Introductory Chemistry

Introductory Chemistry
units and expressions of measurements; scientific

accuracy and error; scientific notations, significant figures
Specific Learning Outcomes:
While and after completing this module, you will be able to:
1. Solve measurement problems involving conversion of units, expression of

measurements in scientific notation;
2. Differentiate accuracy from precision;
3. Differentiate random errors from systematic errors;
4. Estimate errors from multiple measurements of a physical quantity using
variance;
5. Differentiate vector and scalar quantities;
6. Perform addition of vectors
7. Rewrite a vector in component form
Making
Connections
The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation
At 179 meters and with 47 floors, the HSBC headquarters in Hong
Kong is one of the world’s most famous skyscrapers. It is
definitely one of Hong Kong’s most prominent buildings, an
important landmark since 1985. Unlike conventional buildings, this
building was constructed without an internal frame. It consists of
five separate modules in which 30, 000 tons of steel were used.
These modules were prefabricated in the UK, and then shipped to
Hong Kong for assembly. From the US, 4, 500 tons of aluminum
were shipped in. Other parts of the building were made in Japan.
Construction of the HSBC building relied on truly uniform and
accurate ways of measurement.
The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation
EXERCISE 1.1
A. What possible problems could arise if the countries involved in

constructing the building had not agreed on a system of
measurement?
B. What are these system of measurement and why do they not

easily complement each other?
Hitting the Mark
Units and Conversion
The SI unit
the accepted standard of measurement in
science and technology;
The standard units for the seven

fundamental quantities are given in Table
1.1. These units are referred to as the base
units, from which several other units are
derived.
The SI unit
The SI uses a system of prefixes to make
conversion between big and small units
easy. Each prefix represents a power of ten
that gives us a shorthand for writing very
large or small numbers. Table 1.2 lists the
SI prefixes and the powers of ten that they
represent.
Example 1.1
The following statements show how SI units and prefixes are used in writing
measurements.
a. Earth’s radius is 6.38 x 106 m or 6.38 Mm.
b. A common capacitor has a value of 12 pF (picofarads) or 12 x 10-12 F.
c. Gamma rays have frequencies equal to or greater than 4.61 exahertz (EHz) or
4.61 x 1018 Hz.
Conversion of Units
If the units of a given quantity are inconsistent, you will have to convert them.
Generally, if most of the units are in centimeter-gram-second (CGS), then convert
the non-CGS units. Otherwise, the meter-kilogram-second (MKS) system is
preferred over the CGS system.
A rule in converting a given measurement from one unit to another requires

multiplying the measurement by a ratio whose value is 1. Another rule is that units
in a mathematical expression take on the same role as variables; that is, they can
be multiplied and divided by one another.
Example 1.2
Alice weighs 150 lbs. Calculate her mass in kg using the equivalence
2.2 lbs = 1 kg
Take note that lbs. is cancelled by division.

Example 1.3
How many kilograms is 0.3 milligram? Here are two ways you can use
to get the answer.
a. Convert milligrams to grams, then to kilograms using the

equivalence 1 kg = 103 g & 1 mg = 10-3 g
Example 1.3
How many kilograms is 0.3 milligram? Here are two ways you can use
to get the answer.
b. A very useful shortcut involves expressing a measurement in its

equivalent power of ten. Since 1 mg = 10-3 g, then 0.3 mg = 0.3 x 10-3
g. Thus
Scientific Notation
Measurements in Scientific Notation
A number in scientific notation takes the form N x 10k where N is a number
between 1 and 10 and k, called the power of ten, is an integer.
The first step in writing a number in scientific notation is to determine N. To do this, copy the
number then move the decimal point after the nonzero digit. The number of digits you copy
depends on the accuracy you want. Zeroes after the last nonzero digit may be omitted.
The next step is to determine the value of k, which is the number of places that you move
the decimal point. If you move the decimal point to the right, k is negative. If you move the
decimal point to the left, k is positive.
Example 1.4
Write the following numbers in scientific notation.
a. 9 300 000 000 eV = 9.3 x 109 eV
The decimal point of the whole number moves 9 places to the left.
b. 0.000 000 000 000 004 14 eVs = 4.14 x 10-15 eVs
The decimal point moved 15 places to the right.
Remember ME! When writing the final answer, N is always a number

between 1 and 10.
Operations involving Scientific Notation
Adding and Subtracting Numbers in Scientific Notation:
To add and subtract numbers in Scientific notation, express
all numbers first in the same power of ten. After adjusting all
the k’s, add or subtract the N’s.
Example 1.5
Calculate 1.230 x 107 – 8.9 x 105
Solution: First, express the numbers so they have the same k. Let us
use 7 as “k”. Thus we change 8.9 x 105 to 0.089 x 107 . Now we can
proceed with the subtraction.
1.230 x 107 - 0.089 x 107 = 1.141 x 107

Operations involving Scientific Notation
Multiplying and Dividing Numbers in Scientific Notation:
In multiplication and division of numbers in scientific notation,
we apply the laws of exponents. Unlike in addition and
subtraction, however, there is no need to express the
numbers in the same power of ten.
Example 1.6
Multiply: (1.2 x 107 ) (6.7 x 10-8 )
Solution:
Step 1: Multiply the N’s: (1.2) (6.7) = 8.04
Step 2: Add the k’s: 7 + (-8) = - 1
Step 3: The result in step 1 is the N of the product and the result in step 2
is the k of the product. Thus the product is 8.04 x 10-1 or 0.804.
Example 1.7
Evaluate: (0.0000000121)(51.6)/(2300)
Solution:
Step 1: Rewrite the numbers in scientific notation:
(1.21 𝑥 10−8)(5.16 𝑥 101)/(2.30 𝑥 103)
Step 2: Perform the needed operations on the N’s:
(1.21)(5.16) (2.30) = 2.71

Example 1.7 Cont.,
Evaluate: (0.0000000121)(51.6)/(2300)
Solution:
Step 3: Use the laws of exponents on the k’s: -8 + 1 – 3 = -10
Step 4: Put the resulting N and k together: 2.71 x 10-10

Accuracy, Precision, and
Uncertainty
Accuracy, Precision, and Uncertainty
Accuracy is how close a measured value is to the actual
(true) value.
Precision is how close the measured values are to each

other.
Uncertainty is the statistical dispersion of the values

attributed to a measured quantity.
Accuracy, Precision, and Uncertainty
In class 1, a class of six students was asked to find the mass of the
same penny using the same balance.
In class 2, another class measured a different penny using six different

balances. Their results are listed on a table:
Which result is more precise?
To express this sense of precision, you need to calculate the percentage
uncertainty. To do this, divide the uncertainty in the measurement by the
value of the measurement itself, and then multiply by 100%.
Example 1.8
Precision of Class 1's value: (0.004 g ÷ 3.121 g) x 100% = 0.1 %
Precision of Class 2's value: (0.008 g ÷ 3.131 g) x 100% = 0.3 %
Class 1's results are more precise. This should not be surprising since
class 2 introduced more uncertainty in their results by using six different
balances instead of only one.
Which result is more accurate?
To determine the accuracy of the measurement, we should check by
measuring something that is known. This procedure is called calibration,
and it is absolutely necessary for making accurate measurements.
Significant Figures
Rules in Significant Figures
There are three rules on determining how many significant figures are in a
number:
1. Non-zero digits are always significant. (1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, and 9)
2. Any zeros between two significant digits are significant. (203)
3. A final zero or trailing zeros in the decimal portion ONLY are significant.
(0.00500)
Significant Figures in Addition & Subtraction
For addition and subtraction, look at the decimal portion (i.e., to the right of the
decimal point) of the numbers ONLY. Here is what to do:
1. Count the number of significant figures in the decimal portion of each number
in the problem. (The digits to the left of the decimal place are not used to
determine the number of decimal places in the final answer.)
2. Add or subtract in the normal fashion.
3. Round the answer to the LEAST number of places in the decimal portion of
any number in the problem.
Example 1.9
Evaluate: 3.461728 + 14.91 + 0.980001 + 5.2631
Solution:
Step 1: Identify the least number of decimal places, then proceed with the
operation: 14.91
Step 2: Round the answer to the LEAST number of places in the

decimal portion of any number in the problem: 24.61
Example 1.10
Evaluate: 0.04216 - 0.0004134
Solution:
operation: Both has 4 sigfigs

Significant Figures in Multiplication & Division
The cardinal rule that applies for multiplication and division:
1. The LEAST number of significant figures in any number of the problem
determines the number of significant figures in the answer.
This means you MUST know how to recognize significant figures in order to
use this rule.
Example 1.11
Evaluate: 2.5 x 3.42
Solution:
operation: 2.5

Example 1.12
Evaluate: 3.10 x 4.520
Solution:
operation: 3.10

Example 1.12
Evaluate: (4.52 x 10¯4) ÷ (3.980 x 10¯6)
Solution:
operation: 4.52 x 10¯4

decimal portion of any number in the problem: 1.14 x 102
Density Measurements
Density
Density (whose most common symbol is the lowercase letter d) is
defined as mass per unit volume. Density is calculated by dividing the
mass of an object by its volume. This is shown in equation form, as
follows:
Density = mass ÷ volume
Density of Solids and Liquids
Solids: d = grams ÷ cubic centimeters (cm3 is the symbol for cubic
centimeters)
Liquids: d = grams ÷ milliliters
Since one mL equals one cm3, there is no functional difference between

g/cm3 and g/mL. This means that sometimes the density of a liquid is
described using cm3 and the density of a solid is described using mL.

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Introductory Chemistry

units and expressions of measurements; scientific

1. Solve measurement problems involving conversion of units, expression of

A. What possible problems could arise if the countries involved in

B. What are these system of measurement and why do they not

The standard units for the seven

a. Earth’s radius is 6.38 x 106 m or 6.38 Mm.

b. A common capacitor has a value of 12 pF (picofarads) or 12 x 10-12 F.

A rule in converting a given measurement from one unit to another requires

Take note that lbs. is cancelled by division.

a. Convert milligrams to grams, then to kilograms using the

b. A very useful shortcut involves expressing a measurement in its

a. 9 300 000 000 eV = 9.3 x 109 eV

b. 0.000 000 000 000 004 14 eVs = 4.14 x 10-15 eVs

The decimal point moved 15 places to the right.

Remember ME! When writing the final answer, N is always a number

1.230 x 107 - 0.089 x 107 = 1.141 x 107

Step 1: Multiply the N’s: (1.2) (6.7) = 8.04

Step 2: Add the k’s: 7 + (-8) = - 1

Step 1: Rewrite the numbers in scientific notation:

(1.21 𝑥 10−8)(5.16 𝑥 101)/(2.30 𝑥 103)

Step 2: Perform the needed operations on the N’s:

(1.21)(5.16) (2.30) = 2.71

Step 3: Use the laws of exponents on the k’s: -8 + 1 – 3 = -10

Step 4: Put the resulting N and k together: 2.71 x 10-10

Precision is how close the measured values are to each

Uncertainty is the statistical dispersion of the values

In class 2, another class measured a different penny using six different

Precision of Class 2's value: (0.008 g ÷ 3.131 g) x 100% = 0.3 %

Step 2: Round the answer to the LEAST number of places in the

Step 2: Round the answer to the LEAST number of places in the

Step 2: Round the answer to the LEAST number of places in the

Step 2: Round the answer to the LEAST number of places in the

Step 2: Round the answer to the LEAST number of places in the

Since one mL equals one cm3, there is no functional difference between

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