PYT

HONMAT
ERI
AL
Pr
epa
redb
y
VEL
MURUGANANDT
EAM

GREENST
ECHNOL
OGI
ES

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e1
Py
tho
n:
p
ytho
nisGe
ner
alp
urp
oseh
ighl
eve
lpr
ogr
ammi
ng
l
ang
uage
Pyt
honisanint
erp
rete
d,obj
ect-
ori
ent
ed
pr
ogrammin
glangua
ges i
mil
art
oPERL,th
atha
s
gai
nedpopul
ar
it
ybecauseofi
tscl
earsyn
taxa
nd
re
adabil
i
ty
No
te:Py
tho
nisc
aseS
ens
it
iv
e
Hi
st
oryo
fPy
tho
n
F
oun
der
Gu
idov
anRo
ssu
matNe
the
rl
andi
n19
91a
ndp
ubl
i
she
din1
991
Feb20th
Ve
rsi
onh
ist
ory
•Py
tho
n1x-1
991
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tho
n2x-(
2000-J
an1
,2020)
•Py
tho
n3x(
Py3K)–2008
Not
e:Pyt
hon3fea
tur
eswonts
uppo
rtp
ython2its
uppo
rto
nlypyt
hon1
be
causepyt
hon2andpy
tho
n3i sd
evel
ope
db ydi
ff
ere
ntdeve
lop
er
p
yth
on2.
7en
dofl
i
fei
sja
n12020
Py
tho
n2 Py
tho
n3
L
ega
cy:I
t
siss
ti
ll
ent
ren
che
din F
utu
re:I
twi
l
lta
keo
verPy
tho
n2

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e2
t
hes
oft
war
eatc
ert
ai
n b
y2020
Co
mpa
ny
L
ibr
ary
:Manyo
lde
rli
br
ari
esb
uil
d L
ibr
ary:Man
yoft
oda
y’s
f
orPyt
hon2ar
enot d
evelo
p e
rsar
ecr
eat
in
g
f
orwa
rds
-co
mpa
ti
bl
e l
ib
rar
iess
tri
ct
lyf
oru
sewi
t
h
Pyt
hon3
ASCI
I
:Str
i
nga
res
tor
eda
sAS
CII Un
ico
de:T
extst
ri
ngsa
re
bydef
aul
t Un
ico
debydef
aul
t
5/
2=2 5/
2=2.
5
p
ri
nt“
hel
l
o” p
ri
nt(
“he
ll
o”
)
F
eat
ure
sofPy
tho
n:
1
.
Eas
yan
dsi
mpl
e:
Ex
amp
leo
fCp
rog
ram
#i
ncl
ude
<st
di
o.
h>
i
ntma
in(
)
{
p
ri
nt
f(
"\nHe
ll
owo
rl
d"
);
r
etu
rn0;
}

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e3
Ex
amp
leo
fC+
+
#i
ncl
ude
<io
str
eam>
i
ntma
in(
){
c
out
<<“
\nHe
ll
owo
rl
d”
;
r
etu
rn0;
}
Ex
amp
leo
fPy
tho
n
Pr
in
t(“
Hel
l
owo
rl
d”
)
2.
Fr
eeWa
rea
ndo
pens
our
ce
Fr
eelyl
ic
ense
dtouse,
copy
,st
udya
ndwe
c
anu
seforfu
rth
erdev
elo
pment
3.
Hi
ghl
eve
lpr
ogr
ammi
ngL
ang
uag
e
L
owl
eve
lla
ngu
age&Hi
ghl
eve
lla
ngu
age
L
owl
eve
lLa
ngu
age
Us
erc
an’
tun
der
sta
ndo
nlyma
chi
neu
nde
rst
and[
0,
1,
mic
rop
roc
ess
or]
Hi
ghl
eve
lLa
ngu
age
Us
erc
anu
nde
rst
and[
c,j
ava
,c+
+]
C,
C++-Co
mpi
l
erPy
tho
n-I
nt
erp
ret
er
J
ava–I
nt
erp
ret
er/
Comp
il
er

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e4
Co
mpi
l
er:
I
tcon
vert
sin
str
uct
i
onsi
nt
oamachi
ne-
cod
eorlo
wer
-l
eve
lfo
rms
oth
at
t
heycanberea
dandex
ecut
edb
yac omp
ute
r.
I
nt
erp
ret
er:
I
tca
nan
aly
zea
nde
xec
uteap
rog
raml
i
neb
yli
ne.
4.
Pl
at
for
mIn
dep
end
ent
Py
tho
nwo
rkso
ndi
f
fer
entp
lat
for
ms(
Win
dows
,Ma
c,L
inu
x,
Ra
spb
err
yPi
,et
c.
)
5.
Por
tab
le
Wr
it
eon
cea
ndr
una
nywh
ere
pyt
honCo
dewr
it
teni
non
ema
chi
nea
ndc
anr
uno
nan
yan
oth
er
ma
chi
ne
6.
Dyn
ami
cal
l
yTy
ped
7
.Pr
oce
dur
eor
ie
nte
dan
dob
jec
tor
ie
nte
d
Pyt
honcanb
etre
ate
dinapr
oce
dura
lwa
y(e
gC)
,ano
bje
ct-
ori
ent
ate
d
(e
gC+ +
)wayorafu
nct
io
nal
way.
8.
Int
erp
ret
ed
Pyt
honru
nsonani
nte
rpret
ersys
tem,mea
nin
gthatc
odecanb
e
ex
ecute
da ss
oona
sitiswri
tt
en.T
hisme
anstha
tpro
tot
ypi
ngcanb
e
ve
ryqui
ck

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e5
9
.Ex
ten
sib
le
Abl
etor
unany
p
r o
gra
mming
l
angua
gel
ikec,
jav
a,C+
+
Py
tho
nAp
pli
cat
i
ons

De
skt
opAp
pli
cat
i
on

Da
taBa
seAp
pli
cat
i
on

Ne
tWo
rki
ngAp
ll
i
cat
i
on

Ga
mes

I
OT(
In
ter
neto
fTh
ing
s)

AI
(Ar
it
i
fi
cal
Int
el
li
gen
ce)

webdev
elo
pme n
t(s
erv
er-
si
de)-d
jango

s
oft
war
ede
vel
opme
nt-t
ki
nt
er

Ma
the
mat
i
cs-s
cip
y

Ma
chi
neL
ear
ni
ng-n
ump
y,p
ada
s

we
bsc
rap
pin
g-b
eau
ti
fu
lso
up

As
tro
py

Ea
rth
py

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e6
 Bo
to3
Py
tho
nSu
ppo
rts(
Bor
rowe
dFr
om):
F
unc
ti
ona
lLa
ngu
agef
romc
OOPSf
romC+
+
S
cri
pt
in
gfr
omp
erl&s
hel
ls
cri
pt
S
ynt
axca
ndABCl
ang
uag
e
S
tep
stoi
nst
al
lpy
tho
nso
ftwa
re
Do
wnl
oadp
yth
on3[
3.
8.
2]
I
nst
al
lpy
tho
n
S
etEn
vir
onme
ntv
ari
abl
e

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e7
Ve
ri
fyp
yth
oni
sin
sta
ll
ed
Got
oco
mma
ndp
romp
tgi
vec
omma
nd
p
y--
ver
si
on
F
orCo
dej
ustg
ivep
yEn
ter

An
oth
erwa
y:

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e8
No
tep
ada
lsowec
anr
unp
yth
onb
yUs
ingf
ol
lo
win
gSt
eps
Op
enNo
tep
ad
T
ypep
yth
onc
ode

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e9
S
aveF
il
ena
mewi
t
h.p
yex
ten
sio
n
Op
enc
omma
ndp
romp
t
Got
odi
re
cto
ryo
fpy
tho
nFi
l
e
F
orr
unc
omma
nd[
pyt
honf
i
len
ame.
py]

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e10
Da
taT
ype
s:
I
nt
ege
r-Us
edf
orr
epr
ese
nt
n
umber
Ex
amp
le–>1
,1
244,
-1
234
F
loa
t-Us
edfo
rrepr
ese
nt
d
ecimal
number
Ex
amp
le –>1
.
0,1
e1
0,1
23.
324
Co
mpl
ex-
Use
dfo
rre
pre
sen
tco
mpl
exn
umb
er
Ex
amp
le –>1
+0j
(jr
epr
ese
ntst
hati
t
sco
mpl
ex)
b
ool
-Us
edf
orr
epr
ese
ntT
rueo
rFa
lse

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e11
Ex
amp
le –>T
rue
,Fa
lse
S
tr-
Use
dfo
rre
pre
sen
tch
ara
cte
r,wo
rds,
spe
cia
lch
ara
cte
r
Ex
amp
le “
Hel
l
owo
rl
d”
,“a
”,‘
a’
Va
ri
abl
es:
Ad
atai
t
emt
hatma
yta
keo
nmo
ret
hano
nev
alu
edu
ri
ngt
he
r
unt
i
meo
fap
rog
ram.
Ru
les
:
•S
tar
tswi
t
hAl
pha
bet
soru
nde
rsc
ore(a
-z,
A-Z,
_)
•T
henCa
nbeac
omb
ina
ti
ono
fAl
pha
bet
s,Un
der
sco
re&Nu
mbe
r
•Ca
nno
tbeKe
ywo
rds

Ca
nno
tco
nta
ins
pac
e,s
pec
ial
cha
rac
ter
S
ynt
ax:
Va
ri
abl
eNa
me=v
ari
abl
eVa
lue
p
ri
nt
()-f
unc
ti
on
T
hepri
nt
()fu
nc t
i
onpri
ntst
hes
pec
if
ie
dme
ssa
get
oth
esc
ree
n,o
rot
her
s
tan
dar
do u
tputdev
ice
.

Themessa
gecanbeast
ri
ng,
oranyo
the
robj
ect
,th
eob
jec
twi
l
lbe
c
onver
tedi
ntoast
ri
ngb
efo
rewri
t
tentoth
escr
een.

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e12
Dy
nami
cal
l
yTy
pe
v
ari
abl
esc
anb
eimp
li
ci
tl
yco
erc
edt
oun
rel
at
edt
ype
s
I
fwed
ecl
ar
esa
mev
ari
abl
ewi
t
hdi
f
fer
ento
neI
tta
ket
hel
asto
ne

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e13
T
ype
()F
unc
ti
on
Usedf
orc
hec
kwh
att
ypeo
fda
tat
ypei
sus
edf
ort
hatp
art
i
cul
ar
d
ata
type
.

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e14
S
ynt
axf
orc
omp
lex
X=a
+bj
a
 Re
alp
art
b
 I
mag
ina
ryp
art
j
Sq
uar
ero
oto
f-1
Ex
amp
le:
1
0+2j
S
tri
ng:
S
tri
ngi
sus
edf
orme
nti
oni
ngl
et
tero
rwo
rd
Wec
anme
nti
oni
nei
t
her““o
r‘‘
T
ri
o:v
alu
e,i
d,t
ype
Ea
chv
ari
abl
esh
ast
hre
ety
pesav
alu
e,i
dan
dit
sty
pe.
Wec
an
a
cce
sst
hemb
yus
ingb
uil
ti
nfu
nct
i
onn
ame
did
(),
typ
e()
.
Nor
mal
l
yv a
luei
sacc
ess
edeas
il
ybutto
kn
owit
sidan
dtypet
hes
efu
nct
ion
sa r
euse
d.
Del
()–F u
ncti
onThedelke
ywordisu
sedto
del
eteobj
ect
s.I
nPy t
honever
yth
ingi
san
obj
ect,
sothedelke
ywordcanal
sobeuse
d
todel
etevar
ia
ble
s,l
i
sts
,orpar
tsofal
is
tetc.

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e15
Ke
ywo
rds:
Pyth
onh a
sas e
tofkeywordst
hatar
e
re
servedwor
dsthatca
n n
o tbeuse
d
asvari
abl
enames,f
unct
ionnames,
or
anyoth
eride
nti
fi
er
s:
Ex
amp
les:
F
alse
,cl
ass,f
i
nal
l
y,i
s,re
tur
n,No
ne,con
ti
n u
e,f
or,
lambda
,tr
y,Tr
ue,d
ef,
f
rom,no
nlo
cal
,whi
l
e,and,
del
,gl
oba
l,n
ot,wi
th,
as,el
if
,i
f,
or,
yie
ld,
asser
t,
e
lse,
impor
t,p
ass
,bre
ak,exc
ept
,in
,rai
se.
Ty
pecasti
ng:
The
remaybet
i
me swhenyo
uwa
ntt
osp
eci
f
yat
ypeo
nto
avar
ia
ble
.Thi
scanb
edon
ewithca
sti
ng.
I
nsi
mpl
i
fi
edt
ermso
ned
atat
ypec
anb
eco
nve
rte
dtoa
not
herd
atat
ype
.

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e16
F
unc
ti
onf
orT
ypec
asi
ng

i
nt
()

f
l
oat
()

s
tr(
)

b
ool
()

c
omp
lex
()
i
nt
()
Us
edf
orc
onv
ert
i
nga
nyv
alu
eint
oin
tva
lue

f
l
oat
()
Us
edf
orc
onv
ert
i
nga
nyv
alu
eint
ofl
oatv
alu
e

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e17
c
omp
lex
()
Us
edf
orc
onv
ert
i
nga
nyv
alu
eint
oco
mpl
exv
alu
e
F
orma
t1:x
=a x
=a+
oj
F
orma
t2:x
=a+
bjx
=a+
bj

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e18
b
ool
()
Us
edf
orc
onv
ert
i
nga
nyv
alu
eint
obo
olv
alu
e

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e19
S
tr(
)
Us
edf
orc
onv
ert
i
nga
nyv
alu
eint
oSt
ri
ngv
alu
e

Bi
nar
y1
01
1
Oc
tal62347
1
He
xaDe
cima
l1
FA58
Bi
nar
yDe
cla
rat
i
onRu
le:
a
=0b
101
1
a
=0B1
01
1

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e20
He
rebi
sno
tac
ases
ens
it
iv
e

Oc
talDe
cel
er
ati
onRu
le:

a
=0o
123

a
=0O1
23
He
reoi
sno
tac
ases
ens
it
iv
e

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e21
He
xaDe
cima
lDe
cel
er
ati
onRu
le:
a
=0x
1FA
a
=0X1
FA
He
rexi
sno
tac
ases
ens
it
iv
e

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e22
b
in(
)-F
unc
ti
on
Us
edf
orc
onv
ert
i
ngd
eci
mal
,oc
tal
,he
xad
eci
mal
tob
ina
ry
o
ct(
)-F
unc
ti
on
Us
edf
orc
onv
ert
i
ngd
eci
mal
,bi
nar
y,h
exa
dec
ima
ltoo
cta
l
h
ex(
)-F
unc
ti
on
Us
edf
orc
onv
ert
i
ngd
eci
mal
,oc
tal
,bi
nar
ytoh
exa
dec
ima
l

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e23
F
lav
orso
fpy
tho
n:

Cp
yth
on

J
yth
ono
rJa
vap
yth
on

I
r
onp
yth
on[
c##]

Ru
byPy
tho
n

Py
py[
per
for
man
cei
sgo
odu
sin
gJI
Tco
mpi
l
er]

An
aco
nda
Pyt
hon[
Han
dleb
igd
atal
ar
ged
atap
roc
ess
]

S
tac
les
spy
tho
n[c
onc
urr
enc
yli
ket
hre
ad]

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e24
i
npu
t()-f
unc
ti
on
Us
edf
org
ett
i
ngi
npu
tfr
omu
sera
tru
nti
me.
I
npu
tal
way
sre
cog
niz
est
heu
seri
npu
two
rda
sst
ri
ng.
What
eve
rdataty
peiti
s,T
ypec
ast
i
ngi
sus
edt
oco
nve
rtt
heu
serg
ive
n
i
npu
ttospe
cif
i
cd a
taty
pe
S
ynt
ax:
X=i
npu
t(“
pl
eas
een
terv
alu
e”) I
twi
l
lac
cep
tda
tat
ype
X=dat
atype
(in
put
(“p
lea
see
nte
rva
lue
”) I
twi
l
lac
cep
ton
lyp
art
i
cul
ar
dat
atype

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e25
Co
ntr
olS
tat
eme
nt
Pyt
honuse
sIf-el
sekeywor
dto
cho
osebet
weencho
ice
s,i
tsa
lsoc
all
ed
asDeci
si
onst
ate
ment
Ke
ywo
rds
I
f
I
fel
se
El
i
f
S
ynt
ax:
I
f(c
ond
it
io
n):
l
ogi
c
He
re(
)iso
pti
ona
l
I
npyt
honal
ig
nme n
tisveryi
mport
anti
fwea
ren
ot
a
li
gnourc
odeitwi
llt
hro
we r
ror
T
hata
li
gnme
nti
sca
ll
edi
nde
nta
ti
onwec
ans
ay
I
nde
nta
ti
onre
fer
stos
pac
eort
abt
hata
reu
seda
tbe
gin
nin
gofa
s
tat
ement
.

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e26
T
heS t
ate
men
tswi
t
hsa
mei
nde
nta
ti
onb
elo
ngt
osa
meg
rou
pca
ll
eda
s
uit
e
I
nca
sei
fth
eco
ndi
t
ioni
sfa
ili
two
nte
xec
utea
nyl
ogi
cin
sid
eth
eifc
ase

I
f–e
lse
I
fthec
ondi
t
ionistr
ueifseto
fco
dei
sex
ecu
tedi
fth
eco
ndi
t
ioni
sfa
lse
el
sese
tofcodeisexe
c u
ted

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e27
An
dOrOp
era
ti
on:
F
orc
hec
kin
gmo
ret
hano
nec
ond
it
io
nwec
anu
sea
nd,
oro
per
ati
on
An
d u
sedi
nsc
ena
ri
owh
ereb
othc
ond
it
io
nne
edt
obes
tat
i
sif
i
ed
Or u
sedi
nsc
ena
ri
owh
erea
nyo
nec
ond
it
io
nst
ati
si
fi
edi
sen
oug
h

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e28
F
orc
heck
ingmo
ret
hano
neco
ndi
t
ionwe
c
anus
eopti
oni
f–la
dder
S
ynt
ax
I
fco
ndi
t
ion:
L
ogi
c
e
li
fco
ndi
t
ion:
L
ogi
c
e
li
fco
ndi
t
ion:
L
ogi
c
e
lse:
L
ogi
c

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e29
Wh
il
elo
op:
Wit
hthewhi
l
elo
opweca
ne x
ecut
easetof
st
atemen
tsasl
onga
sacon
dit
io
nist
rue
.
Ke
ywo
rds
:
wh
il
e
S
ynt
ax:
Wh
il
eco
ndi
t
ion:
L
ogi
c

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e30
I
fth
eco
ndi
t
ionwa
sfa
ili
two
nte
xec
utel
ogi
c
Do–wh
il
e:

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e31
F
orl
oop
Fo
rlo
opisus
edf
ori
ter
ati
ngoveras
equ
enc
e(t
hati
sei
t
heral
i
st,
atu
ple
,
adi
cti
ona
ry,
ase
t,o
ras t
ri
ng)
.
Wit
hthefo
rloo
pwecane
xec
uteas
eto
fst
ate
men
ts,
onc
efo
rea
chi
t
em
i
nali
st
,tu
ple
,sete
tc.
Ke
ywo
rd:
f
or
Not
e:r
ang
e()–isapy
tho
nst
and
ard
fu
nct
io
nusedf
ornu
mber
s
S
ynt
ax:
f
orv
ara
iab
leNa
mei
nra
nge(
Sta
rt,
end,

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e32
i
ncr
/de
cr)
:
L
ogi
c

b
rea
k–s
topt
hel
oop

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e33
Co
nti
nue:
s
kipa
ndg
oba
ckt
oth
eto
poft
hel
oop

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e34
S
tri
ng
St
ri
ngi
sno
thi
ngb
utc
oll
ect
i
ono
f
c
har
act
er
S
tri
ngwo
rkso
nba
siso
fin
dex
I
npy
tho
nS t
ri
ngh
asb
othp
osi
t
ivei
nde
xisa
lsot
her
ean
dne
gat
i
ve
i
nde
xisal
sot
her
e
S
tri
ngs
=“We
lco
me”

S
li
ci
ngo
per
ato
r:
I
ti
sus
edt
osp
li
tas
mal
lpo
rti
ono
fst
ri
ngf
romt
heg
ive
nst
ri
ng

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e35
S
[1
:]
fr
om1
sti
nde
xti
l
len
d
S
[:5]
fr
om0t
hin
dext
i
ll4t
hin
dex
S
[-2]
le
tte
rpr
in
tat-
2in
dex
S
[-5:
-2]
fr
om-
5in
dext
o-2i
nde
x
S
[-1
:
-5]
noo
utp
utb
eca
user
eve
rsi
ngi
sno
tpo
ssi
bl
e

F
orj
oi
ni
ngt
wos
tri
ngweh
avet
ous
e+s
ymb
olb
etwe
ent
wos
tri
ng
F
orr
epe
ati
ngs
tri
ngweh
avet
ous
e*s
ymb
ol
F
orCo
nve
rto
nga
lll
et
tert
olo
werc
asewec
anu
se
l
owe
r()me
tho
d
F
orCo
nve
rti
nga
lll
et
tert
oup
perc
asewec
anu
se

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e36
u
ppe
r()me
tho
d
F
orc
api
t
ali
zet
heg
ive
nst
ri
ngwec
anu
sec
api
t
ali
ze(
)me
tho
d

F
orRe
mov
ingu
nwa
nte
dsp
ace
l
st
ri
p(
)Us
edf
orr
emo
vin
gle
fts
pac
e
r
str
ip
()Us
edf
orr
emo
vin
gri
ghts
pac
e
s
tri
p(
)Us
edf
orr
emo
vin
gle
fta
ndr
ig
hts
pac
e

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e37
F
orv
eri
f
yin
gwh
eth
ers
tri
ngs
tar
tswi
t
hsa
mes
equ
enc
eorn
ot
s
tar
tsWi
t
h()me
tho
disu
sed
F
orv
eri
f
yin
gwh
eth
ers
tri
nge
ndswi
t
hsa
mes
equ
enc
eorn
ot
e
nds
Wit
h()me
tho
disu
sed

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e38
F
orf
i
ndi
ngth
ein
dexpos
it
io
nofc
orr
esp
ond
ingl
et
terwec
anu
sei
nde
x
(
),fin
d()met
hodi
sused
I
nca
sei
fl
et
teri
spr
ese
nti
nmo
ret
hano
nep
lac
eitt
ake
sfi
rs
tpo
sit
i
on
Di
f
fer
enc
ebe
twe
eni
nde
x(),
f
ind
()
i
nde
x()
Ifl
et
teri
sno
tpr
ese
nti
twi
l
lgi
veVa
lue
Err
or
f
i
nd(
)I
fl
et
teri
sno
tpr
ese
nti
twi
l
lgi
ve-
1

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e39
PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e40
Es
cap
ese
que
nce
s
T
heyareus
edtomodi
fyt
he
o
utp
utsi
ncommandl
in
eorto
p
ri
ntres
erv
edkeys
.
\-f
orn
ewl
i
nei
ned
it
or
\
\-p
ri
nt
s\
\
’–p
ri
nt
s‘
\
”–p
ri
nt
s“
\
n–p
ri
nt
san
ewl
i
ne
\
t–p
ri
nt
sat
ab
Su
ppo
sewewan
ttop
ri
nts
amed
ataa
sitwi
t
hou
tus
ings
ames
equ
enc
e
weca
nuser
No
te:
rme
ansr
awd
ata
F
orme
nti
oni
ngS
tri
ngi
nmu
lt
ip
lel
i
neswec
anu
se‘
’
’or“
”””
””

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e41
Op
era
tor
s:
Ope
rat
orsa
respeci
als
ymb
olsi
nPy
tho
nth
atc
arr
you
tar
it
hme
ti
cor
l
ogi
cal
comput
ati
on.
T
hev
alu
eth
att
heo
per
ato
rop
era
teso
nisc
all
edt
heo
per
and
.
Ex
amp
le:+i
sth
eop
era
tort
hatp
erf
ormsa
ddi
t
ion
T
ype
sofOp
era
tor
:

Ar
it
hme
ti
cOp
era
tor

Rel
at
io
nalOpe
rat
oro r
co
mpari
sonOper
ato
r

Eq
ual
i
tyOp
era
tor

L
ogi
cal
Ope
rat
or

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e42
 Ar
it
hme
ti
cOp
era
tor

Bi
t
wis
eOp
era
tor

As
sig
nme
ntOp
era
tor

S
pec
ial
Ope
rat
or
Ar
it
hme
ti
cOp
era
tor
:
Ar
it
hmeti
coper
ato
rsa
reu
sedwi
t
hnu
mer
icv
alu
est
ope
rfo
rmc
ommo
n
math
emati
cal
op
erat
io
ns
+ Ad
dit
i
on
-S
ubt
rac
ti
on
*Mu
lt
ip
li
cat
i
on
/
 Di
vi
si
on
%Mo
dul
o
/
/F
loo
rDi
vi
si
ono
per
ato
r
*
* Ex
pon
ento
per
ato
rorp
owe
r
No
te:
/
 Al
way
sre
tur
nre
sul
ti
nfl
oat
/
/ Re
tur
nr e
sul
ti
nbo
thi
nt
ege
ran
dfl
oat[
res
ul
tde
pen
dso
nin
putwe
a
rep
assi
ng]

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e43
No
te:
I
nco
mpl
exd
atat
ypec
antwo
rkf
or%,
//o
per
ato
r
I
nSt
ri
ngd
atat
ypea
ri
th
met
i
cop
era
torl
i
ke*
,+o
nlywo
rk

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e44
Re
lat
i
ona
lOp
era
tor
:
Compar
is
ono
per
ato
rsa
reu
sedt
oco
mpa
ret
wov
alu
esa
ndr
etu
rnT
rueo
r
fa
lse
>
Gr
eat
ert
han
< L
ess
ert
han
>
= Gr
eat
ert
hano
req
ual
<= L
ess
ert
hano
req
ual
Ch
ain
ingo
fRe
lat
i
ono
per
ato
r:
J
oi
ni
ngmo
ret
hano
ner
el
at
io
nop
era
tor
Ex
amp
le:
Pr
in
t(1
0<1
0*5<=9
0+7
8)

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e45
No
te:
Co
mpl
exwo
nts
upp
ortr
el
at
io
nalo
per
ato
r
As
sig
nme
ntOp
era
tor
As
sig
nme
nto
per
ato
rsa
reu
sedt
oas
sig
nva
lue
stov
ari
abl
es
+
+x=+(+x)
-
-x= -(-x)
I
npy
tho
nth
erei
snop
osti
ncr
eme
nt/
dec
reme
nt
T
ern
aryOp
era
tor
T
hesea
reo
per
ato
rst
hatt
estac
ond
it
io
nan
dba
sedo
nth
at,
eva
lua
tea
v
alu
e.

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e46
S
ynt
ax:
X=fi
rstv
alu
eifc
ond
it
io
nel
ses
eco
nd
va
lue
Or
X=fi
rs
tval
ueif(c
ond
it
io
n)e
lse
se
condva
lue

S
pec
ial
Ope
rat
or
I
den
ti
tyOp
era
tor
I
den
ti
tyope
rato
rsar
eu s
edtoc
ompar
etheob
jec
ts,
noti
fth
eyar
ee q
ual
,
b
uti
fthe
ya r
eactu
all
ythes
ameob
ject
,wi
tht
hesamememoryl
oca
ti
on
I
sCo
mpa
rer
efe
ren
ces
I
sno
t Co
mpa
rer
efe
ren
cesa
ndo
ppo
sit
e

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e47
Me
mbe
rSh
ipOp
era
tor
:
Member
shi
pop
era
tor
sar
eus
edt
ote
sti
fas
equ
enc
eisp
res
ent
edi
nan
ob
jec
t
I
n Eval
uat
estot
ruei
fi
tfi
ndsav
ari
abl
eint
hes
pec
if
ie
dse
que
ncea
nd
f
al
seot
her
wise
NotI
n Ev
alu
atest
otr
uei
fitdo
esn
otf
i
ndsav
ari
abl
eint
hes
pec
if
ie
d
se
q u
enc
eandfal
seo
the
rwi
se.

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e48
L
ogi
cal
Ope
rat
or
L
ogi
cal
ope
rat
orsa
reu
sedt
oco
mbi
nec
ond
it
io
nal
sta
teme
nts
An
d-Re
tur
nsT
ruei
fbo
ths
tat
eme
ntsa
ret
rue
Or
-Re
tur
nsT
ruei
fon
eoft
hes
tat
eme
ntsi
str
ue
No
t-Re
ver
set
her
esu
lt
,re
tur
nsF
als
eift
her
esu
lti
str
ue
Ze
ro F
als
e
No
nze
ro T
rue
Emp
tyS
tri
ng(
“”) F
als
e
Xa
ndY i
fxi
sfa
lsei
tre
tur
nXo
the
rwi
seY
Xo
rY i
fxi
str
uei
tre
tur
nXo
the
rwi
seY

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e49
L
is
t[
]:
S
tor
est
hec
oll
ect
i
onso
fda
ta
Da
ta’
sca
nbes
tor
edb
ase
doni
nde
x
I
nde
xst
art
swi
t
h0a
nde
ndswi
t
hn-
1
L
is
tal
soc
ont
ai
nne
gat
i
vei
nde
x
I
tal
l
owd
upl
i
cat
eel
eme
nts
Me
tho
dso
fLi
st
:

S
li
ceOp
era
tor
s

a
ppe
nd(
)

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e50
 e
xte
nd(
)

c
oun
t()

c
opy
()

c
lea
r()

i
nde
x()

r
emo
ve(
)

i
nse
rt(
)

s
ort
()

r
eve
rse
()

s
ort
ed(
)

l
en(
)

ma
x()

mi
n(
)

d
el(
)
No
te:
L
is
twi
l
lal
l
owi
ndi
cat
eby[
]
Ex
amp
le:
Nu
m[1
2,
10,
40,
1
00,
50,
75]

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e51
F
orr
epl
acev
alu
einl
i
stwec
anu
sep
art
i
cul
ari
nde
xpo
sit
i
on
Ex
amp
le:n
um[
1
]=9
0;
F
ori
nse
rti
ngv
alu
einl
i
stwec
anu
sei
nse
rt(
)me
tho
disu
sed
Ex
amp
le:n
um.
i
nse
rt(
2,200)
Al
r
eadyi
n2in
dexpo
sit
i
onwi
l
lmo
vet
o3,
and3wi
l
lmo
vet
o4a
nds
ize
wi
l
lin
cre
aseby1
F
orf
i
ndi
ngi
nde
xpo
sit
i
ono
fco
rre
spo
ndi
ngv
alu
ewec
anu
se
I
nde
x(v
alu
e)me
tho
d
No
te:
I
nca
seo
fva
luei
sno
tpr
ese
nti
tsh
owVa
lue
Err
or
I
nca
seo
fdu
pli
cat
eva
luei
twi
l
lta
kef
i
rstv
alu
e
An
oth
erwa
yoff
i
ndi
ngi
nde
x
I
nde
x(v
alu
e,s
tar
t,
end
)
I
nde
x(v
alu
e,s
tar
t)
F
orf
i
ndi
ngl
eng
tho
fli
stwec
anu
sel
en(
)me
tho
d

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e52
F
ors
ort
i
ngt
hev
alu
einl
i
stwec
anu
ses
ort
()me
tho
d
Byd
efa
ulti
twi
l
lso
rti
nas
cen
din
gor
der
Wec
ana
lsos
orti
nde
sce
ndi
ngo
rde
rbyu
sin
gop
ti
on
S
ort
(r
eve
rse
=Tr
ue)
S
upp
osei
fweg
iveS
ort
(r
eve
rse
=Fa
lse
)itwi
l
lso
rti
nas
cen
din
gor
der
F
orr
eve
rset
hel
i
stwec
anu
ser
eve
rse
()me
tho
d
No
te:
S
orta
ndrev
ers
eme
tho
dwo
ntar
etu
rnan
ewl
i
sti
tdomo
dif
i
cat
i
oni
nth
e
s
ameli
st

S
ort
ed(
)me
tho
dwh
ichs
ortt
heg
ive
nli
sta
ndi
twi
l
lre
tur
nina
not
herl
i
st

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e53
F
orc
opya
llv
alu
efo
rmo
nel
i
stt
oan
oth
erl
i
stwec
anu
sec
opy
()me
tho
d
F
orf
i
ndi
ngo
ccu
rre
nceo
fva
luei
nli
stc
oun
t()me
tho
d
F
orf
i
ndi
ngma
ximu
mva
luei
nli
stwec
anu
sema
x()me
tho
d
F
orf
i
ndi
ngmi
ni
mumv
alu
einl
i
stwec
anu
semi
n()me
tho
d
F
orr
emo
vet
hev
alu
einl
i
stwec
anu
ser
emo
ve(
)me
tho
d
No
te:
I
fva
luei
sno
tpr
ese
nti
tsh
owv
alu
eEr
ror
F
orr
emo
vin
gth
eva
luewi
t
hin
dexwec
anu
sep
op(
in
dex
)me
tho
d
I
fweg
ivep
op(
)itwi
l
lre
mov
eth
ela
stv
alu
e

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e54
F
ord
ele
tet
hemu
lt
ip
lev
alu
einl
i
st
d
ell
i
str
ef[s
tar
ti
nde
x:l
ast
i
nde
x]
Wec
anu
sec
lea
r()me
tho
dtor
emo
vea
llv
alu
einl
i
st
F
ora
ddi
ngv
alu
einl
i
stwec
ana
ppe
nd(
)me
tho
d
No
te:
Wec
anta
blet
opa
ssi
nde
xina
ppe
ndme
tho
d
Wec
anta
blet
opa
ssmo
ret
hano
nev
alu
einl
i
stb
utwec
an
Mu
lt
ip
lev
alu
easa
not
herl
i
st
Wh
eneve
rwewa
ntt
oin
ser
tmu
lt
ip
lev
alu
eatl
astwec
anu
see
xte
nd(
)
me
tho
d

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e55
S
li
ci
ngo
per
ato
r:
I
ti
sus
edt
osp
li
tas
mal
lpo
rti
ono
fva
luef
romt
heg
ive
nli
st
S
[1
:]
fr
om1
sti
nde
xti
l
len
d
S
[:5]
fr
om0t
hin
dext
i
ll4t
hin
dex
S
[-2]
le
tte
rpr
in
tat-
2in
dex
S
[-5:
-2]
fr
om-
5in
dext
o-2i
nde
x
S
[-1
:
-5]noout
putb
eca
user
eve
rsi
ng
i
snotp
oss
ibl
e

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e56
F
ori
t
era
tet
hel
i
stwec
anu
sef
orl
i
st
S
ynt
ax:f
orv
ari
abl
einl
i
str
efe
ren
ce:
Pr
in
t(v
ari
abl
e)
(Or
)
F
ori
t
era
tet
hel
i
stwi
t
hin
dex
,va
lue
S
ynt
ax:f
orv
ari
abl
eine
nume
rat
e(l
i
str
efe
ren
ce):
Pr
in
t(v
ari
abl
e)

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e57
T
upl
es(
):
T
uple
sa r
es e
q u
ences
,ju
stli
kel
i
sts
.Thedi
ff
eren
c e
sb e
tweentu
ple
san
d
l
i
stsare
,thetupl
escan
notbecha
ngedunl
i
keli
stsandtup
lesu
se
p
arent
heses,wher
easl
ist
susesqu
arebr
acket
s.
Ex
amp
le
Nu
m=(
‘mo
n’,
’
tue
’,
’
wed
’,
’
thr
u’
,’
f
ri
’,
’
sat
’
,su
n’)
No
te:
Val
uesi
ntu
ple
sisco
nst
antwecant
abl
etomod
if
yb u
twecanaddv
alu
es
ataend
F
orfi
ndi
ngo
ccur
ren
ceofv
alu
ein
t
upl
esco
unt
()met
hod

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e58
F
orf
i
ndi
ngi
nde
xpo
sit
i
ono
fco
rre
spo
ndi
ngv
alu
ewec
anu
se
I
nde
x(v
alu
e)me
tho
d
No
te:
I
nca
seo
fva
luei
sno
tpr
ese
nti
tsh
owVa
lue
Err
or
I
nca
seo
fdu
pli
cat
eva
luei
twi
l
lta
kef
i
rstv
alu
e
An
oth
erwa
yoff
i
ndi
ngi
nde
x
I
nde
x(v
alu
e,s
tar
t,
end
)
I
nde
x(v
alu
e,s
tar
t)
F
orf
i
ndi
ngma
ximu
mva
luei
nli
stwec
anu
sema
x()me
tho
d
F
orf
i
ndi
ngmi
ni
mumv
alu
einl
i
stwec
anu
semi
n()me
tho
d
No
te:
I
fva
luei
sst
ri
ngma
ximu
m,mi
ni
mumb
ase
donAS
CII
val
ue
T
ocheckwh
eth
erv
alu
eisp
res
ento
rno
twea
reu
sin
gme
mbe
rsh
ip
o
per
ato
risu
sed
Wh
ene
verwewa
ntt
opr
in
ttu
plemu
lt
ip
let
i
meswec
anu
se*o
per
ato
r

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e59
S
li
ci
ngo
per
ato
r:
I
ti
sus
edt
osp
li
tas
mal
lpo
rti
ono
fva
luef
romt
heg
ive
ntu
ple
s
S
[1
:]
fr
om1
sti
nde
xti
l
len
d
S
[:5]
fr
om0t
hin
dext
i
ll4t
hin
dex
S
[-2]
le
tte
rpr
in
tat-
2in
dex
S
[-5:
-2]
fr
om-
5in
dext
o-2i
nde
x
S
[-1
:
-5]noout
putb
eca
user
eve
rsi
ng
i
snotp
oss
ibl
e
F
orcon
vert
ingl
i
sti
ntot
upl
ewec
anu
sel
i
st(
)me
tho
dan
dvi
cev
ers
aby
u
sin
gtup
le(
)metho
d

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e60
F
ori
t
era
ti
ngt
upl
ewec
anu
seb
othf
orl
oopa
nde
nume
rat
e

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e61
S
et:
{}
As
eti
sac
oll
ect
i
ono
fva
luewh
ichi
sun
ord
ere
dan
dun
ind
exe
d.
I
nPy
tho
nse
tsa
rewr
it
tenwi
t
hcu
rl
ybr
ack
ets
.
I
ti
gno
red
upl
i
cat
eva
lue
I
tdo
esn
otma
int
ai
nan
yor
der
Ex
amp
le
Nu
m={
10,
20,
35,
60,
1
00,
35}
F
ora
ddi
ngt
hev
alu
eins
etwec
anu
sea
dd(
)me
tho
dins
et
F
orc
opya
llv
alu
efo
rmo
nel
i
stt
oan
oth
ers
etwec
anu
sec
opy
()me
tho
d

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e62
F
orr
emo
vin
gth
eva
luewec
anu
sep
op(
),r
emo
ve(
),
di
sca
rd(
)me
tho
d
No
te:
p
op(
)wi
l
lre
mov
ean
yva
luer
and
oml
y
r
emo
ve(
),
di
sca
rd(
) wi
l
lre
mov
epa
rti
cul
arv
alu
efr
oms
et
I
nre
mov
eifv
alu
eisn
otp
res
enti
twi
l
lth
rowKe
yEr
ror
I
ndi
sca
rdi
fva
luei
sno
tpr
ese
nti
two
ntt
hro
wan
yer
ror
Wec
anu
sec
lea
r()me
tho
dtor
emo
vea
llv
alu
eins
et

F
ora
ddi
ngmu
lt
ip
lev
alu
eins
etwec
anu
seu
pda
te(
)me
tho
d
No
te

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e63
Wec
anta
blet
oad
dmo
ret
hano
nev
alu
e

F
orf
i
ndi
ngl
eng
tho
fse
twec
anu
sel
en(
)me
tho
d
F
ors
ort
i
ngv
alu
eins
etwec
anu
ses
ort
ed(
)me
tho
d
No
te:
S
ort
(),
r
eve
rse
()me
tho
disn
ota
vai
l
abl
e
Nu
m[1
]i
sno
tpo
ssi
bl
ewec
anta
blet
ota
keo
nlyo
nev
alu
e
Un
ion
Uni
onoft
wogi
venset
sist
he
smal
l
ests
etwhi
chcon
tai
nsal
l
th
eele
mentso
fbot
htheset
s.

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e64
Uni
ono
ftwogi
vens
etsAandBisasetwh
ichc
o n
sis
tsofa
llt
he
el
emen
tsofAan
dall
thee
lemen
tsofBsuc
hthatnoel
ementi
srep
eat
ed
S
ynt
ax:
S
et1
.
uni
on(
set
2)
S
et1
|
set
2
I
nse
rti
on
I
nt
ers
ecti
onoft
wogi
vens
etsi
sthel
arg
estse
twh
ichc
ont
ai
nsa
llt
he
e
lement
stha
tarec
ommontob
othth
esets
.
I
nt
ers
ecti
ono
ftwogi
vens
etsAandBi
sase
twh
ichc
ons
ist
sofa
llt
he
e
lement
swhi
char
ecommontob
othAa
ndB.
S
ynt
ax:
S
et1
.
int
ers
ect
i
on(
set
2)
S
et1
&se
t2
Di
f
fer
enc
e:
T
hefunc
ti
ondi
ff
ere
nce()
r
etu
rnsasett
hati
sth
ed i
ff
ere
nceb
etwe
ent
wos
ets
S
ynt
ax:
S
et1
.
dif
fer
enc
e(s
et2)
S
et1
-s
et2

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e65
S
ymme
tri
cdi
f
fer
enc
e:
T
hesy
mme tr
icdi
f
fer
enceoftwoset
sAandBist
hes
eto
fel
eme
ntst
hat
a
rei
neit
herAorB,butn
otinthe
iri
nt
ers
ect
i
on.
S
ynt
ax:
S
et1
.
symme
tri
cdi
f
fer
enc
e(s
et2)
S
et1
^se
t2

Di
ct
io
nar
y
Di
cti
ona
ryinPytho
nisa
nu no
rde
redco
ll
ecti
onofdat
aval
ues
,use
dt o
st
oredat
av a
lue
sli
keamap,whi
chunl
i
keotherDat
aTyp
esthatho
ldonl
y
si
ngl
eval
ueasa nel
ement
,Di
cti
ona
ryhol
dskey:
val
uepa
ir
.

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e66
Keyv
alu
eisp
rov
ide
dinth
edi
ct
io
nar
y
t
omakei
tmor
eopti
miz
ed
Ex
amp
le

n
um={
10:
”j
ava
”,
20:
”sq
l”
,30:
”pl
sql
”,
40:
”se
len
ium”
}
F
ir
stv
alu
ere
pre
sen
tke
y
S
eco
ndv
alu
ere
pre
sen
tva
lue
Fo
rpri
nt
in
gval
ueo
fco
rre
spo
ndi
ngk
ey wec
anu
seb
othg
et(
)an
dsl
i
ce
[]op
erat
or
Di
f
fer
enc
ebe
twe
eng
et(
)an
dsl
i
ce[]o
per
ato
r:
Ge
t()i
fva
luei
sno
tpr
ese
nti
twi
l
lgi
ven
one
[]
ifv
alu
eisn
otp
res
enti
twi
l
lKe
yEr
ror
T
opr
in
ton
lyk
eyswec
anu
sek
eys
()me
tho
d

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e67
T
opr
in
ton
lyk
eyswec
anu
sev
alu
es(
)me
tho
d
T
opr
in
tink
eya
ndv
alu
esp
airwec
anu
sei
t
ems
()me
tho
d

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e68
F
orc
opya
llv
alu
efr
omo
nema
ptoa
not
herwec
anu
sec
opy
()me
tho
d
F
ord
ele
ti
ngv
alu
eind
ict
i
ona
rywec
anu
sep
op(
val
ue)me
tho
d
F
ord
ele
ti
ngn
extv
alu
eind
ict
i
ona
rywec
anu
sep
opi
t
em(
)me
tho
d
No
te:
Po
p(v
alu
e)i
fva
uei
sno
tpr
ese
nti
twi
l
lth
rowk
eyEr
ror

F
orUp
dat
i
ngv
alu
eind
ict
i
ona
rywec
anu
seu
pda
te(
)me
tho
d
F
orUp
dat
i
ngo
nlyo
nev
alu
ewec
ans
li
ceo
per
ato
r
No
te

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e69
I
nsl
i
ceo
per
ato
rifk
eyi
sal
r
ead
ypr
ese
nti
twi
l
lov
erwr
it
eva
lue
I
nsl
i
ceo
per
ato
rifk
eyi
sno
tpr
ese
nti
twi
l
lcr
eat
ean
ewk
eyv
alu
epa
ir
Wec
anta
blet
ous
e+s
ymb
ol

F
unc
ti
on:
Afu
ncti
onisablo
ckofc
odewh
icho
nlyr
unswh
eni
ti
sca
ll
ed.
wec
an
pa
ssdata,kn
owna s
pa
rameter
s,i
ntoa
f
unct
io
n.Afunct
ion
ca
nretur
nd at
aasa
r
esul
t.
Ke
ywo
rd:
d
ef

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e70
r
etu
rn
S
ynt
ax:
d
ef f
unc
ti
on_n
ame
():
L
ogi
c
Onc
ewecal
lme
tho
dth
eno
nlyl
ogi
cise
xec
ute
dot
her
wis
eitwo
nt
ex
ecut
ed
T
ype
sofF
unc
ti
on:
F
unc
ti
onwi
t
hou
tar
gume
nts
F
unc
ti
onwi
t
har
gume
nts
F
unc
ti
onwi
t
hou
tre
tur
nty
pe
F
unc
ti
onwi
t
hre
tur
nty
pe
Ar
gume
nts
:
I
nf
orma
ti
onc
anb
epa
sse
din
tof
unc
ti
onsa
sar
gume
nts
.
Ar
gument
sar
esp
ecif
i
eda f
tert
hefu
nct
i
onname,i
nsi
dethep
are
nth
ese
s.
wecanadda
smanyarg
umen t
saswewan
t,j
usts
epara
teth
emwit
ha
co
mma .
Whent
hefu
nct
i
oniscal
l
ed,
wep
assa
lon
gaa
rgu
men
tsv
alu
e,wh
ichi
s
u
sedi
nsi
det
hefu
ncti
on
F
unc
ti
onwi
t
hou
tar
gume
nts
:

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e71
F
uncti
onwit
houtar
gument
sandn
oretu
rnt
ypei
ssi
mpl
efu
nct
i
on,
f
or
c
all
i
ngthatf
unc
tio
njustme
nti
onf
unc
ti
onna
meisen
oug
h

F
unc
ti
onwi
t
hou
tar
gume
nts
:
Afu
nct
io
nc a
ntakemul
ti
pl
earg
ume n
ts,
thes
ear
gument
scanb
eob
jec
ts,
va
ri
abl
es(
ofsameord
if
fer
entdat
atypes
)andf
unct
i
ons.

F
unc
ti
onwi
t
hre
tur
nty
pe
Re
tur
nTy
pe
Ret
urntyp
e(orr
esu
ltt
ype
)defi
nesa
ndcon
str
ai
nst
hed
atat
ypeo
fth
e
va
luere
tur
nedfr
omasubr
out
i
neormeth
od

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e72
Re
tur
nty
pemu
stb
eex
pli
ci
tl
ysp
eci
f
iedwh
end
ecl
ar
in
gaf
unc
ti
on
Wec
anr
etu
rno
nev
alu
eormo
ret
hano
nev
alu
e

F
unc
ti
onwi
t
hKe
ywo
rda
rgu
men
ts
Wec
anass
ignv
alu
efo
rar
gumen
tsb
yus
inga
ssi
gnme
nt(
=)o
per
ato
rof
t
hef
ormk
eywor
dname
=va
lue
.
Or
dero
fpa
ssi
ngi
sno
tap
rob
lemwec
anp
assi
nan
yor
der

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e73
F
unc
ti
onwi
t
hde
fau
lta
rgu
men
ts
Def
aul
tval
uesindi
cat
ethatth
efunct
i
ona r
gumentwi
ll
taketh
atval
uei
f
noarg
umentval
ueispas
se ddur
in
gfunct
i
onc a
ll
.Th
ed e
faul
tval
uei
s
ass
ign
edbyus i
ngass
ign
me nt
(=)oper
ato
rofthefo
rm
key
wordn
ame =val
ue.
No
te:
I
fva
luei
sinbot
har
gume
ntsa
ndf
unc
ti
onc
all
itwi
l
lta
kev
alu
efr
om
f
unc
ti
onc al
l
De
fau
lta
rgu
men
tsi
sal
way
sme
nti
oni
nla
st

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e74
Ar
bi
tr
aryAr
gume
nts
I
fyo
udonotk
nowhowmanyar
gumen
tstha
twi
l
lbepas
sedi
ntoyou
r
f
unc
ti
on,
add*bef
oret
hep
ara
me t
ernamei
nth
efun
cti
onde
fi
nit
i
on.
T
hiswayt
hefu
ncti
onwi
l
lre
cei
veat
upl
eofa
rgu
men
ts,
andc
ana
cce
ss
t
heit
emsacc
ordi
ngl
y
T
ype
sofa
rgu
men
ts
*
arg
s-a
rgu
men
tst
ore
sint
upl
e
*
*kwa
rgs-k
eywo
rde
dar
gume
nts
tor
esi
ndi
ct
io
nar
y

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e75
T
ype
sofv
ari
abl
e
Gl
oba
lva
ri
abl
e:
d
ecl
ar
eou
tsi
deo
ffu
nct
i
on
S
cop
eofv
ari
abl
eth
rou
gho
utc
las
s
L
oca
lva
ri
abl
e:
d
ecl
ar
ein
sid
efu
nct
i
on
S
cop
eofv
ari
abl
eiso
nlywi
t
hinf
unc
ti
on

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e76
No
te:
I
fGl
oba
lva
ri
abl
ean
dlo
cal
var
ia
blei
sbo
tht
her
eitg
ivei
mpo
rta
ncet
olo
cal
va
ri
abl
e

I
fbo
thvar
ia
blei
spr
esentwi
thsa
men a
mef o
rin
dic
ati
ngg
lob
alv
ari
abl
e
wehav
etousegl
oba
ls(
)[
‘v
ari
abl
e_n
ame’]

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e77
F
orc
han
gin
gth
eva
lueo
fgl
oba
lva
ri
abl
eweh
avet
ous
egl
oba
lva
ri
abl
e
n
ame
No
te:
Wecan
tdi
re
ctl
ymo
dif
ygl
oba
lva
ri
abl
eweh
avet
oco
mpu
ls
oryu
seg
lob
al
f
unc
ti
on

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e78
Re
cur
si
vef
unc
ti
on:
Are
cur
si
vefun
cti
onisaf
unc
ti
ond
efi
nedi
nte
rmso
fit
sel
fvi
ase
lf
-
r
efe
ren
ti
ale
xpres
sio
ns.
T
hismean
sthatth
efu
nct
io
nwil
lco
nti
nuet
oca
lli
t
sel
fan
dre
pea
tit
s
b
ehavi
oru
nti
lsomeco
ndi
t
ioni
smetto
r
etur
naresu
lt
.
Recu
rsi
vefun
cti
onu
sedt
oav
oid
co
mp l
exfu
ncti
on
Th
edevel
opersho
ul
dbeverycaref
ul
wi
thr
ecurs
ionasi
tcanbeq
u i
t
ee as
ytosli
pin
towri
t
ingafu
nct
io
nwh
ich
ne
verte
rminat
es,o
rone
thatuse
se xc
essamoun
tsofmemor
yor
pr
oce
ssorpower
.

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e79
Howe
ver,
whe
nwrit
tencor
rec
tl
yrecur
si
oncanbeave
rye
ffi
ci
ent
a
ndmath
emat
ica
ll
y-
eleg
antappr
oac
htopro
grammi
ng.
No
te:
Re
cur
si
vef
unc
ti
onr
unsma
ximu
m99
6ti
mea
fte
rth
ati
twi
l
lte
rmi
nat
e

Co
def
ort
ermi
nat
i
ngf
unc
ti
onwi
t
hin1
00

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e80
l
amb
daf
unc
ti
on
Al
amb
daf
unc
ti
oni
sas
mal
lan
ony
mou
sfu
nct
i
on[
Name
les
sfu
nct
i
on]
.
Al
ambdafunc
ti
oncanta
ke
an
yn u
mb e
rofar
gument
s,
bu
tcanonl
yhaveone
exp
ress
ion
.
T
hee
xpr
ess
ionisexe
cut
ed
a
ndt
her
esul
tisre
tur
ned
S
ynt
ax
l
amb
daa
rgu
men
ts:e
xpr
ess
ion

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e81
Cl
ass
es&Ob
jec
ts
Py
tho
nisa
nob
jec
tori
ent
edpr
ogra
mmingl
ang
uage.
Almo
ste
ver
yth
ingi
n
Py
tho
nisa
nob
jec
t,wi
thi
tsp
rop
erti
esa
ndmetho
ds.
ACl
assi
sli
kea
nob
jec
tco
nst
ruc
tor
,ora"
bl
uep
ri
nt
"fo
rcr
eat
i
ngo
bje
cts
.
Ob
jec
tsa
rei
nst
anc
e(c
opy
)ofac
las
sth
atc
anb
ecr
eat
eda
nd
d
est
roy
edl
at
er
Ke
ywo
rds
c
las
s
S
ynt
ax:
Cl
assc
las
ss_n
ame
:

PYT
HONMAT
ERAI
ALS
Pag
e82
Me
tho
ds&o
bje
ct
Me
tho
d:
F
unc
ti
ond
ecl
ar
ewi
t
hinc
las
sisc
all
edMe
tho
d
S
ynt
ax:
d
eff
unc
ti
on_n
ame
():
L
ogi
c
Ob
jec
t:
Obje
ctissi
mpl
yac
oll
ect
i
ono
fda
ta(
var
ia
ble
s)a
ndme
tho
ds(
fun
cti
ons
)
t
hatactont
hos
eda
ta
S
ynt
ax:
Ob
j_n
ame
=cl
ass
_na
me(
)

No
te:
I
nwh
icho
rde
rwea
rec
all
i
ngme
tho
dth
ati
sth
esa
meo
rde
r
Me
tho
dsg
ete
xec
ute
d