah
’
va
-
h ) ,
1 5
-
C res cen d o e d m nu en do i i (
eh d e me - -

noo

C om bi n at o n i p ed als , 1 1 5 do
en —
’
)58 ,

C o m e (koh m eh) , 4 2
’
-
C res ce ndo m ol t o (m ohl to) , 5 8
'
-

C om e p r m o i 42 C res cendo p o co a p o co , 5 8

C o mm o n ch o rds , 8 7 C res cend o po co a po co s in al fin e (seen

f
'
C om po und m ea su re , 45 ahl neh )
ee 58
-

C o m p o un d d up le m eas ure , 45 C res ce ndo p o i d m n u en d o (po i i ’

-
ee d ee -

mee
’
C on , 4 2 noo en d o) , 5 8 - -

C on al c un a l i ce n a z ( ahl — oo’
k -
nah l ee C rescen do su bi t o ( s oo
’
-

bee to) , 5 8-

ch en
’
-
ts ah ) C ro ss -
s t roke , 1 ,
2
’
C on am o re ( ) 59 ah -

mo
’
-
reh , 42 , C sa rd as (tsar dahs ) , 7 1 -

C o n an i m a (a h nee mah) 5 5
’
- -

C o n b ravu ra (brah voo rah) 5 9 Da (dah) , 4 2

’
- -

C o n cel eri t a (che l eh ree tah) 5 9 D a cap o (kah po) , 1 3

’ '
- - - -

C o n cert o (con cher t o) 7 2 -

'
-

,
D al s eg no (s eh n y o) , 1 3
’
-

C o n ce rt p t ch , 1 3 8 i D an ce s, 7 1
i zz
I
C o n d el c a t e a (d eh l ee - -
ca h -
tet -
s ah ), 59 D ash o ve r no t e , 1 7, 2 0
C on e n e rg a i (eh n er - -

j ee —a h
'

) , 59 D ec res cen do (deh kre z -

58
Co n e sp re ss o ne i ( es -

pres s ee o - -
'
-
neh ) , 59 D ecres ce ndo al pi i i
an ss mo ( ahl p ee ah n
-

Con f z or a 60 is
’
-

si -

mo ) , 5 8
n f
’
Co u o co (f oo o - -
ko) , 6 0 D eg re es o f s t aff ,
5
C on g ran d
’
e sp ress o n e i ( gra h nd
’
os -

pres D el i ca t o (deh l ee kah to) , 6 0 — -

'
-

s ee 60 D e s cr p t i iv e m us i c, 74
Con g ra zi a ( graht s
-

y ah ) , 6 0 D i (doc) , 4 2
Con m a li n co n a i ( or m e lin co n ia ) -
l ecn i
D at on c co n d t i ii on , 7
Di i
'
ko -
n ee a h -

) ,
60 at o n c sca l e , 2 8

Con m o t o , 5 5 Di b ravu ra (brah -

voo rah
’
-

) , 42
C o n p ass o n e (pas i -
se o -
’
-
neh ) ,
60 i
D mi nu en do ( — ’
dee mee noo en d o - - -

) , 58
’
C o n s eq u en t , 6 7 D i m o l t o (mohl t o) , 4 2 -

C o nso nan ce , 9 6 i
D re ct , 9 6
ii
C o n sp r t o (spe
'
-
ree -
t o) , 6 0 Di g 9 7
r e.

C o n t ene re zz a (teh neh - -

ret
’
-
za ) , 60 Di d 97
sco r ,

C o nt i n uo us f o rm , 80 Di sso n ance 97
C o n t ra , 4 2 D i vi i (di v
'
s — e
97
-

ze ) ,

C o n t ra ass t u b b a, 1 2 6 D ol ce
’
(dohl cheh ) 6 0 -

C o n t ra o c t av e , 1 6 D o l ce e can t a bi l e eh
( kahn t ah bee l eh) , 6 0-
’
- -

C o nt ral t o , 9 6 Do l c i imss o (dobl chis -

’
-

s ee— mo) , 6 0
C o n var a o ne i zi ( vah ri ah ts i o neh - - - -
'
-

) , 96 D olen t e (do l en t eh) , 6 0 -

’
-

C o rne t , 1 24 Dom i n an t , 36
C o u nt erp o i nt , d ef .
, 6 4, 6 2 , 8 2 Do mi n an t S even t h , 92
C o u rant e (koo 71 D oloroso (do l o r o - -
’
-
so ) , 60
C res ce ndo (k re—s he n do) , 5 7
’
-
D opp i o ( p p
d oh e e—o
) , 42
’
-
1 62 I
ND EX
D opp i o i
m ov m ent o (mo vi men to) , 5 5 - -
’
-
Fl ut e , 1 1 9
Dot w h ere p la ce d , 3 Fo lk -
so ng , 81
u se s o f , 1 7 Fo rm , d e f .
, 62
wi t h l ti s ur o r e, 2 0 bi nar y , 95
wi t h d h as ,
20 Fo rt e (f or teh) , 5 6
’
-

D bl b F o rt e p a n o (pee a h i )
'
ou e ar, 1 2 no 56
- -

D bl b
ou 8 e ass , 1 1 Fo rt e p o ss l e (pos s ee ibi -
'
-
bee—leh) , 43
D bl b
ou n e assoo ,
1 21 i i
Fo rt ss m o , 5 6
D bl fl t 3 7
ou e a , , i i
Fo rt ss m o po ss l e (pos ibi -
see -
bee l eh) , 5 6
-

D b l m d nt 2 3
ou e or e ,
Fo rt is iss im 0 , 5 6
D bl h p 3 7
ou e s ar , ,
’
Fo rt z ando (f or tsah n —do) , 5 7 -

D bl t
ou e ,
20 Fort za t o (f or tsah to) , 5 7
'
- -

D ue t , 9 7 Fo ur -
f oo t s t op , 1 1 4
D up le m eas ure , 46 Fo u r lined -
oc t ave , 1 6
y
D nam cs , 5 6 i Free m t at i i i on , 64
F rench h o rn , 1 23

E (eh) . 4 2 French p t ch des g nat i i i o ns , 6

E col e (eh kol e) , 9 7
’
-
F ug u e , 6 6
Ed , 4 2 F undam en t al , 1 35
i
E gh t -
f oo t s t op , 1 1 4
E l e m e n t s o f m us i c, 8 2 ’
Gam u t ( gam ut ) 97
E m b ell i sh m e n t s 2 2
-

,
Gavo t t e (ga h 71
E ng l i sh n am es fo r no t es , 1 1
G Cle f 3, 5 , 6
E ng l i sh h orn , 1 2 1
,

General p ause , 1 5
E nh a rm o n i c , d ef , 1 0 .

Germ an p t ch d es g n at i i i on , 6
E nh arm on i c s cale 3 2 ,
i
G g ue (zheeg) , 7 1
E nh arm o n i c t ie 1 8
Gi (j )
'
,
oco so ee o ko so 60
E n sem b l e (ong s ombl ) , 4 2
- - -

Gi j
’
-

o y o s o)
o oso (jee - - -

,
60
E q ual t em p e ram en t , 1 3 7
Glee , 8 1
E po i la cod a (eh po cc) , 1 4
’

i
-

’
-

Gl s sando (glis s a hn do) , 9 7

E sp ress i vo (ehs pres s ee vo) 6 0
- -

’
- - -

,
Grace s , 22
Et , 4 2
Gran d i oso (
grahn
-
dee -
o
’
-
so ) 60\
E t t o , 42
Gran d so n at a , 74
E t ud e , 9 7
Grave (grah veh) , 5 0
'

E up h o n y (ya w fl y ) . 9 7
-

zi
-

Gra o so (grak ts i o s o) 6 0
'
- - -

E ven m ea sure , 46
Great o ct ave , 1 6
Grea t s t aff , 5
Fa c le i (f ah
'
w he e l eh ) -

97
Gro s se p au se (gros —seh pow zeh , )
,
-

F an f are (
’
f ahn f ehr) -

, 97
Grup pe t t o (g roo pet t o) , 2 2
'

i
- -

'
Fa nt as a (f ah n -
t ah -

ze -
ah ) , 97
F C le f , 3, 5 , 6
Fe rm at a (f ehr -
m a h ta ) ,
’
-
1 4, 1 5 Hab anera (hah bah neh rah) - -
'
-

, 71
Fi asco (f e ahs
-
’
-
ko) , 9 7 Hal f s t ep 8 3
-

Fig u re d b ass , 89 Harm oni c m i nor s cale 3 3 ,

Fin e 1 3 Harmoni cs 1 3 6 ,

Five l -
i n ed o c t a ve , 1 6 Harm oni cs o n viol i n 1 1 7 ,

Fl a t . 3 , 7 Harm ony 8 2 ,
1 64 IND EX
M arca t o il cant o (mar kah to -
’
-
eel kah n
’
M ol t o (m ohl ’
-
t o) , 4 2
t a) , 9 8 M o l t o c res ce nd o (kre s hen do) , 4 2
-
’
-

M art e ll and o ( la hn d o) , 5 9 m a r—tel -

’
-
M on O p h o n ic s t y l e , 6 3 6 7 ,

M art ell at o (mar t el l ah t o) 5 9

—
'
- -

,
M orden t 2 2 2 3 , ,

M arz i al e (mart s e ah l eh) , 5 9

—
’
- -
M orendo (m o ren do) 5 9 ’ - -

M as s 7 7 M orient e (mo ri en teh) , 5 9

‘
’
— - -

M az urka (mah zoor ka ) , 7 1

’
- -
M o t e t (mo 76
M eas ure d e f , 44 ,
. M o vab le C C le f , 6
h o w d ifi ers f ro m
“
ba r 1 2 M ut e , 1 1 7
h o w d ff e rs i f ro m rh yt hm , 44
s y p ti
n co in , 44
a on N at u ral , 3 , 8
s imp l d
e an c o m p o un d , 4 5 N at u ral con d i t i on o f s t afi -
deg rees , 8
d up l e o r e ven , 46 Nel , 4 2
i
t r p le or p e r ec t , f 46 b
N el at t era (baht teh '
- -
rah ) , 42
q uad rup l e , 46 Nella , 4 2
s ex t up le , 46 Ne um ae ( neoo
'
-
mee) , 1 04

co m p o un d d up l e , 46 No c t urne , 9 8
ign t
s a u re , 48 No n (non) , 42
bi y na r . 95 No n t ant o (tahn t o) , 42 ’
-

M di t
e an , 36 No n t ant o all eg ro (ahl l eh gro) , 5 3
'
- -

M ell ifl uo u s (m el l if —l oo -
’
-
us ) 98 Non t ropp o all eg ro (t rohp po) , 5 3
’
-

M e lod c i m i no r scal es , 34 N o t at i on, h s t ori y of m us i c, 1 0 1

M el o dy , 82 No t e s , d e f .
,
1 0

M elos (meh l os ) , 9 8
’
-
k i n ds o f , 1 1

M en o ’
(meh no) , 4 2 -
E ng li sh n am es for, 1 1

M e no m o sso (m os
'
-

so ) , 53 do t t e d , 1 7
M en t e (m en teh) , 4 2
'
-

s t acc a t o , 1 7
M enu e t (meh noo 98
-

i rreg ul ar no t e -

g ro up s , 1 9
M enu e t t o (m eh n oo et to) , 9 8
'
- - -

p art s o f, 1

M es sa d i voc e (mes s a dee vo cheh) ,

’ ’
e
-
21 h o w m ad e , 1

M est o (mehs t o) , 6 0
’
-
N uance (
n oo augs -

) , 98
M et ro no m e 49 ,

M zz (m d h) 4
e a e
’
-
za ,
2 Obbli g t ( b bl a o o -
ee—ga
’
h t o) , 9 8
-

Ob
'

M zz (m d ) 4
e o e
'
-
zo ,
2 ( b)
oe o
’
-
o ,
1 2

M zz f t (f
’
e o t h) 4or e or -
e ,
2, 56 O c t a ve , d e f .
, 36
M zz p i n (p h n )
'
e o a o e a - -
o , 56 O c t ave s , n am e s o f , 1 6
M zz p n ( p h
e o So ra o so -
ra
’
-
no ) , 98 O ff e rt o r y , 98
M zz v (v heh) 6 i
'
e o o ce o -
c ,
0 O ne —l n ed o c t ave , 1 6
M in k y 8
or e , O pe n p o s t ii on , 94
M in
’
(m n
o re h) 9 8 e -
o -
re , O p e ra , 7 8
M in l d f 33
o r sca e , e .
, O p us , 9 8
p it i n 34
os o s, O rat or o , 7 7 i
M in t 7ue ,
1 O rch es t ra , 1 1 5
M i t i (m i t h i
s e r o so s -
e -
r -
o
'
-
so ) ,
60 O rch es t rat i on , 98
M od era t o (m od e
’
- -
rah -
t o) , 5 1 O rg an , reed , 1 1 3
M od ul a t i o n d ef ,
.
, 92 i
p p e, H 4
e nh arm on c , 1 0 i i
po nt , 9 3
 INDEX 1 65
0

Org ii na l m no r i scal e , 33
Org i i n o f s cale , 28 54
O ss i a (os
’
s ee a h
’
) , 42 , 9 8 Po i (po
'
ee ) , 42
O ss i a p iu f il
ac e (p e oo
-
’
f ah
’
-
c h ee -
l eh , 4 2 Po l a cca (p l ahk kah) , 99
o -
'
-

O ve rt o n es , 1 36 Pol ka , 6 9
O ve rt ure , 98 Po lo na se i (p ol o -

71 99
y
P o l p h o n c s t le , 6 4 i y
’
P o m p o so (pom po so) , 6 0 - -

’
P arlan do (par lahn —do) , 6 0 ’ ’
P o rt am en t o (p tah men to) ,
-

or - - -

20
P art so ng , 8 1 Po s t iin o , op en and c lo se , 94
P as t o ral e (p as -
to 60 P oss ibil e (p os s ee -
'
-
bee leh) , 43 -

P ed al p o nt , 9 3 i P o s t l ud e , 9 9
P e nt a t o n c s ca le , i 2 7 P rall t r ll , 2 2 i
P er (pehr) , 4 2 i i
P rec p t o so (preh che pi—t o )
'
- - -
so , 60
i
P e rc us s o n n s t rum ent s , i 1 1 6 Prel ud e , 9 9
’
P e rd endo (pehr—den d o) , 5 9 -

P re s t i im
ss o (pres -
t is
’
51
P e rd e n d o s (pehr—
'
i
d en do s ee) , 5 9 - -

Pres t i im
ss o p o ss ibi l e (p os -
’
s ee bee l eh) , 5 1
- -

f
P e r e c t m e as ure , 46 Pres t o , 5 1
P er f ec t i
t r ll , 23 P res t o assa i ( ahs s ah -
’
-

ee ) ,53
P e r il v o i li no ( eel vee o - -
l ee
’
-
no ) , 42 Pres t o (m a) no n t ro pp o (m ah non t ro hp
'

i
P er o d , 6 7
ea) 5 3 ,
’
P esant e (peh -
sahn -
teh) , 5 5 P riere (pre 99
P e u (peu h) , 4 2 i yf m
Pr m ar or s, 68
P h ras e , 6 7 Pr im i t iv m in e or S cal e ,
33
g m m i
P h ras e m ark , 1 8 P ro ra us c , 74
P i i im
an s s o (p — ’
ee ahn s s i -

i - -
mo) , 5 6 P ure m i 74 us c ,
P i i im
an ss o p o s s ibi l e (pos 56 P ure scal e , 40
’
P ianisiss im o (pee ah n is is - - - -
s i—mo ) , 56
i
P ano (pee a h n o) , 5 6
'
- -

Q uadrup le m eas ure 46 ,

Pi i (h Q ual i t y 1 3 6
’
ano a ss a a s s ah - -
ee ) , 56 ,

Pi d
ano , ip t i e sc r on o f, 1 1 2 Q ua rt e t 7 2 ,

Pi Q uas i (quah s ee) 43

’
l (pik k l )
'
cco o -
o -
o ,
1 1 9
-

P ip Q ui nt o le (kvi n
'
e o r an , 1 1
g 4 99
Pi t h d f
c 34 ,
e .
,
1 Q uin t ole t 2 0 ,

pit h m c 6 na es , Q u in t up let 2 0 9 9 , ,

s t an d ards o f, 1 37
c o n c e rt i
p t ch , 1 38 Ra i s ed s xt h , i 34
i n t e rn a t o nal i p it ch , 1 38 Rall ent an do (rahl l en -

53
P in (pe 42 i
Rap d am e n t e (rah pid - -
a -
’
me n teh) , 5 5 -

( g ) , 54
'
P in all eg ro hl l eha — ro -
Rat e o f sp e ed ,
o f so un d , 1 32
P in f o rt e (fo r t eh ) , 4 2
'
-
Rec t at i i ve (res i - -
t ah teev ) -
'
78
P in le n t o , 5 3 Rec it t i
a vo ( reh chee - -

t a tee - -
ao ) , 60
’
P in m o sso (m ohs s o) , 5 4 -
Reed o rg an , 1 1 3
'
Piu t o s t o (tohs to) , 5 4 -
Relat i ve m i nor, 8 , 35
P i zzi cat o (pits -
e -
kah t o) , 99 ,
'
-
1 1 7 Re l ig i oso (
99 reh -
l ee jo -
’
-
so ) ,

P och et t o (po ket to) , -

’
-
see ino , 42 ii
Rep e t t o n an d con t ras t , 6 2 , 70
Poco , 43 i
Req u em (re kwi em) , 9 9
'
- -
 INDEX
Res t s , de f .
,
10 Ch i ne se , 2 7
rul e s for m ak ing S co t ch , 2 7
kind s o f, 1 1 S ch e r an do z ( s kehr -
ts ah n do) , 6 0
’
-

i
pe c ul ar u s e o f, 1 1 S ch er o z (
s h ehr
’
-
ts o) , 7 1 72 ,

s e ve ral m eas ures o f, 1 4 S ch e rzoso ( s keh r -

’
te o s o) , 6 0 -

Re t a rd at i on , 93 S ch o o l ro un d ,
-

66 .

dy S i ’
Rh ap s o , 99 ch o t t s ch e ( s hot -

tis h) , 9 9
Rh yt h m ,
d ef .
, 82 S co re , 99
e l em e n t o f m us i c, 82 S co t ch s cal e , 2
‘

7
h o w d ff e rs i f ro m
“
m eas ure , 44 Sec (s ek) , 9 9
c o rre c t u s e o f w o rd , 48 S ’
e cco (s ek ko) , 9 9 -

Rh yt h mi gm nt t i c au e a on , 69 S ti n 6 7
ec o ,

Rh y t h m i d i m in t i n S g u ( hg w h) 4 ’
c u o , 69 e e se -
e ,
1

Rh y t h m i fi g 44c u re s , S mp l i ( m pl fi h h)
e ce , se -
ee c e ,
60
Ribb at u t a ( 99re -
baht S m p ( m p h) 43
e re se
'
-
re ,

R i g au d o n (rig o d on) 7 1
’
- -

,
S mp f t (f t h) 43
e re or e or — e
’
,

Ri n fo rz an do (rin f or t sahn do) 5 7

’
- - -

,
S mp l t m l in i
e re en o a con co as sa i
R i n f o rz at o (ri n f or ts ah t o) 5 7
’ ’
l een ko hs s ah
'
- - -

,
- -
u — o a ik - -

55
ee ) ,

Ri so l ut o (ree s o l oo t o) 6 0 S i im
' ’
- - -

,
em p re m arca t ss o (mar kah tis s i - - -

Ri t ard and o (ree tar—dahn d o) 5 3 mo) , 6 0

'
- -

R i t e n en t e (ree ten eu teh) 5 3 - -

'
-

,
S nt i m
e en t o ( s en -

t ee—men t o) , 6 0
'
-

Ri t enu t o (ree ten oo t o) 5 3

— ’
- -

,
S z (
en a s en -
tea) , 4 2
i
R t orn el l e (ree—t or 99 S nze a acco m p ag n am en t e ( ahc—co m pahn -

i ’
R t o rn ell o (ree t or n el l o) , 9 9 - - -

y ah men t eh ) , 4 2
’
-

Rondo , 7 0 , 7 1 S z en a rep e t iz io ne (reh peh tit - -

z -

e o
~
’
-
neh ) ,

Rul es : 1 4, 9 9
Fo r w it i
r ng m us i c, 1 , 2 S z p li ( h pl k h) 9 9
en a re ca re
’
-
e -
a ,

For t i
u rn ng s t e m s , 1 ,
2 S p t im l
e o e, 2 0

For al t ered st a ff d eg re e s , 1 0 S pt l t
e o e ,
20

Fo r e m b lli e sh m en t s , 2 2 — 2 6 Sq e u en ce ,
9 1

Fo r rep e a t s , 1 3, 1 4 S d 99
eren a e,

For w itir ng ch rom at c s cal e , i 38 S t ( h re nah tah) 9 9

erena a se - -
’
-

S th h d 89
e ve n c or ,

S ans (sah ng ) , 43 S t t 99
ex e ,

S ans p ed al es (peh 43 S t lt
ex o e . 20

S ara b and e ( sar ah - -

bahn —deh) , 7 1
'
S t pl m
ex u 46 e e as u re ,

S arrusop h on e ( s ar reoos o - -
S t pl t
ex u e ,
20 ,
1 00

Sax h orn , p . 1 25 (foo t n ot e ) S f z d ( f t hn —d ) 5 7

or an o s or z a -
'
o ,

Sax op h one , 1 21 Sf z t (f t h t ) 5 7
or a o s or z a -
’
-
o ,

S cal e s , d ef .
,
2 7 Sh k a e, 2 2

or ig i n, 2 8 Sh p 3 7ar , ,

h ow d iff erent f ro m ke y s, 28 Sh t pp gg i t u ( p p d j
or a o a ra a -
o -
ea -
too -

rah ) ,

po s it i on s o f : 25

m j a o r, 3 0 Si m il ( e s ee
’
-
m ee l eh) , -
1 4, 1 00

mi nor, 34 Si m il i t ( er s ee -

mil i t er) ,
’
- -

1 00

ch ro m at c , i 38 Si mp l m e eas ure , 45
t ones o f , call ed , 5 , 36 , 3 7 Simpl t n e o e, 1 37
1 68 IND EX
Ti me w rong uses o f w ord
, , 48 T ut t e le
co rd e (toot
’
-
t eh l eh kor d eh )
’
-

Toc ca ta (t ok kah t ah ) 1 0 0 -
'
-

, T u t t i (toot t ee) 1 0 0 ’
-

Tonali t y s cale 2 7 2 8 3 8 , , , T wo -
f t t p
oo s o ,
1 1 4
Tone , h o w rep rese n t ed , 1 0 T wo -
l i n ed oc t ave , 1 6
o rn am en t a l t o ne , 22

key t o ne , -
2 7
Un (oon) 43 .

Una (oo na h)
'

o f re so l u t o n , i 93
-

, 43
Una c ord a ,
T o nepoe m 7 5
-

,
’
43 , 5 9
Uno (oo no) , 43
To n i c 3 6
-

,
Un p e u (oon peuh) , 43
To ni c m i nor 3 6 ,
Um 9 0 0 0 , 43
Tranq u i llo (trahn qu il l o)
’
- -
6 1

Transpo s i t i on 9 4
,
Un po c o an m a t o (ah u i mah i - -

54
Unt em pe red scale 40
,

T re (troh) , 43 ,

b
Tre l e s t aff , 6 Upp er p art i als 1 3 6 ,

T re co rd e
’
(kor deh) , 43 , 5 9-
Up p er t et rach ord 2 9 ,

Tres (trek) 43 ,
V l (v h l h h) 5 5
e oce e — o’ c -
e
T res len t e m en t (l ah ng te makug) 5 2
,
- -

, Vi l (v l h) 7
o a ee o -
’
-
a 1 1
Tres vi vem en t (ve veh
,
’
42
-

Vi lin 7
o 1 1
‘

Tri ad d ef 8 7 8 8
,

,
.
, ,
Vi l n ell (v o l hn ch l
o o c o ee - -
o -
e
'
-
lo) , 1 1 8
Tri ll 2 2
, Vi vo (v v ) 5 ee
’
-
o 1
Tri o 7 2
,

, Viv e (v v h h h) 5
ac ee -
a
’
-
c e 1
Tri p le m eas u re 46
,

,
Vi v i i m (v v h hi
ac ss o ee -
a -
c s
’
-
s ee -
mo) , 5 1
i
Tr p l et , 1 9, 1 00
V l m i 76
oca us c ,
Ti r s t am en t e (tris tah - -
’
men teh) , 6 1
-

V l nt (v l hn t h) 5 5
o a e o -
a
’
-
e ,
Trom bo n e 1 2 5 ,

Trop po (”aha PO ) -

. 43 W lt z
a , 68
TM pet , 1 2 4 Wh l o e s t ep ,
-
83
Tub a ,
1 25 Wh l o e s t ep s cal e , 2 8
-

, 40
T urn ,
25 Wood i w ind i ns t ru m e nt s , 1 1 5