Linear motion in 2 and 3 dimensions

Position and displacement

• The position vector 𝑟⃗ is usually used to locate a particle with respect to a reference point
(usually the origin).
• In unit-vector notation, it is represented as

𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂

where 𝑥𝑖̂, 𝑦𝑗̂, and 𝑧𝑘̂ are vector components of 𝑟⃗ and the coefficients x, y and z are the scalar
components, and they give the particles location along the coordinate axes relative to the origin.

• As the particle moves, its position vector changes in such a way that the vector always
extends to the particle displacement from the reference point (the origin). For instance if the
position vector changes from 𝑟⃗1 to 𝑟⃗2 during a certain time interval, the particle’s
displacement ∆𝑟⃗ during this time interval is given as
∆𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗2 − 𝑟⃗1

Using unit-vector

∆𝑟⃗ = (𝑥2 𝑖̂ + 𝑦2 𝑗̂ + 𝑧2 𝑘̂) − (𝑥1 𝑖̂ + 𝑦1 𝑗̂ + 𝑧1 𝑘̂)

= (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖̂ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗̂ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝑘̂

= ∆𝑥𝑖̂ + ∆𝑦𝑗̂ + ∆𝑧𝑘̂

Calculated example

A rabbit runs across a parking lot on which a set of coordinate (m) are given as

𝑥 = −0.31 𝑡 2 + 7.2𝑡 + 28

𝑦 = 0.22𝑡 2 − 9.1𝑡 + 30

Find the rabbits’ position vector 𝑟⃗ in unit vector notation and in magnitude-angle notation at 𝑡 =
15 𝑠.
Average velocity and instantaneous velocity

If a particle moves through a displacement ∆𝑟⃗ in a time interval ∆𝑡, then its average velocity
𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 is

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙

∆𝑟⃗
𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∆𝑡

Since the vector components of ∆𝑟⃗ are ∆𝑥𝑖̂ + ∆𝑦𝑗̂ + ∆𝑧𝑘̂, then

∆𝑥𝑖̂ + ∆𝑦𝑗̂ + ∆𝑧𝑘̂ ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧

𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

The direction of the average velocity is in the direction of displacement

For example is a particle moves through a displacement (1.2 𝑚)𝑖̂ + (3.0𝑚)𝑗̂ in 2.0 s, its average
velocity is

(1.2𝑚)𝑖̂ + (3.0𝑚)𝑗̂
𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = (0.6 𝑚⁄𝑠)𝑖̂ + (1.5 𝑚⁄𝑠)𝑗̂
2𝑠

Instantaneous velocity is 𝑣⃗ at some instant. This 𝑣⃗ is the value of that 𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 approaches the limit
and the time interval ∆𝑡 is shrunk to 0 at some instant, i.e.

𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑣⃗ =
𝑑𝑡

The direction of instantaneous velocity 𝑣⃗ of a particle is always the tangent to the particles path
at the particle’s position. Substituting for 𝑟⃗ we obtain

𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑
𝑣⃗ = (𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂) = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

When the equation is simplified

𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑣𝑧 𝑘̂
The scalar components of 𝑣⃗ are

𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑣𝑥 = , 𝑣𝑦 = , 𝑣𝑧 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Example

A rabbit runs across a parking lot on which a set of coordinate (m) are given as

𝑥 = −0.31 𝑡 2 + 7.2𝑡 + 28

𝑦 = 0.22𝑡 2 − 9.1𝑡 + 30

Find the rabbits’ velocity at time 𝑡 = 15 𝑠.

Average acceleration and instantaneous acceleration

When the particle’s velocity changes from 𝑣⃗1 to 𝑣⃗2 in time interval ∆𝑡, its average acceleration
𝑎⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 is given as

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

𝑣⃗2 − 𝑣⃗1
𝑎⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
∆𝑡

The instantaneous acceleration is given as

𝑑𝑣⃗
𝑎⃗ =
𝑑𝑡

If the velocity changes in either magnitude or direction or both, the particle accelerates

Using unit vector, and substituting for 𝑣⃗ we obtain

𝑑 𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
𝑎⃗ = (𝑣𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑣𝑧 𝑘̂) = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

This can be rewritten as

𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂
Where the scalar components of 𝑎⃗ are

𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑣𝑧

𝑎𝑥 = , 𝑎𝑦 = , 𝑎𝑧 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

The acceleration vector does not extend from one position to another, rather the direction of
acceleration for a particle is located at its tail, and its length can be drawn to scale.

⃗⃗ at a time 𝒕 = 𝟏𝟓 𝒔
Using the above example, find the acceleration 𝒂

Projectile motion

- The acceleration of a particle moving in a vertical plane with instant velocity 𝑣⃗0 is always a
⃗⃗⃗, which is downwards.
free fall acceleration 𝒈
- The particle is called a projectile and the motion is called projectile motion,
- Consider a projectile motion of a object launched into space from the origin of a coordinate
system with launch velocity 𝑣⃗0 and at angle 𝜃
o The motion is a combination of the vertical motion (constant acceleration) and the
horizontal motion.
o It has the components 𝑣𝑥 and 𝑣𝑦 as shown in Fig. 1

Figure 1: Projectile motion of a particle launched from the origin with velocity 𝑣⃗0 and at an angle 𝜃
- Thus, the initial velocity will be given as
𝑣⃗0 = 𝑣0,𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑣0,𝑦 𝑗̂
 The component 𝑣⃗0,𝑥 and 𝑣⃗0,𝑦 are given as
𝑣0,𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃
𝑣0,𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃
- During its two-dimensional motion, the projectile’s position vector 𝑟⃗ and velocity vector 𝑣⃗
change continuously, but its acceleration vector 𝑎⃗ is always constant and always directed
vertically downward. The projectile has no horizontal acceleration (zero acceleration)

(a) Horizontal motion

- Since there is no horizontal acceleration (zero acceleration), the horizontal velocity
remains unchanged from its initial value of 𝑣0 throughout the motion.
- Thus, at time t, the projectile’s horizontal displacement 𝑥 − 𝑥0 from the initial position 𝑥0
is given as
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣0,𝑥 𝑡

(from 2nd equation of linear motion, 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣0,𝑥 𝑡 + 1⁄2 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2 ; the horizontal

acceleration 𝑎𝑥 = 0)
Since 𝑣0,𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃, then
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = (𝑣0 cos 𝜃)𝑡 (a)
(b) Vertical motion
- The vertical acceleration is constant (this is a free fall), such that the 2nd equation of linear
motion applies, and we substitute 𝑎𝑦 with −𝑔 since the acceleration is in the −𝑦 direction
(downwards)
𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑣0,𝑦 𝑡 − 1⁄2 𝑔𝑡 2

𝑦 − 𝑦0 = (𝑣0 sin 𝜃)𝑡 − 1⁄2 𝑔𝑡 2 (b)

where the initial velocity component 𝑣0,𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃
the 1st and 3rd equations of linear motion applies to the vertical motion
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡 (c)
𝑣 2 𝑦 = (𝑣0 sin 𝜃)2 − 2𝑔(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) (d)
(c) Trajectory

The equation of projectile (trajectory) is found by eliminating t in eqns. (a) and (b). let 𝑥0 = 0
and 𝑦0 = 0 at 𝑡 = 0. Then making t the subject of the formula in Eqn. 1

𝑥
𝑡=
𝑣0 cos 𝜃

Substituting value of t in Eqn. b

𝑥 𝑥 2
𝑦 = (𝑣0 sin 𝜃) ( ) − 1⁄2 𝑔 ( )
𝑣0 cos 𝜃 𝑣0 cos 𝜃

𝑔𝑥 2
𝑦 = (tan 𝜃)𝑥 − 2(𝑣 2
(e)
0 cos 𝜃)

Given that 𝑔, 𝜃 and 𝑣0 are constant, then eqn. (e) is of the form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 2 , where a and b are
constant. The equation is a parabola, so the path is parabolic.

(d) Horizontal range and maximum height

- Assume that a projectile is launched from the origin at time 𝑡0 = 0, with a velocity 𝑣0 as
shown in the Fig.2.
𝑅
- The peak, A, on the cartesian coordinate is at ( 2 , ℎ) and point B has the coordinate (𝑅, 0).

The distance R is called horizontal range and h is the maximum height

At maximum height, A, the velocity 𝑣𝑦,𝐴 = 0 and from

eqn. (c),

𝑣𝑦,𝐴 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡𝐴

0 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡𝐴

𝑣0 sin 𝜃
𝑡𝐴 =
𝑔

Since 𝑦 = ℎ at maximum height, then substituting

𝑡𝐴 in eqn. (b) then
 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 1 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 2
ℎ = (𝑣0 sin 𝜃) ( ) − ⁄2 𝑔 ( )
𝑔 𝑔

𝑣0 2 sin2 𝜃 1
ℎ= − ⁄2𝑔 𝑣0 2 sin2 𝜃
𝑔

𝑣0 2 sin2 𝜃
ℎ= (f)
2𝑔

Given that the horizontal velocity does not change,

𝑣𝑥,0 = 𝑣𝑥,𝐵 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃

Setting 𝑋𝐵 = 𝑅 at 𝑡 = 2𝑡𝐴 and using Eqn. (a) then

𝑅 = 𝑣𝑥,0 𝑡𝐵 = (𝑣0 cos 𝜃)2𝑡𝐴

𝑣0 sin 𝜃
= (𝑣0 cos 𝜃)2 ( )
𝑔

2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
= 𝑣0 2
𝑔

From trigonometry sin 2𝜃 = 2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃, thus

𝑣0 2 sin 2𝜃
𝑅= (g)
𝑔

The maximum value of sin 2𝜃 is 1 which occurs when 2𝜃 = 90𝑜 , Thus R is maximum when
𝜃 = 45𝑜

Calculated examples

1. A jumper leaves the ground at an angle of 20.0o above the horizontal and at a speed of
11.0 m/s.
a. How far does he jump in the horizontal direction? (assume his motion is
equivalent to that of a particle)
b. What is the maximum height reached?
 2. A stone is thrown from the top of a building upward at an angle of 30.0o to the horizontal
with an initial speed of 20.0 m/s. If the height of the building is 45.0 m,
a. How long does it take the stone to reach the ground?
b. What is the speed of the stone just before it strikes the ground?

Uniform circular motion

- A particle is in uniform circular motion if it travels around a circle or circular arc at

uniform speed. Although the speed does not vary, its direction changes. The direction is
always directed at a tangent to the circle in the direction of motion as shown in Fig. 3
- Since there is change in velocity, then the particle is said to be accelerating. However, the
acceleration is always directed radially inward as shown in Fig. 3. The magnitude of
acceleration is given as
𝑣2
𝑎=
𝑟
where r is the radius of the circle,
- The particle travels a distance equivalent to the circumference of the circle (2𝜋𝑟) in
time
2𝜋𝑟
𝑇=
𝑣
T is called period time, or period.