Fundamentals of Thermal Radıatıon 1
Fundamentals of Thermal Radıatıon 1
Fundamentals of Thermal Radıatıon 1
Chapter 12
Fundamentals of Thermal
Radıatıon
© 2020 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.
No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Objectives
Classify electromagnetic radiation, and identify thermal
radiation.
Understand the idealized blackbody, and calculate the total
and spectral blackbody emissive power.
Calculate the fraction of radiation emitted in a specified
wavelength band using the blackbody radiation functions.
Understand the concept of radiation intensity, and define
spectral directional quantities using intensity.
Developp a clear understanding g of the p
properties
p emissivity,
y,
absorptivity, reflectivity, and transmissivity on spectral and
total basis.
Apply Kirchhoff law’s to determine the absorptivity of a
surface when its emissivity is known.
© McGraw-Hill Education 2
1
22‐11‐2020
Introduction 1
The hot object in vacuum chamber will Radiation differs from conduction
eventually cool down and reach and convection in that it does not
thermal equilibrium with its require the presence of a material
surroundings by a heat transfer medium to take place.
mechanism: radiation. Radiation transfer occurs in solids as
well as liquids and gases.
FIGURE 12–2
Unlike conduction and convection, heat transfer
by radiation can occur
FIGURE 12–1 between two bodies, even when they are separated
A hot object in a vacuum chamber by a medium colder than both.
loses heat by radiation only.
© McGraw-Hill Education 3
Introduction 2
Accelerated charges or changing electric currents give rise to electric and magnetic
fields. These rapidly moving fields are called electromagnetic waves or
electromagnetic radiation, and they represent the energy emitted by matter as a
result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.
Electromagnetic waves transport energy just like other waves and they are
characterized by their frequency or wavelength . These two properties in a
medium are related by
c
c c0 / n
v
c, the speed of propagation of a wave in that medium
c0 2.9979 108 m/s, the speed of light in a vacuum
n, the index of refraction of that medium
n =1 for air and most ggases, n = 1.5 for gglass, and n = 1.33 for water
It has proven useful to view electromagnetic radiation as the propagation of a collection
of discrete packets of energy called photons or quanta. In this view, each photon of
frequency n is considered to have an energy of
hc
e hv The energy of a photon is inversely proportional to its wavelength.
h 6.626069 10 34 J s is Planck's constant:
© McGraw-Hill Education 4
2
22‐11‐2020
Thermal Radiation 1
Thermal Radiation 2
FIGURE 12–4
Everything around us constantly emits thermal radiation.
© McGraw-Hill Education 6
3
22‐11‐2020
Thermal Radiation 3
Light is simply the visible portion of the A body that emits some radiation in the
electromagnetic spectrum that lies visible range is called a light source.
between 0.40 and 0.76 m. The sun is our primary light source.
Table 12-1 The electromagnetic
g radiation emitted byy
The wavelength ranges of different colors the sun is known as solar radiation, and
Color Wavelength Band
nearly all of it falls into the wavelength
Violet 0.40 to 0.44 m band 0.3–3 m.
Blue 0.44 to 0.49 m Almost half of solar radiation is light (i.e.,
Green 0.49 to 0.54 m it falls into the visible range), with the
Yellow 0.54 to 0.60 m remaining being ultraviolet and infrared.
Orange 0.60 to 0.67 m
Red 0.63 to 0.76 m
The radiation
Th di ti emitted
itt d by
b bodies
b di att room temperature
t t falls
f ll into
i t the
th infrared
i f d region
i off the
th
spectrum, which extends from 0.76 to 100 m.
The ultraviolet radiation includes the low-wavelength end of the thermal radiation
spectrum and lies between the wavelengths 0.01 and 0.40 m. Ultraviolet rays are to be
avoided since they can kill microorganisms and cause serious damage to humans and
other living beings.
About 12 percent of solar radiation is in the ultraviolet range. The ozone (O3) layer in the
atmosphere acts as a protective blanket and absorbs most of this ultraviolet radiation.
© McGraw-Hill Education 7
Thermal Radiation 4
FIGURE 12–5
Food is heated or cooked in a microwave oven
by absorbing the electromagnetic radiation
energy generated by the magnetron of the oven.
© McGraw-Hill Education 8
4
22‐11‐2020
Blackbody Radiation 1
• Different bodies may emit different amounts of radiation per unit surface area.
• A blackbody emits the maximum amount of radiation by a surface at a given
temperature.
• It is an idealized body to serve as a standard against which the radiative properties
of real surfaces may be compared.
• A blackbody is a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation.
• A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and direction.
Eb T T 4 W/m 2
© McGraw-Hill Education 9
Blackbody Radiation 2
C1
Eb , T
5 exp C2 / T 1
W/m 2
μm Planck’s
law
FIGURE 12–8
C1 2 hc02 3.74177 108 W μm 4 / m 2 A large isothermal cavity at
temperature T with a small
C2 hc
h 0 / k 1.43878
1 43878 104 μm K opening of area A closely
resembles a blackbody of
surface area A at the same
k 1.38065 10 23 J/K Boltzmann’s constant
temperature.
© McGraw-Hill Education 10
5
22‐11‐2020
Blackbody Radiation 3
FIGURE 12–9
The variation of the blackbody emissive power
with wavelength for several temperatures.
© McGraw-Hill Education 11
Blackbody Radiation 4
© McGraw-Hill Education 12
6
22‐11‐2020
W/m
Eb T Eb , T d T 4 2
0
FIGURE 12–11
FIGURE 12–10 On an Eb − chart, the area under a curve
A surface that reflects red while for a given temperature represents the total
absorbing the remaining parts of the radiation energy emitted by a blackbody at
incident light appears red to the eye. that temperature.
© McGraw-Hill Education 13
The radiation energy emitted by a blackbody per unit area over a wavelength
band from = 0 to is
W/m
Eb , 0 T Eb , T d 2
Blackbody radiation function f:
0
The fraction of radiation emitted
from a blackbody at temperature T
in the wavelength band from = 0
to .
Eb , T d
f T 0
T 4
f 1 2 T f 2 T f 1 T
FIGURE 12–13
On an Eb– chart, the area under the curve to the left of the 1 line represents the radiation
energy emitted by a blackbody in the wavelength range 0–1 for the given temperature.
© McGraw-Hill Education 14
7
22‐11‐2020
2 1
Eb , T d Eb , T d
f 1 2 T 0
0
f 2 T f 1 T
T 4
FIGURE 12–14
Graphical representation of the fraction of radiation emitted in the wavelength band from 1 to 2 .
© McGraw-Hill Education 15
Table 12-2
Blackbody radiation functions f
T , μm K f T , μm K f
200 0.000000 6200 0.754140
400 0.000000 6400 0.769234
600 0.000000 6600 0.783199
800 0.000016 6800 0.796129
1000 0.000321 7000 0.808109
1200 0.002134 7200 0.819217
1400 0.007790 7400 0.829527
1600 0.019718 7600 0.839102
1800 0.039341 7800 0.848005
2000 0.066728 8000 0.856288
2200 0.100888 8500 0.874608
2400 0.140256 9000 0.890029
2600 0.183120 9500 0.903085
2800 0.227897 10,000 0.914199
3000 0.273232 10,500 0.923710
© McGraw-Hill Education 16
8
22‐11‐2020
T , μm K f T , μm K f
3200 0.318102 11,000 0.931890
3400 0.361735 11,500 0.939959
3600 0.403607 12,000 0.945098
3800 0.443382 13,000 0.955139
4000 0.480877 14,000 0.962898
4200 0.516014 15,000 0.969981
4400 0.548796 16,000 0.973814
4600 0.579280 18,000 0.980860
4800 0.607559 20,000 0.985602
5000 0.633747 25,000 0.992215
5200 0.658970 30,000 0.995340
5400 0.680360 40,000 0.997967
5600 0.701046 50,000 0.998953
5800 0.720158 75,000 0.999713
6000 0.737818 100,000 0.999905
© McGraw-Hill Education 17
FIGURE 12–16
Radiation intensity is used to describe the
variation of radiation energy with direction.
© McGraw-Hill Education 18
9
22‐11‐2020
Solid Angle
Now consider a watermelon, and let its attempt to quantify the size of a slice.
g we can do it by
Again y specifying
p y g the outer surface area of the slice (the
( green
g
part), or by working with angles for generality. Connecting all points at the edges
of the slice to the center in this case will form a three-dimensional body (like a
cone whose tip is at the center), and thus the angle at the center in this case is
properly called the solid angle. The solid angle is denoted by , and its unit is the
steradian (sr). In analogy to plane angle, we can say that the area of a surface on
a sphere of unit radius is equivalent in magnitude to the solid angle it subtends
(both are 4𝜋 for a sphere of radius r = 1).
This can be shown easily by considering a differential surface area on a sphere
dS r 2 sin θ dθ d, as shown in Fig. 12-18, and integrating it from θ = 0 to
θ = 𝜋, and from = 0 to = 2𝜋. We get
2
S dS
0 0
r 2 sin d 2 r 2
0
sin d 4 r 2 12 - 10
Sphere
FIGURE 12–17
which is the formula for the area of a sphere. For r = 1 it reduces to S = 4𝜋,
and thus the solid angle associated with a sphere is = 4𝜋 sr. For a hemi- Describing the size of a slice
sphere, which is more relevant to radiation emitted or received by a surface, of pizza by a plane angle and
it is = 2𝜋 sr. the size of a watermelon slice
by a solid angle.
© McGraw-Hill Education 19
The differential solid angle d subtended by a differential area dS on a sphere of radius r can be expressed as
dS
d sin d d 12 - 11
r2
Note
N t that
th t the
th area dS is
i normall to
t the
th direction
di ti off viewing
i i sincei dS is
i viewed
i d from
f the
th center
t off the
th sphere.
h In
I
general, the differential solid angle d sub-tended by a differential surface area dA when viewed from a point at a
dis-tance r from dA is expressed as
dAn dA cos
d 12 - 12
r2 r2
where α is the angle between the normal of the surface and the direction of viewing, and thus dAn = dA cos α is the
normal (or projected) area to the direction of viewing.
Small surfaces viewed from relatively large distances can approximately be treated as differential areas in solid
angle calculations. For example, the solid angle subtended by a 5 cm 2 plane surface when viewed from a point
at a dis-tance of 80 cm along the normal of the surface is
An 5 cm 2
7.81 104 sr
r 2 80 cm 2
If the surface is tilted so that the normal of the surface makes an angle of α = 60° with the line connecting the point
of viewing to the center of the surface, the projected area would be dAn dA cos 5 cm 2 cos 60o 2.5 cm 2 ,
and the solid angle in this case would be half of the value just determined.
© McGraw-Hill Education 20
10
22‐11‐2020
The radiation flux for emitted radiation is the emissive power E (the rate at which radiation energy is emitted per
unit area of the emitting surface), which can be expressed in differential form as
dQ&e
dE I e , cos sin d d 12 - 14
dA
FIGURE 12–18
The emission of radiation
from a differential surface
element into the surrounding
hemispherical space through
a differential solid angle.
© McGraw-Hill Education 21
Noting that the hemisphere above the surface intercepts all the radiation rays emitted by the surface, the emissive
power from the surface into the hemi-sphere surrounding it can be determined by integration as
W/m
2 /2
E dE I e , cos sin d d 2
12 - 15
0 0
hemisphere
© McGraw-Hill Education 22
11
22‐11‐2020
Incident Radiation
All surfaces emit radiation, but they also receive radiation emitted or reflected by other surfaces. The intensity of
incident radiation Ii ((θ,, ) is defined as the rate at which radiation energy
gy dG is incident from
f ( , ) direction
the (θ,
per unit area of the receiving surface normal to this direction and per unit solid angle about this direction (Fig.
12–20). Here θ is the angle between the direction of incident radiation and the normal of the surface.
The radiation flux incident on a surface from all directions is called irradiation G, and is expressed as
W/m
2 2 /
G dG I i , cos sin d d 2
12 - 19
0 0
hemisphere
Again note that irradiation is based on the actual surface area (and
thus the factor cos θ), whereas the intensity of incident radiation is FIGURE 12–20
based on the projected area.
Radiation incident on a surface
in the direction (, ).
© McGraw-Hill Education 23
Radiosity
Surfaces emit radiation as well as reflecting it, and thus the radiation leaving a surface consists of emitted and
p
reflected components, , as shown in Fig.
g 12–21. The calculation of radiation heat transfer between surfaces involves
the total radiation energy streaming away from a surface, with no regard for its origin. Thus, we need to define a
quantity that represents the rate at which radiation energy leaves a unit area of a surface in all directionst. This
quantity is called the radiosity J, and is expressed as
W/m
2 /2
J I e r , cos sin d d 2
12 - 21
0 0
© McGraw-Hill Education 24
12
22‐11‐2020
Spectral Quantities
But sometimes it is necessary to consider the variation of radiation with wave-length as
well as direction, and to express quantities at a certain wavelength or per unit
wavelength interval about . Such quantities are referred to as spectral quantities to draw
attention to wavelength dependence. The modifier "spectral" is used to indicate "at a
given wavelength."
The spectral radiation intensity I (, θ, ), for example, is simply the total radiation
intensity I(θ, ) per unit wavelength interval about . The spectral intensity for emitted
radiation I, e (, θ, ) can be defined as the rate at which radiation energy dQ&e
is emitted at the wavelength in the (θ, ) direction per unit area normal to this direction,
per unit solid angle about this direction, and it can be expressed as
dQ&e
I , e , ,
dA cos d d
W/m
/ 2
sr μm 12 - 23
W/m
2 /2
E I , e , , cos sin d d 2
12 - 24
0 0
Similar relations can be obtained for spectral irradiation G, and spectral radiosity J by
replacing I, e in this equation by I, i and I, e + r, respectively.
© McGraw-Hill Education 25
When the variation of spectral radiation intensity I with wavelength is known, the total
radiation intensity I for emitted, incident, and emitted + reflected radiation can be
determined by integration over the entire wave-length spectrum as (Fig. 12-22)
Ie I, e d ,
0
Ii I , i d ,
0
and I e r I , e r d
0
12 - 25
These intensities can then be used in Eqs. 12-15, 12-19, and 12-21 to determine the
emissive power E, irradiation G, and radiosity J, respectively.
Similarly, when the variations of spectral radiation fluxes E, G, and J with
wavelength are known, the total radiation fluxes can be determined by integration over
the entire wavelength spectrum as
E E d ,
0
G G d ,
0
and J J d
0
12 - 26
When the surfaces and the incident radiation are diffuse, the spectral radiation fluxes are
related to spectral intensities as
13
22‐11‐2020
Note that the relations for spectral and total radiation quantities are of the same form.
The spectral intensity of radiation emitted by a blackbody at a thermody-namic
temperature T at a wavelength A has been determined by Max Planck, and is expressed as
2hc02
I b , T =
exp hc0 / kT 1
5 W/m 2
sr μm 12 - 28
© McGraw-Hill Education 27
Most materials encountered in practice, such as metals, wood, and bricks, are opaque to
thermal radiation, and radiation is considered to be a surface phenomenon for such materials.
Radiation through semitransparent materials such as glass and water cannot be considered to
be a surface phenomenon since the entire volume of the material interacts with radiation.
radiation
A blackbody can serve as a convenient reference in describing the emission and absorption
characteristics of real surfaces.
Emissivity
• Emissivity: The ratio of the radiation emitted by the surface at a given temperature to
the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature. 0 1.
• Emissivity
E i i it isi a measure off how
h closely
l l a surface
f approximates
i t a blackbody
bl kb d (
( = 1).
1)
• The emissivity of a real surface varies with the temperature of the surface as well as
the wavelength and the direction of the emitted radiation.
• The emissivity of a surface at a specified wavelength is called spectral emissivity .
The emissivity in a specified direction is called directional emissivity where is the
angle between the direction of radiation and the normal of the surface.
© McGraw-Hill Education 28
14
22‐11‐2020
I , e , , , T
, , , , T spectral directional emissivity
I b , T
I e , , T
, , T total directional emissivity
I b T
E , T
,T spectral hemispherical emissivity
Eb , T
E T
T total hemispherical emissivity
Eb T
The ratio of the total radiation energy
E T , T Eb , T d emitted by the surface to the radiation
T 0
emitted by a blackbody of the same
Eb T T 4 surface area at the same temperature
© McGraw-Hill Education 29
1 constant, 0 < 1
2 constant, 1 < 2
3 constant, 2 <
1 2
1 Eb d 2 Eb d 3 Eb d
T
2
0
1
Eb Eb Eb
1 f 0 1 T 2 f 1 2 T 3 f 2 T
FIGURE 12–24
Approximating the actual variation of
emissivity with wavelength by a step function.
© McGraw-Hill Education 30
15
22‐11‐2020
A surface is said to be diffuse if its properties are independent of direction, and gray if its
properties are independent of wavelength.
The gray and diffuse approximations are often utilized in radiation calculations.
I radiation
In di i analysis,
l i iti is
i common practice i to assume the
h surfaces
f to bbe diff
diffuse emitters
i
with an emissivity equal to the value in the normal ( = 0) direction.
Real surface:
εθ ≠ constant
ε ≠ constant
is the angle measured
from the normal of the
Diffuse surface: surface
εθ = constant
Grayy surface:
f
ε = constant
© McGraw-Hill Education 31
FIGURE 12–27
Comparison of the emissivity (a) and emissive power (b) of a real surface with those of
a gray surface and a blackbody at the same temperature.
Access the text alternative for slide images.
© McGraw-Hill Education 32
16
22‐11‐2020
FIGURE 12–28
The variation of normal emissivity with (a) wavelength and (b) temperature for various materials.
© McGraw-Hill Education 33
FIGURE 12–29
Typical ranges of emissivity for various materials.
Access the text alternative for slide images.
© McGraw-Hill Education 34
17
22‐11‐2020
1
1 for opaque surfaces
FIGURE 12–31
The absorption, reflection, and transmission of
incident radiation by a semitransparent material.
© McGraw-Hill Education 35
© McGraw-Hill Education 36
18
22‐11‐2020
© McGraw-Hill Education 37
Eemit T 4
As T 4 As T 4
ε (T) = α (T) Kirchhoff’s law
The total hemispherical emissivity of a surface at
temperature T is equal to its total hemispherical
absorptivity for radiation coming from a blackbody
at the same temperature.
p
© McGraw-Hill Education 38
19
22‐11‐2020
Summary
Introduction.
Thermal Radiation.
Blackbody Radiation.
Radiation Intensity.
• Solid Angle.
• Intensity of Emitted Radiation.
• Incident Radiation.
• Radiosity.
• Spectral Quantities.
Radiative Properties.
Properties
• Emissivity.
• Absorptivity, Reflectivity, and Transmissivity.
• Kirchhoff’s Law.
• The Greenhouse Effect.
20