*Summary notes for Introduction to crop production

Crop Production Practices

- Site selection
- Land clearance
- Land preparation
- Drainage
- Planting
- Irrigation
- Weeding
- Pest and disease management
- Spacing
- Harvesting
- Post harvesting

HISTORY OF CROP PRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction
Crop production began about 9000 years ago in several locations around the world when men see that
food is becoming scarce and he needs to cater for his needs. It was also believed that most of the
plants have originated from several locations, and domesticated to suit men’s needs, this resulted in
the loss of genetic diversity. In this Unit, you will learn about the history of crop production, the
importance of crop production, the origin of the cultivated crops, and what happened during
domestication of plants. In identifying the location of the plant origin, scientists can be able to identify
genes and breed plants that may produce desirable traits; therefore, the discovery of the place of origin
and domestication of crops is also included.
Terminology:
 Domestication: Is the process by which plants and animals are genetically modified overtime
by humans for traits that are more advantageous or desirable for humans
 Old world: The old world consists of Africa, Europe and Asia (Afro-Eurasia), regarded
collectively as part of the world known to Europeans before contact with the Americas
(discovery)
 New World: Name used for the earth’s Western Hemisphere, specifically the Americas,
including nearby islands such as those of the Caribbean and Bermuda.

1.2 Historical development of crop production

Early man lived on wild game, leaves, roots, seeds, berries and fruits. As the population increased, the
food supply was not always sufficiently stable or plentiful to supply his needs. This probably led to
the practice of crop production. Therefore, crop production began at least nine thousand (9000) years
ago when domestication of plants became essential to supplement natural supplies in certain localities.
The art of crop production is older than civilization, and its essential features have remained almost
unchanged since the dawn of history. These features are:

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 1. gathering and preservation of seeds of the desired crop plants
2. destroying other kinds of vegetation growing on the land
3. stirring the soil to form a seedbed
4. planting when the season and weather are right as shown by past experience
5. destroying weeds
6. protecting the crop from natural enemies, and
7. Gathering, processing and storing the product.
The early husbandman cultivated a limited number of crops, the cereals being the first to be grown in
most parts of the world. The same crop was often produced continuously on a field until low yields
necessitated a shift to new land. A modification of this practice was the introduction of bare fallow
every two or three years. The primitive husbandman removed by hand the destructive insects in his
fields and appeased the gods or practiced mystic rites to drive away the evil spirits he believed to be
the cause of plant diseases. With advancing civilization, materials such as Sulphur, brine, ashes,
white-wash, soap and vinegar were applied to plants to suppress diseases or insects attack.

Cultivated plants are products of human achievement and discovery which has enable man to provide
his food and fiber needs with progressively less labor. The first successful domestication of plants by
man has recently been
suggested to have occurred in Thailand in Neolithic times. The value of lime, marl, manures, and
green manures for the maintenance of soil productivity was recognized 2000 years ago.

The old art of crop production still predominates in farm practice throughout the world. Plant
pathologists and entomologists have found ways to control plant diseases and insect pests more
effectively.
Chemists and agronomists have found supplements for manure and ashes formally used as fertilizers.

1.3 CROP AND ITS IMPORTANCE

Crop is a group of plants which have been selected and modified to some extent to serve certain
purposes. Crops are grown together, and they interact with one another as well as with their
environment. It is the target of the Crop producer to attain an economic yield and as a result, the
environment in which crops are grown is normally highly modified by the activities of the growers.

Crop production deals with the production of various crops, which includes food crops, fodder, crops,
fiber crops, sugar, oil seeds, etc. Crop production includes disciplines such as, agronomy, soil
science, entomology, pathology, microbiology, and other related fields. The aim is to have better food
production and how to control the diseases and other environmental factors that may cause hindrance
to the economic yield.

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IMPORTANCE OF CROP PRODUCTION:

Crop production is important in various ways. It is important because, one can;

 Make use of available land: Land that is left unused can be used to produce the crops
 Maintain Agricultural tools and equipment in working conditions
 Encourage new innovation: Downstream processing of raw materials can be accomplished.
 Provide food for the rapidly expanding population
 Provide employment directly or indirectly
 provide a growing source of export earnings
 Provide raw materials for secondary industry
 Provide the means by which the greater majority of the people can attain a higher standard of
living
 They make an important contribution towards the growth of the Gross Domestic product (GDP)
which will eventually lead to greater economic independence.
 They can contribute significantly to import replacement

1.4 Origin of Cultivated Crops

Introduction
All cultivated plants were domesticated from their wild species. However, the exact time and place of
origin and the true ancestry of many crops are still as highly speculative as the origin of man. Man has
domesticated some crop species that met his needs before the dawn of recorded history. Most of the
domesticated crops were introduced into new areas far from their centers of origin by migrating
human populations in prehistoric as well as in recorded times. As a result, both indigenous and
introduced crops are grown everywhere in the world.
History

About 13,000 years ago, the first farming communities appeared in the Fertile Crescent along the river
banks of Euphrates and Tigris – now known as Northern Iraq, or the Garden of Eden.

During crop domestication, several profound changes occurred in the crop species when humans
selected only those types that were beneficial to them.

Some of the desirable traits include;

- Non shattering of seed pods

- More determinate growth
- More uniform ripening
- Larger seed size
- Increased seed production etc.

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As a result of domestication;

- Plants have changed dramatically and its true ancestors cannot be truly identified.
- Level of genetic diversity was greatly reduced
This has posed a great challenge to the scientists to identify the centers of origin and domestication of
crops because it is basic to plant breeding in order to locate;

- Wild relatives,
- Related species and
- New genes ( especially dominant genes, sources of disease resistance)

The knowledge of the origin of crops is important in order to avoid;

- Genetic erosion
- Loss of germplasm due to the loss of ecotypes and land races
- Loss of habitat
- Increased urbanization

Germplasm preservation is accomplished through;

- Gene banks
- Preservation of natural habitat

1.5 Discovery of Crop Origin and Domestication.

The real foundation of the scientific study of plants began with the Greek Physician -Botanist
Theopratus and Dioscorides. In this period when plants were studied, the work of Theophrastus and
Aristotle on botany was considered complete. Hence, for the next fourteen century, no new
knowledge was added.

Gregory Mendel in the 18th century formulated the laws of inheritance and attributed the origin of
cultivated plants to: i. Natural selection, and ii. Hybridization.

Candolle in 1883 studied 247 species of cultivated plants and attempted to solve the mystery about
ancestral form, regions of domestication, and history of important cultivated plants.

*Candolle classified the economic plants into six classes in two different periods as shown below:

Period one: Plants of old world origin

1. Plants cultivated since 4000 years ago.

Almond, apple, banana, eggplant, mango, onion, rice, sorghum, tea, watermelon, pear, grape,
wheat and soya bean.
2. Plants cultivated since 2000 years ago

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 Rye, cotton, lettuce, cherry, carrot, breadfruit, yam, sugarcane.
3. Plants cultivated between 1000 & 2000 years ago
Coffee, gooseberry, okra, parsley, strawberry, rhubarb.
Period two: Plant of new world origin

1. Plants cultivated between 2000-4000 years ago.

cacao, kidney bean, maize, tobacco, sweet potato
2. plants cultivated before the time of Columbus (before the 14th century AD.) but whose antiquity
(distant past) is not known
Avocado, cotton, groundnut, guava, pumpkin, potato, pineapple, pepper, tomato and vanilla.
3. Plants cultivated since the time of Columbus(14th century AD)
Black berry, cinchona, gooseberry, plum, rubber, black walnut and strawberry.
Nikolai I Valivov , (Russian Scientist and plant explorer) in 1926 suggested six main geographical
centers of Origin of cultivated plants, then in 1935, he added two more to give 8 centers shown below.

Old world

1. Chinese center; earliest and largest independent center of origin.

 A total of 136 endemic plants are listed which include; millet, soya bean, many legumes,
bamboo, crucifers, citrus, sugar cane, cinnamon and tea.
2. Indian center; includes Assam and Burma and Indo- Malayan center.
 Assam and Burma: 117 plants considered endemic of which rice, coconut, cotton, black pepper,
yam, eggplant and some species of sugar cane are some examples.
 Indo-Malayan: 55 plants listed and some known examples are banana, coconut, sugar cane,
black pepper, mango, etc.
3. Central Asiatic center: The region includes Northwest India, Afghanistan, China, Tajikistan and
Uzbekistan.
 43 plants are listed here, examples are; wheat, pea bean, cotton, carrot, garlic, spinach, pear,
apricot and almond.
4. New Eastern Centre: The region includes the interior of Asia Minor all Transcaucasia, Iran and
USSR.
 83 species are listed in this region and rye, cherry, almond, walnut, fig, and Persian clover are a
few examples.
5. Mediterranean Centre;
 84 plants are listed here and amongst the many; olives and vegetables such as cabbage, turnips,
rhubarb, forage plants, oil plants, wheat and spices are a few examples.
6. Abyssian Centre; Ethiopia and Somalia
 38 plant species are native to this regions, and some examples include wheat, sesame, castor
bean, coffee and okra

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New World

7. South Mexican and Central American central

 Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Costa Rica have many indigenous plants of which corn, sweet
potato, bean, squash, papaya, guava, red pepper, cacao, and tobacco are some examples.
8. The South American Centre
Three main sub centers
 Peruvian, Ecuadorian- Bolivian Centre: consist of many spices of tree plants and some specific
examples are tomato, lima bean, pumpkin, pepper, cotton, cocoa, quinine tree, and tobacco.
 Chiloe Centre: An island near the coast of southern Chile. It is thought to be the origin of the
common sweet potato.
 Brazilian- Para guan Centre: This Centre is believed to be the region of ground nut, cassava,
pineapple, rubber tree and cashew nut.
The above areas of diversity constitute only a small proportion (2-3%) of the total land area of the
earth and are geographically distinct. About 85% of the 640 species listed by Valivov originated in the
old world (Asia, Europe, and Africa) and the remainder (15%) from the new world (Americas).

However, a crop by crop analysis reveals that the study of origins and evolution of cultivated plants is
much more complex and intricate than was formally conceived by Valivov.

Questions

1. What was the criateria used by Zukosky to classify places of plant origin into mega gene
centers and micro gene centers. He used Crop by crop analysis reveals and idea of centers
2. What were the criteria used by Halarn to classify places into centers and non-centers of plant
origin. gene center theory

Recently, Hawkes (1983) postulated an alternative scheme to clarify the concept of nuclear centers of
agricultural origin and regions of diversity. He believed that the nuclear centers of origin are the
centers where agriculture first begun. The regions of diversity are the areas where crops first spread
from the nuclear centers and in which additional cultivars arose by both unconscious and conscious
selection.
*Wild bean from Japan, sugar cane from New Guinea and Fei banana from Solomon Island.

The current centers of production of important crops shown below are almost close to what was
postulated by pioneers of crop history.

Table 2.Showing the center of crop origin and production.

Crop Centre of Production Centre of Origin
Banana Brazil & India S.E.A (Assam & Burma)
Citrus spp USA S.E.A

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Cocoa Ghana S.America
Coffee Central & S. America Ethiopia
Ground nut India, China S.America
Maize Grenada, WI Molucas
Pineapple Hawaii Brazil
Rubber SEA Brazil
Wheat N. & Central America Central Asia
Potato Eastern Europe Peru
Sweet potato S.E.A Central America

Unit 5: Factors affecting choice of crops

Introduction
Plants are autotrophic and therefore they fix the energy of the sun and manufacture food from simple
inorganic substances for almost all other organisms through photosynthesis. Crop plants have a wide
range of development and growth responses to sunlight, day length, temperature, nutrients, and water
supply. Farmers do not, however, choose plants as crops for optimum adaptation to individual
environments, but those that are preferred food, as in developing countries, or to meet market
requirements, including global trade. In consequence, crops are managed to withstand environmental
stresses. Socio-economic forces drive change in agriculture that is currently challenged to increase
production by 70% to feed 9.2 billion by 2050.
The distribution of crops is not by chance and a number of factors combine to control this distribution.
These factors can be put into three groups;

1. Biological factors
2. Ecological factors
3. Socio Economic factors

Source: https://www.slideshare.net/Jupitemark/7-factors-affecting-crop-production

5.1 Internal factors

5.1.1 Genetic factors
The increase in crop yields and other desirable characters are related to Genetic makeup of plants.
• High yielding ability
• Early maturity

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 • Resistance to lodging
• Drought flood and salinity tolerance
• Tolerance to insect pests and diseases
• Chemical composition of grains (oil content, protein content)
• Quality of grains (fineness, coarseness)
• Quality of straw (sweetness, juiciness)
*The above characters are less influenced by environmental factors since they are governed
by genetic make-up of crop.

1.2 External/ Ecological Factors

Ecology: is the scientific analysis and study of interactions among organisms and their environment.
It is an interdisciplinary field that includes biology, geography, and Earth science.

Ecological factors which influence crop distribution are;

1. Climatic factors 2. Soil factors

- Rainfall
- Soil moisture
- Temperature
- Soil texture
- Solar energy received
- Soil structure
- Day length
- Soil fertility
- Relative humidity
- Soil depth
- Evapotranspiration
- Slope
- Wind velocity
- Soil air
- Atmospheric gases
- Soil temperature
- Soil mineral matter
- Soil organic matter
- Soil organisms
- Soil reactions

5.2.1 Climatic factors

5.2.1.1 Rainfall: In the tropics, temperature rarely limits plant growth, and rainfall is the most
important factor determining the distribution of crops. Seasons are determined by rainfall in the
tropics. Four attributes of rainfall could influence the distribution of crops.
a. Total annual rainfall
b. Seasonal rainfall distribution
c. Rainfall reliability

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 d. Rainfall intensity

A. Total Annual Rainfall:

In PNG, TAR varies from 0-10,000mm and since all agriculture in the country is rain fed, the amount
of rainfall will determine what crops can be grown where or even weather a crop can be grown
without irrigation. . Crops have different water requirement, the amount of water required by a crop
depends on the number of days of the year when it is in the ground. Thus, perennial crops require
more water than annual crops which will occupy the ground for only a few months.

They divide PNG into four rainfall regions according to the total annual rainfall they received.

1. Dry sub-humid 1000-1500mm

2. Sub humid 1500-2000mm
3. Humid 2000-3500mm
4. Per humid >3500mm
Total annual rainfall varies with latitude; the highest rainfall is recorded at 50N (approximate position
of thermal equator), there is slight decrease towards the equator, and increase towards the higher
latitudes.

B. Seasonal Rainfall distribution

SRD within the tropics is controlled by the apparent movement of the sun between the tropic of
cancer in the North, and Tropic of Capricorn in the south. Peak rainfall occurs after the sun has been
overhead (McAlpine and Keig, 1983). This results in there being no dry season within 5 oN and S of
the equator. Further from the equator there is a dry and a wet season, the length of the dry season
increases with the latitude. Between 5-150N and S, there are two rainy, and two dry seasons because
sun passes over head twice a year.. Between 15-23.50N and S, the two peaks merge into one and there
is one rainy, and one dry season; again, the length of the dry season increases with latitude. (Nieuwolt,
1977).

*Thus, in the tropics, three main patterns of rainfall distribution is found

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 i. Non-seasonal distribution (0-50N and S)
ii. Bimodal distribution(5-150N and S)
iii. Unimodal distribution (15-23.50N and S)

i. Non Seasonal Rainfall Distribution

Large areas of this country receive rainfall throughout the year and although during certain seasons
rainfall is higher than during others, such areas can be considered to have a non-seasonal type of
distribution. Such areas also tend to receive very high annual rainfall. Examples of areas with such
rainfall distribution are the Huon Peninsula, parts of New Britain, and many parts of Western
Province. In such areas, perennial crops like oil palm and rubber which require large quantities of
water throughout the year are the best cash crops. Food crops which do best in such areas are those
which do not require a dry period for ripening. This particularly excludes all the grain crops. It is not
by coincidence that the main staples are the root crops like taro and yams as well as sago and bananas.

ii. Bi-modal distribution:

Such areas get rainfall in two main seasons with intervening dry periods. There are not many such
areas in the country; example, Kaiapit in the Markham valley. In such areas, it is possible to grow all
crops. There is usually enough rainfall for perennial crops, and two or more annual crops a year. The
presence of a dry seasons means that grain crops can be grown provided cultivars which fit in with the
seasons are used. Experience in the Markham valley has shown that the dry season is not very reliable
and natural drying of grains such as corn, sorghum is rather risky. Artificial drying is almost always
needed.

iii. Areas with unimodal rainfall distribution

Such areas are very restricted in the country, being only found in central Province in the immediate
vicinity of Port Moresby. They have one long rainy season and one long dry season which is of about
five months duration. This rule out perennial crops since they are in the ground all year round, it
requires a well distributed rainfall. Thus, the mean annual rainfall of 1200mm recorded for Port
Moresby would support most perennial crops if it were more evenly distributed throughout the year.
As it is, only drought tolerant perennial crops like cashew, coconut and mango can be grown
economically in the area. Annual crops can however be very successfully grown. This area can
support a grain farming system.

C. Rainfall Reliability

Rainfall reliability is usually calculated statistically and we can choose the level of risk we are
prepared to take by choosing an appropriate level of statistical probability. We can thus decide that we
are prepared to take the risk of losing a crop one year out of every five or one year out of every ten
and so on. Long term data, say at least 10 years is required for this. Rainfall is very reliable
throughout the country; it is generally true that areas with high rainfall will also have reliable rainfall.

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 D. Rainfall Intensity

Is defined as the amount of rainfall obtained per unit time, say an hour, or a day or week. It does not
influence crop distribution directly. Indirectly, it does, by affecting soil erosion, preventing the
cultivation of very steep slopes. Areas which would be quiet safe to crop if rainfall intensities were
low would not be cropped if the intensities are too high.

5.2.1.2 Temperature

There is no extreme of very high or very low temperatures in PNG. This is because of its oceanic
location being surrounded by water on all sides. The greatest differences in temperatures between
different parts of PNG are due to altitude.

5.2.1.2.1 Frosts

At high altitudes, low mean minimum temperatures during dry weather and clear nights lead to high
losses of heat to the atmosphere at night. Such conditions can result in ground frost. Regular ground
frost at altitudes above 2700m set the upper altitudinal limit for the growing of crops.

5.2.1.3 Relative humidity

*Relative humidity has no direct influence on the distribution of crops, but high relative humidity
make the spread of fungal diseases like taro blight and cocoa black pod very fast and also makes it
difficult to control them.

5.2.2 Soil Factors

We can define a good soil as one which is easy to work, has adequate plant nutrients, can hold enough
water for crop growth during rainless periods (consistent with being adequately drained) has adequate
aeration and is free of salinity or other substance toxic to plants. All these add up to say a good
agricultural soil is a deep loam, with adequate organic matter and good structure. Soils characteristics
which influence what crops can be grown on them are;

1. Soil moisture 7. Soil air

2. Soil texture 8. Soil temperature
3. Soil structure 9. Soil mineral matter
4. Soil fertility 10. Soil organic matter
5. Soil depth 11. Soil organisms
6. Slope 12. Soil reactions

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1. Soil moisture
• Water is a principal constituent of growing plant which it extracts from soil
• Water is essential for photosynthesis
• The moisture range between field capacity and permanent wilting point is available to
plants.
• Available moisture will be more in clay soil than sandy soil
• Soil water helps in chemical and biological activities of soil including mineralization
• It influences the soil environment Eg. it moderates the soil temperature from extremes
• Nutrient availability and mobility increases with increase in soil moisture content.
2. Soil air
• Aeration of soil is absolutely essential for the absorption of water by roots
• Germination is inhibited in the absence of oxygen
• O is required for respiration of roots and microorganisms.
2

• Soil air is essential for nutrient availability of the soil by breaking down insoluble mineral
to soluble salts
• For proper decomposition of organic matter
• Potato, tobacco, cotton linseed, tea and legumes need higher O in soil air
2

• Rice requires low level of O and can tolerate water logged (absence of O2) condition.
2

3. Soil temperature
• It affects the physical and chemical processes going on in the soil.
• It influences the rate of absorption of water and solutes (nutrients)
• It affects the germination of seeds and growth rate of underground portions of the crops
like tapioca, sweet potato.
• Soil temperature controls the microbial activity and processes involved in the nutrient
availability
• Cold soils are not conducive for rapid growth of most of agricultural crops

4. Soil mineral matter

• The mineral content of soil is derived from the weathering of rocks and minerals as
particles of different sizes.
• These are the sources of plant nutrients eg; Ca, Mg, S, Mn, Fe, K etc
5. Soil Organic matter
• It supplies all the major, minor and micro nutrients to crops
• It improves the texture of the soil
• It increases the water holding capacity of the soil,
• It is a source of food for most microorganisms

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 • Organic acids released during decomposition of organic matter enables mineralization
process thus releasing unavailable plant nutrients

6. Soil organisms:
• The raw organic matter in the soil is decomposed by different microorganisms which in
turn releases the plant nutrients
• Atmospheric nitrogen is fixed by microbes in the soil and is available to crop plants
through symbiotic (Rhizobium) or non-symbiotic (Azospirillum) association

1. Soil texture
A good loam as clearly seen is the best soil for most crops. As far as ease of work is concerned, a light
sandy loam is preferable, but such a soil tends to be infertile and tends not to have adequate water
holding capacity. But there are crops which can grow adequately i.e., they can tolerate a very sandy
soil. Examples are coconut, cashew, mango and cassava. It is often preferred to grow root crops and
peanuts on lighter soils so that there is no restriction in the growth of the underground organ which
provides the desired yield. On the other hand, crops like sugarcane, cotton, rice, taro and sago can
grow on heavy clays like Vertisols which are poorly drained and therefore too poorly aerated for most
other crops. In fact, rice, taro and sago may even prefer the heavy clayey soils. Soil texture cannot be
changed by agricultural practice. Heavy soils can be made more useable through drainage, but the
texture does not alter. On the other hand, pure sands can be improved by the addition of large
quantities of organic matter. It is therefore important to ensure that the soil texture is suitable for the
crop to be grown.

2. Soil depth
Deep soils, deeper than 2m are preferred because; they form a bigger store for moisture and nutrients.
On such deep soils crops can grow for long periods of time without needing rainfall. Deep rooted
perennial crops can grow for periods of 3 months or more in such soils. As a general rule, perennial
crops require deeper soils than annual crops. Perennial crops which can tolerate shallow soils include
Robusta coffee, citrus and pineapple. Most annual crops do not have deep rooted system so shallower
soils should be used for annual crops or pastures.

3. Soil pH
Soil pH influences the availability of plant nutrients in the soil, and since different crops have
different preferences and ability to extract nutrients, pH will have an effect on the distribution of
crops. pH value higher than 7.5 lead to fixation of phosphate, copper, manganese and zinc and
toxicity due to molybdenum and boron. Tea prefers acidic soils so it is grown in the drain peaty soils

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of the Waghi Valley and in the Garaina which have acidic soils. The sago palm grows very well in
swamps where the soil pH is very low. Most tropical crops have a preference for acidic pH values of
5-7, whereas temperate crops and some herbage legumes grown in the Highlands prefer alkaline
conditions. Soil pH to a certain extent be modified; thus, soil pH can be raised by the use of lime, and
it can be lowered by long term use of heavy doses of acidic fertilizers like ammonium sulphate ;
raising soil pH is much easier than lowering it.

Source:http://www.avocadosource.com/tools/fertcalc_files/ph.htm

1. Soil fertility
The fertility of the soil is judged by the plant nutrients the soil contains. This is determined by the
nature of minerals the soil contains and organic matter. Thus, young volcanic soils have a high native
fertility while the highly weathered Oxisols have much fewer plant nutrients. Soil fertility can be
improved by the judicious use of manures and fertilizers or by allowing the land to revert to natural
vegetation for a long period of time as is done traditionally in most parts of the country.

2. Soil structure

A soil is said to have structure if its individual particles are bound together to form crumbs. Soils with
adequate organic matter content form crumbs more readily. A soil with good soil structure grows
better crops and is less readily erodible. Structure is built up when the soil is rested under natural
vegetation or a sown fallow. Structure breaks down very rapidly during the cropping period especially
if heavy machinery is used. It is however difficult to quantify the effect of soil structure on the yield
of crops and their distribution.

3. Slope
Although slope is not a characteristic, it indirectly determines the type of soil that is developed on a
particular site. Further steep slope makes it easier for soils to be eroded away by rainfall. Soil on steep

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slopes needs to be protected at all times. Crops which completely cover the ground throughout the
year e.g. perennial crop like tea can be more safely grown on steep slopes than annual crops like corn
which leave the ground exposed for parts of the season thereby exposing it to serious erosion.
5.2.3 Socio Economic Factors
As we have seen, the ecological factors determine whether it is possible to grow a particular crop in a
particular area or not. Weather the crop is actually grown there commercially is determined by socio
economic factors.
We can divide these into;
1. Social Factors
2. Political factors
3. Economic factors
4. Agrarian-infrastructure

5.2.3.1 Social Factors;

Factors like food preference, ethnic taboos, religious taboos, knowledge health and others are
included here. People will only grow those food crops which they like to eat and which they know,
although it may be possible to grow a much wider range of crops in a particular area. Due to lack of
knowledge valuable food is wasted e.g. Oil palm fruit in West New Britain is allowed to rot due to
low prices which can be cooked and eaten as coconut as practiced in other parts of the world.

5.2.3.2 Political Factors

Government policy could encourage the growing of certain crops in the country as import
replacement. If research and extension services are provided and government backed finance is
provided, this could strongly influence the distribution of crops within the country. The distribution of
crops which require large capital injections for processing facilities as is the case with tea, oil palm
and sugar cane, are more easily controlled in this way. Political direction could also influence the
distribution of crops by infra-structure for the growing of a particular crop and through making
farming land available in certain areas.

5.2.3.3 Economic factors

In a free economy like that of PNG farmers grows those crops which give them the greatest cash
returns. Arabica coffee in the highlands and cocoa in the Gazelle Peninsula are good examples.
Having seen the returns from such crops, farmers are always keen to grow them. At its extreme, this
could lead to shortage of land for growing food crops and greater dependence on imported food. The
availability of market is another economic factor which can greatly influence the distribution of crops.
Availability of capital to invest in capital intensive enterprises could greatly influence the location of
such enterprises.

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5.2.3.4 Agrarian infra-structure

Infrastructure refers to the services drawn from the set of public works that traditionally has been
supported by the public sector, though in many cases the infrastructure services may be produced in
the private sector. Water supply, sanitation, transport, electricity, telecommunications, irrigation
dams, regulated markets and banks are some of the examples of infrastructure that generate services.
Education and technical knowledge can also influence the distribution of crops. Health care and
educational facilities could encourage the opening up of some areas for cropping. Availability of
transport can influence the location of certain crops. Road network in PNG is not adequate and
because of the rugged nature of the country it is too expensive to build more roads in certain areas.
Well organized markets and processing facilities can influence the distribution of crops.

Test 1 Solutions

Q1. Describe how agriculture or crop production began and developed overtime.

Early man lived on wild game, leaves, roots, seeds, barriers, and fruits. As the population increased,
the food supply was not always sufficient stable or plentiful to supply his needs. This probably led to
the practises of crop production.
However, crop production began about 9000years ago in several locations around the world when
men see that food is becoming scarce and he needs to cater for his needs.

Q2. List five disciplines in crop production and state its importance.

Agronomy, soil science, entomology, pathology, and microbiology

Their aim is to have better food production and how to will control diseases and other environmental
factors that may cause hindrance to the economic yield.

Q3. Crop production has a lot of importance; illustrate an example for

a. Do import replacement
If we start growing rice here and if it is sufficient enough to distribute throughout all of PNG, then
there is no need for import of rice.

b. Provide employment indirectly or directly

Provide employment directly when large companies they provide employment to the people whereas
indirectly are substance farmers.

Q4. State and explain the importance of studying the origin and distribution of crop plants.

As a result of domestication plants have changed dramatically and its true ancestors cannot be truly
identified and also the level of genetic diversity was greatly reduced. So the study of the origin and
distribution of crop plants is important in order to locate wild relatives, related species, and new
genes. These can help plant breeders to obtain the genes. For example disease resistance to breed with
the current breed to produce hybrid that have high yield as well as the disease resistance.

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Q5. There are different factors that affect the distribution of crops, explain these factors

a. Soil pH
The study of soil pH is very important in agriculture due to the fact that soil pH regulates plants
nutrient availability by controlling the chemical forms of the different nutrients and also influences
their chemical reactions. As a result, soil and crop production

b. Agrarian infrastructure
Availability of transport can influence the location of certain crops. Road network in PNG is not
adequate and because of the rugged nature of the country it is too expensive to build more roads in
certain areas. Well organized markets and processing facilities can influence the distribution of crops.

Q6. Calculations.
Show all working out for your calculation

a. If I have 70 tomato seedlings to be planted on 10m2 plot, calculate the plant density.
Formula: Density = total plant/total area

b. Find out how many tomatoes I would require, if the spacing requirement is 70 cm x 90 cm,
and I have an area of 10m2.
Formula: Plant population = (100,000 000/ha/space in row in cm x width in cm)

Supplementary Test #2 solutions

Part B. short answer questions

1. The art of crop production is older than civilization and its essential features have remained
unchanged science the dawn of history. List any three features.

1. gathering and preservation of seeds of the desired crop plants

2. destroying other kinds of vegetation growing on the land
3. stirring the soil to form a seedbed
4. planting when the season and weather are right as shown by past experience
5. destroying weeds
6. protecting the crop from natural enemies, and
7. Gathering, processing and storing the product.
2. Explain how Biological, Ecological and soico economic factors have an effect on the
distribution of crops. Explain each with an example.

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