Unit I

Electromagnetic theory
 What do we got here??????????????????
 Scalar and vectors fields, concept of gradient, divergence
and curl, dielectric constant, Gauss theorem and Stokes
theorem (qualitative).
 Poisson and Laplace equations, continuity equation.
 Maxwell electromagnetic equations (differential and
integral forms)
 Physical significance of Maxwell equations.
 Ampere Circuital Law, Maxwell displacement current and
correction in Ampere Circuital Law.
1. Scalar and vectors fields, concept
of gradient, divergence
and curl, dielectric constant, Gauss
theorem and Stokes theorem
(qualitative).
Outline:

 Scalar and Vectors

 Dot product and cross product
 Unit vectors
 Scalar field
 Vector field
 Ordinary derivative
 Introduction to the ‘del’ operator or ‘nabla’
operator
 Introduction to Scalar and Vectors

Scalar: Scalar is a quantity which can be expressed by a

single number representing its magnitude.
Examples: mass, density and temperature.

Vector: Vector is a quantity which is specified by both

magnitude and direction.
Examples: Force, Velocity and Displacement.
 Basics about vectors

Four vector operations

(a)Addition of two vectors

(b) Multiplication by a scalar
(c)Dot product of two vectors
(d)Cross product of two vectors
 Addition of two vectors
(a)This rule generalizes the obvious procedure for combining
two displacements.
B
(A+B)
A A
(A+B)
B

e.g: three miles east followed by 4 miles north gets you

to the same place as 4 miles north followed by 3 miles
east.

Addition is commutative. i.e. A+B = B+A

Addition is also associative i.e. (A+B)+C= A+(B+C)
 Multiplication by a scalar

Multiplication of a vector by a positive scalar ‘m’

multiplies the magnitude but leaves the direction
unchanged.
( If ‘m’ is negative, the direction is reversed).

Scalar multiplication is distributive : m (A+B)= mA + mB

 Dot product of two vectors (Scalar Product)

The dot product of two vectors is defined by

𝑨 . 𝑩= 𝑨 𝑩 cos 𝜽, where θ is the angle they form when placed tail-to-tail.

Note that 𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩 are scalar quantities. The dot product is commutative.
𝑨 . 𝑩=𝑩 . 𝑨 𝐵
As well as distributive
𝜽
𝑨.(𝑩+𝑪)=𝑨 . 𝑩 + 𝑨 . 𝑪
𝐴
Geometrically 𝑨 . 𝑩 is the product of 𝑨 times the projection of 𝑩 along 𝑨 (or the product of 𝑩 times the
projection of 𝑨 along 𝑩)
 Projection of a Vector and Vector Components
• When we want a component of a vector along a particular direction, it is useful to think of
it as a projection.
• The projection always has length a cos q , where a is the length of the vector and q is the
angle between the vector and the direction along which you want the component.
• You should know how to write a vector in unit vector notation

Y
 
a  a x iˆ  a y ˆj or a  (a x , a y )

Just imagine a light falls on the vector a, then a
the length of shadow of the vector a on to the
desired axis, is it’s projection on that axis. q X
a cos q
 Projection of a Vector: Dot Product
• The dot product says something about how parallel
two vectors are.
• The dot product (scalar product) of two vectors can be
thought of as the projection of one onto the direction
of the other.

  B
• Components A  B  AB cosq 
 A
A  iˆ  A cosq  Ax ( A cosq ) B
q
A( B cosq )

 
A  B  Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz
 Projection of a Vector: Dot Product
• The dot product says something about how parallel two
vectors are.
• The dot product (scalar product) of two vectors can be
thought of as the projection of one onto the direction of
the other.

B
Projection is zero
• Components
 
A  B  AB cosq p/2

 A
A  iˆ  A cosq  Ax

 
A  B  Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz
 Cross product of two vectors
The Cross product of two vectors is defined by
𝐵
 
A  B  AB sin qnˆ 𝜽
Where 𝐧 is a unit vector ( vector of length 1) pointing perpendicular to the plane of A
𝐴
and B. 𝜽 is the angle between vector A and vector B, in the direction from vector A to
vector B. Please note, it is a vector product and the end result is also a vector. What
about the direction? We will discuss in subsequent slide…….
In or Out of the plane ? ……….Follow Right hand rule
Cross product is distributive :
  
     
A  B  C  ( A  B)  ( A  C)

But not Commutative: In fact

 
  
B  A   ( A  B)
 Vector algebra: component form

z z

k̂
Az kˆ
Ax iˆ y
iˆ y
ĵ Ay ˆ
j
x
x

A  Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ
Ax, Ay and Az are called components of A, geometrically these are the
projections of A vector along the x , y and z axis.
 Triple Products
scalar triple product:
A  ( B  C)  B  (C  A )  C  ( A  B) cyclic

So, it does not matter where the dot and cross are.
   
A  ( B  C )  ( ABC )
volume

Ax Ay Az
- An interchange of rows changes just the sign of a determinant.
A  (B  C)  Bx By Bz      
A  ( B  C )  ( A  B)  C
  
Cx Cy Cz  C  ( A  B)
  
 ( A  C )  B
vector triple product:

A  ( B  C)  B( A  C)  C( A  B)
bac - cab
rule
 Dot product and cross product of unit vectors
are mutually perpendicular unit vectors along the x, y , z axes
iˆ ĵ kˆ respectively

 iˆ.iˆ  ˆ j  kˆ.kˆ  1
j. ˆ
 iˆ. ˆ j.kˆ  kˆ.iˆ  0
j  ˆ

 iˆ  iˆ  ˆ
j ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0
 iˆ  ˆj  ˆj  iˆ  kˆ
 ˆj  kˆ   kˆ  ˆ j  iˆ
 kˆ  iˆ   iˆ  kˆ  ˆj
 Some vector operations rules
Rule 1: To add vectors , add like components.
 
A  B  ( Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ)  ( B x iˆ  B y ˆj  B z kˆ)
 ( Ax  B x )iˆ  ( Ay  B y ) ˆj  ( Az  B z )kˆ

Rule 2: To multiply by a scalar, multiply each component


aA  (aAx )iˆ  (aAy ) ˆj  (aAz )kˆ

Rule 3: To calculate the dot product, multiply like components and add.
 
A.B  ( Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ).(B x iˆ  B y ˆj  B z kˆ)
 Ax B x  Ay B y  Az B z
 Some vector operations rules-Continued

Rule 4: To calculate the cross product, form the determinant whose first
row is i^,j^,k^ whose second row is A( in component form) and whose
third row is B.

 
A  B  ( Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ)  ( B x iˆ  B y ˆj  B z kˆ)
 ( Ay B z  Az B y )iˆ  ( Az B x  Ax B z ) ˆj  ( Ax B y  Ay B x )kˆ

This expression can be written more easily as a determinant.

 Normalize a vector

• v is represented by n-tuple ( v1,v2,…vn)

• Magnitude (length): the distance from the tail to the head.

v  v  v2  ...  vn
1
2 2 2

• Normalization: Scale a vector to have a unity length, unit

vector,

𝒗
𝒗=
𝒗
 Application of vector multiplication
1) Dot product
 
A  B  AB cosq  Ax Bx  Ay B y  Az Bz
 
A B
2) Cross product
i j k  
   
A  B  Ax Ay Az , A  B  AB sin q A B
Bx By Bz

- Example
 
a) Work W  Fd cosq  F  d 
  
dW  F  dr

v
  
b) Torque   r F
   r sinq 
c) Angular velocity v    r q r
Vector relations in the three common coordinate systems
 Line, Surface and volume integrals
Line Integral/Linear Integral: It is an integral expression of the form

Where V is a vector function and dl is the infinitesimal displacement vector and the integral is to be carried out
along a prescribed path P from point A to point B. If the path in the question is a closed loop, we would put a
circle in the integral sign.

Ordinarily, the value of a line integral depends critically on the

path taken from a to b, but there is an important special class of
vector functions for which the line integral is independent of
path and is determined entirely by the end points. It will
be our business in due course to characterize this special class of
vectors. (A force that has this property is called conservative.)
 Surface Integral
A surface integral is an expression of the form

where v is again some vector function, and the integral is over a specified surface S. Here da is an infinitesimal
patch of area, with direction perpendicular to the surface. There are, of course, two directions perpendicular to
any surface, so the sign of a surface integral is intrinsically ambiguous. If the surface is closed (forming a
"balloon"), in which case we would again put a circle on the integral sign,
Ordinarily, the value of a surface integral depends on the particular surface chosen,
but there is a special class of vector functions for which it is independent of the
surface and is determined entirely by the boundary line
 Volume Integral
A volume integral is an expression of the form

where T is a scalar function and dr is an infinitesimal volume element. In Cartesian coordinates,

For example, if T is the density of a substance (which might vary from point to point), then the volume integral
would give the total mass. Occasionally we shall encounter volume integrals of vector functions:

because the unit vectors (i, y, and z) are constants, they come outside the integral.
 Derivation
 
• How do we show that A  B  Ax Bx  Ay?By  Az Bz

• Start with A  Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ

B  Bx iˆ  B y ˆj  Bz kˆ
 
• Then A  B  ( Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ)  ( Bx iˆ  B y ˆj  Bz kˆ)
 Ax iˆ  ( Bx iˆ  B y ˆj  Bz kˆ)  Ay ˆj  ( Bx iˆ  B y ˆj  Bz kˆ)  Az kˆ  ( Bx iˆ  B y ˆj  Bz kˆ)

iˆ  ˆj  0; iˆ  kˆ  0; ˆj  kˆ  0
• But
iˆ  iˆ  1; ˆj  ˆj  1; kˆ  kˆ  1
 
A  B  Axiˆ  Bxiˆ  Ay ˆj  By ˆj  Az kˆ  Bz kˆ
• So  Ax Bx  Ay By  Az Bz
 Derivation
 
• How do we show th at A  B  ( Ay Bz  Az B y )iˆ  ( Az Bx  Ax Bz ) ˆj? ( Ax B y  Ay Bx )kˆ

• Start with A  Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ

B  Bx iˆ  B y ˆj  Bz kˆ
 
• Then A  B  ( Ax iˆ  Ay ˆj  Az kˆ)  ( Bx iˆ  B y ˆj  Bz kˆ)
 Ax iˆ  ( Bx iˆ  B y ˆj  Bz kˆ)  Ay ˆj  ( Bx iˆ  B y ˆj  Bz kˆ)  Az kˆ  ( Bx iˆ  B y ˆj  Bz kˆ)

iˆ  ˆj  kˆ; iˆ  kˆ   ˆj; ˆj  kˆ  iˆ
• But
iˆ  iˆ  0; ˆj  ˆj  0; kˆ  kˆ  0
 
A  B  Ax iˆ  B y ˆj  Ax iˆ  Bz kˆ  Ay ˆj  Bx iˆ  Ay ˆj  Bz kˆ
• So  Az kˆ  Bx iˆ  Az kˆ  B y ˆj
Scalar Field
If at every point in a region, a scalar function
has a defined value, the region is called
a scalar field.
Example: Temperature distribution in a rod.

Or such as this temperature map

Ref: SIMUION
Vector Field
If at every point in a region, a vector function
has a defined value, the region is called
a vector field.

For example, the

velocity v of the
wind if varying
from place to
place.
(Hurricane)
Img. Ref: NASA
Another Example—( surface winds)
 Ordinary derivatives

If f(x) is a function of one or more variable, then what does the

derivative df/dx do for us?
Ans: It tells us how rapidly the function f(x) varies when we change
the x by a tiny amount dx.
 f 
df   dx
 x 
If we change x by an amount dx, then f changes by an amount df; the
derivative is the proportionality factor.
Geometrical interpretation: The derivative  f  is the slope of the
graph of f versus x  x 
f
Function varies
f slowly. Derivative is Function varies
small rapidly. Derivative is
not small

x
x
Now suppose we have a function of
three variable….. Say temperature
T(x,y,z) in a room.

How fast T vary?

We want to generalize the notion of

“derivative” to functions like T which
depends not on one but on three
variables.
The knowledge of partial derivatives tells us how T
changes when we alter three variables by infinitesimal
amounts dx, dy ,dz.

 T   T   T 
dT   dx   dy   dz
 x   y   z 

This equation is reminiscent to a dot product….

?
   T ˆ  T ˆ T ˆ 
dT   i j 
k . dxiˆ  dyˆj  dzkˆ 
 x y z 
  
 
  T . dl
where
  T ˆ T ˆ T ˆ 
T   i j k 
 x y z 

is the gradient of T. It is a vector

quantity with three components, it is
the generalized derivative (3D version).
 
Q. If  ( x, y, z )  xy  4 yz
2 2
Calculate 
at the position (2,1,0)
 Del Operator, Gradient, Divergence and Curl----
Vector operations
THE VECTOR DIFFERENTIAL OPERATOR DEL, written 𝜵, is defined by

This vector operator possesses properties analogous to those of ordinary vectors. It is also called ‘nabla’.
‘Nabla’ is neither a scalar or a vector, it is an operator.

Gradient or Gradient operation

Let 𝝋(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) be defined and differentiable at each point (x, y, z) in a certain region of space (i.e. 𝝋 defines a
differentiable scalar field). Then the gradient of 𝝋 , written 𝜵𝝋 or grad 𝝋, is defined by,

vector
Please note that the end product is a vector field. It tells us the rate of change of a scalar
quantity in a particular direction, lets say temperature.
Divergence or Divergence operation
It is a dot product between del operator and a vector.

And you observed, it is a scalar:

Right???
The name divergence is well chosen and it is a measure of how much the vector v spreads
out (diverges) or converges in from the point or out of a point in question.
Curl or Rotation operation
It is the cross product between del operator and any
vector and the end product is also a vector.

The name curl is also well chosen, it is a measure of how much the vector v swirls/rotates
around the point. Thus the three vectors in previous slide, all have zero curl (as you can
easily check for yourself), whereas the vector in bottom figure have a non-zero curl, pointing
in the z direction.
 The “del” operator

The gradient has the formal appearance of a vector, multiplying a scalar

( say T) 
ˆ  ˆ  ˆ  
T   i  j  k T
 x y z 
  
ˆ ˆ  ˆ
The term in the parenthesis is    i  j  k 
called “del”  x y z 
“del” is a vector operator that acts upon T not a vector that multiplies T.

It doesn't multiply T rather is an instruction to differentiate.


1. When it acts on a scalar function T : The gradient T 
2. When it acts on a vector function v, via dot product: The divergence   .v
3. When it acts on a vector function , via the cross product: The curl v
 Divergence Theorem
It converts volume integral to surface integral.

   Vd   V  nd

volume surface
The divergence of any vector in a closed volume
is numerically equal to the surface integral of the
same vector, taken around the same volume
inclosing
(surface which bounds the volume).

Stokes’ Theorem
It converts a surface integral to a line
integral. The curl of any vector taken
over a surface is numerically equal
to the line integral of the same
These two theorems are fundamental
vector surrounding the same
theorem of divergence and curl
surface.
 Laplacian Operator
       div grad 
2

     
 ( , , )( , , ) It always acts on a scalar
x y z x y z
  
2 2 2 quantity.
 2 2 2
x y z
 2  0 is Laplace' equation.
1  2
 2
2
is the wave equation.
a t 2
1 
 2
2
is the diffusion equation or equation of heat conduction
a t
 Cylindrical and spherical polar coordinate
Cylindrical:

Spherical:
 Some Useful Rules
f, g: Scalar quantity. 𝑨 and 𝑩 are vector quantities.
  
   f  g   f  g


 
   
  A B   A   B 
 
 


 
   
  A B   A   B 
 
 

  
   fg   f g  g f

 

  
  
 
 
   fA  f   A  A   f

 
 
  
     
   A B  B    A  A    B 

  
  
  
 
   fA  f   A  A   f
 Some Useful Rules
f, g: Scalar quantity. 𝑨 and 𝑩 are vector quantities.
𝑓 𝑔𝛻𝑓−𝑓𝛻𝑔 𝐴 𝑔 𝛻.𝐴 −𝐴.(𝛻𝑔)
𝛻 = 𝛻 . =
𝑔 𝑔2 𝑔 𝑔2

𝐴 𝑔 𝛻 𝑋 𝐴 −𝐴 𝑋(𝛻𝑔)
𝛻 𝑋 =
𝑔 𝑔2

𝛁 𝑿 (𝛁 𝒈 )= 0 Very Important
𝟐
𝛁 𝑿 𝛁 𝑿 (𝑨 ) = 𝛁 (𝛁 . 𝑨 )-𝛁 𝑨 Very Important

𝛁 . 𝛁 𝑿 (𝑨 ) = 0 Very Important
 2. Electrostatics, Gauss’s Law,
Poisson’s and Laplace’s equations
and continuity equation.
Electrostatics: The Physics which deals with static charge(s).

Coulomb’s Law
q Q 𝑭𝒒 ≠ 𝑭𝑸
FE  k 2 q Q

r 𝐅𝐪 r 𝐅𝐐

More than two charges? SUPERPOSE them!!!

𝟏
K = 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎
𝜺𝟎 =8.85 X
𝒄𝟐
𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝑵 ⋅ 𝒎𝟐 Permittivity of
free space
  Electric Field
 F Force on a positive unit charge (N/C).
E E
Therefore, E-field superposable!!!
q If there is E-field, there is force!!!
(+)-charge feels the force in the same direction of the E-field
(-)-charge feels the force in the opposite direction of the E-
field.
• The electric field produced
by a positive charge is
directed away from the
charge
• A positive unit charge
would be repelled
from the positive
source charge
 Electric Field
• The electric field produced
by a negative charge is
directed toward the
charge
• A positive unit charge
would be attracted to
the negative source
charge

Electrost-
atics
Field-
lines
pattern
 Electrostatic Potential or electrostatic potential energy
It is the work done by an electric field to move an unit charge from infinity to
a particular point in space or the work done by an electric field to move an
unit charge from a particular point in space to infinity. So, the potential
difference between two points in space in presence of an electric field is the
work done to move that unit charge between those two points.

p
V ( p)    E  dl Where  is some standard reference point ; V depends only on the
 point P. V is called the electric potential.

b  a
V (b)  V (a)    E  dl     E  dl    b E  dl
  

 a
b
The fundamental theorem for gradients V (b)  V (a)   (V )  dl
a
b b
 (V )  dl    E  dl E  V
 Electrostatic Potential or electrostatic potential energy
We just noticed that Electric field (E) = - Gradient (Electrostatic Potential)
E  V
Theorem: If the curl of a vector field vanishes, then the vector can be expressed as the
negative of the gradient of a scalar potential. This is a fundamental theorem of vector
calculus and it holds true for any vector field.

Electric field travels in straight line, so it is an non-rotational vector. So, the curl of an
electric field is always zero.

𝛁 𝑿 𝑬 =0 Therefore, E  V

𝐄: Curl less or Irrotational or non-rotational vector

 𝒃
𝛁 𝑿 𝑬 =0 Therefore, 𝑬 ⋅𝒅 𝒍 Independent of the path
𝒂

𝑬 . 𝒅𝒍 =0 For any closed loop

Gauss’s Law in electrostatics
Electric Flux FE
Case I: E is constant vector field perpendicular to planar surface S of
 
F E   E  dA
area A

F E   EA
 Gauss’s Law in electrostatics
Electric Field Lines: The number of field lines, also known as lines of
force, are related to strength of the electric field. More appropriately it is the
number of field lines crossing through a given surface that is related to the
electric field

Flux: How much of something (Electric field lines) passes through

some surface.

Case II: E is constant vector field directed at angle q to

planar surface S of area A
 Gauss’s Law in electrostatics
 
F E   E  dA
dA  dA nˆ
F E  EA cosq
Electric flux FE (the surface
integral of E over closed
  qin
F E   E  dA  surface S) is proportional to
closed
0 the total charge inside the
surface S
volume enclosed by S.
   qenclosed
F E   E  dA  Note: Integral must be over closed
surface

closed
0
surface S
This is the mathematical expression of Gauss’s law
in electrostatics.
Statement: The net flux through any closed surface is
numerically equal to the net (total) charge inside that surface
(enclosed by the surface) divided by 0.
 Applications of Gauss’s Law
Electric field at a distance r from a point
change???????????
What is electric flux that comes from a
point charge?
 
We start from F E   E  dA

The problem has spherical symmetry, we therefore use a

sphere as the Gaussian surface

The integral over the surface area of the

sphere yields
A  4p r 2
 Applications of Gauss’s Law
 
F E   E  dA = E X 4 p r
2
According to Gauss’s Law,
 
F E   E  dA = E X 4 p r 2 qenclosed q
= =
0 0
Gauss’s Law is always true, but is only useful for certain very simple problems
Therefore, with great symmetry.
𝐪
𝐄= Planar geometry
Cylindrical geometry
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝟎 𝐫 𝟐 Spherical geometry

E
 Problem: Sphere of Charge Q

A charge Q is uniformly distributed through a solid non-

conducting sphere of radius R. What is the electric field as a
function of r?. Find E at r1 and r2.

r1

r2

R
 Problem: Sphere of Charge Q
A charge Q is uniformly distributed through a solid non-conducting sphere of
radius R. What is the electric field as a function of r?. Find E at r1 and r2.

E(r1)
Use symmetry!
r1

r2
This is spherically symmetric.
E(r2)
That means that E(r) is radially
R outward, and that all points, at a
given radius (|r|=r), have the
same magnitude of field.
 Problem: Sphere of Charge Q

First find E(r) at a point outside the charged sphere. Apply Gauss’s
law, using as the Gaussian surface the sphere of radius r pictured.
E & dA
What is the enclosed charge?

R
 Problem: Sphere of Charge Q

First find E(r) at a point outside the charged sphere. Apply Gauss’s law, using as the
Gaussian surface the sphere of radius r pictured.
E & dA
What is the enclosed charge? Q

R
 Problem: Sphere of Charge Q

First find E(r) at a point outside the charged sphere. Apply Gauss’s law, using as the
Gaussian surface the sphere of radius r pictured.
E & dA
What is the enclosed charge? Q
What is the flux through this surface?
r

R
 Problem: Sphere of Charge Q

First find E(r) at a point outside the charged sphere. Apply Gauss’s law, using as the
Gaussian surface the sphere of radius r pictured.
E & dA
What is the enclosed charge? Q
What is the flux through this surface?
r
F   E  dA   E dA
 E  dA  EA  E(4p r )
2

R
 Problem: Sphere of Charge Q

First find E(r) at a point outside the charged sphere. Apply Gauss’s law, using as the
Gaussian surface the sphere of radius r pictured.
E & dA
What is the enclosed charge? Q
What is the flux through this surface?
r
F   E  dA   E dA
 E  dA  EA  E(4p r )
2

R Gauss  F  Q / o
Q/ 0  F  E(4p r )
2
 Problem: Sphere of Charge Q

First find E(r) at a point outside the charged sphere. Apply Gauss’s law, using as the
Gaussian surface the sphere of radius r pictured.
E & dA
What is the enclosed charge? Q
What is the flux through this surface?
r
F   E  dA   E dA
 E  dA  EA  E(4p r )
2

R Gauss: F  Q / o
Q/ 0  F  E(4p r )
2

Exactly as though all the charge were

1 Q
at the origin! So E(r )  ˆ
2 r
(for r>R)
4p o r
 Problem: Sphere of Charge Q

Next find E(r) at a point inside the sphere. Apply Gauss’s law, using a little sphere of radius
r as a Gaussian surface.
What is the enclosed charge?
That takes a little effort. The little sphere has
some fraction of the total charge. What fraction?

r3
That’s given by volume ratio: Q enc  3Q
r R
E(r)
F = EA = E(4p r )
Again the flux is: 2

R
(r 3 / R 3 )Q
Setting F  Qenc /  o gives E=
4p o r
2

Q
For r<R
E(r) = r rˆ
4p o R
3
 Poisson’s equation, Laplace’s equation and continuity
equation.
  q
Let us re-write the Gauss’s Law, we learned before,  E  dA  
closed
enclosed

0
surface

This expression known as integral form of Gauss’s Law

If we apply divergence theorem, the above equation can be written as,
𝟏 Expressed both sides as volume integration. In the
𝛁 . 𝑬 𝒅𝝉 = 𝝆 𝒅𝝉 right side the total charge is expressed in terms of
𝜺𝟎 volume charge density (𝛒), integrated over total
volume.

As the integration is performed inside the same material, the volume integral
on both sides gets cancelled.
 𝝆
𝛁 . 𝑬= This expression known as differential form of Gauss’s Law
𝜺𝟎
Let’s plug in the expression of electric field as we learnt before in terms of electric potential
( E   V ). The left side of the expression gets the form as mentioned bellow.
𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐 𝝏𝟐
  E     V    V
2
(𝛁 𝟐 = + + )
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚𝟐 𝝏𝒛𝟐
Therefore,
𝟐 𝝆
𝛁 𝐕= - Poisson’s Equation
𝜺𝟎

In a charge free region ( 𝝆 = 0)

𝟐
𝛁 𝐕= 0 Laplace’s Equation
Continuity Equation
Current Density (J): When the flow of charge
is distributed throughout a 3 D region, one can
describe it by current density.

𝐉: Current per unit area perpendicular to the flow.

𝐝𝐚 : Cross-sectional area perpendicular to the

flow of the current.

𝒅𝑰 𝝆: Volume charge density.

𝑱=
𝒅𝒂 𝐕: Velocity of electron.

𝐉=𝛒𝐕
𝑰= 𝐉 . 𝒅𝒂
 Now, we will convert this expression into volume integral
𝑰= 𝐉 . 𝒅𝒂 using divergence theorem.
𝒅𝒒
- : Rate of flow of charge with time at a
𝑰= 𝐉 . 𝒅𝒂 = (𝛁 . 𝑱) 𝒅𝝉 𝒅𝒕
particular cross-section.

𝐝𝐪
Again, we can write 𝑰= 𝐉 . 𝒅𝒂 = -
𝐝𝐭
q: Total charge in a particular volume = 𝝆. 𝒅𝝉
𝐝𝐪 𝐝 Now, if we keep only time as variable and keep the
= 𝝆 . 𝒅𝝉
𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝐭 surface as constant (Charges flows in a particular
direction only)…we can easily express this as partial
derivative.
𝐝𝐪 𝐝 𝝏
= 𝝆 . 𝒅𝝉 = 𝝆 . 𝒅𝝉
𝐝𝐭 𝐝𝐭 𝝏𝒕

Now,
𝝏
𝑰= 𝐉 . 𝒅𝒂 = (𝛁 . 𝑱) 𝒅𝝉 = - 𝝆 . 𝒅𝝉
𝝏𝒕
Therefore, 𝝏
(𝜵 . 𝑱) 𝒅𝝉 = - 𝝆 . 𝒅𝝉
𝝏𝒕
Since, the integration is computed inside the same material (for both sides of
the above equation), the volume integral will be cancelled.
𝝏𝝆
𝛁. 𝑱= - Continuity equation.
𝝏𝒕
Conservation of Charge:- “The Principle of conservation of charge states that Charge
can neither be created nor be destroyed, Although equal amounts of positive and negative
charge(s) may be simultaneously created, obtained by separation, destroyed or lost by
recombination.
Read carefully, these two statements are similar.
So, continuity equation proves the conservation
of charge theorem.

Equation of Continuity:- “The total current flowing out of some volume is equal to the
rate of decrease of charge within that volume”.

Continuity equation indicates that the current, or charge per

second, diverging from a small volume or per unit volume is equal
to the rate of decrease of charge per unit volume at every point.
 Electrostatic in Dielectric materials
Conductors and Insulators
Conductor: Charges are free to move Electrons weakly bound to
atoms.
Example: metals

Insulator: Charges are NOT free to move Electrons strongly bound to

atoms. Dielectric materials are insulators.
Examples: plastic, paper, wood
 Conductors
E
Conductors have free charges
 E must be zero inside the conductor - +
- Neutral +
 Conductors are equipotential objects - +
- Conductor +
Conductors are equipotential objects:
1) E = 0 inside.
2) E perpendicular to surface.
3) Net charge inside is 0.
When a dielectric is placed in a charged capacitor, it reduces the potential
difference between the two plates.

HOW???

We will observe Gauss’s law gets modified inside any dielectric material.
Molecular View of Dielectrics
Polar Dielectrics : Dielectrics with permanent electric dipole moments. Example: Water
 Molecular View of Dielectrics
Non-Polar Dielectrics

Dielectrics with induced electric dipole moments

Example: CH4

Why does dielectric behave different from conductor?

Where does a dielectric get it’s dipole moments from? We
will explore these questions shortly……
The very basic difference between an insulator and a conductor is the difference between
their energy band gap (Energy difference between conduction band and valence band).
Conductors have very less band gap and in most of the cases the conduction band and
valence bands are almost overlapped, so electrons can easily travels from valence band to
conduction band even in room temperature. And there are huge number of electrons in the
conduction band. So, electrons do not stay closure to the atoms and they are free to roam
around the conductor.

On the contrary, due to huge band gap, the electrons inside the insulator stay near to their
respective atoms and they are also known as bound charges. In dielectric, most of the
electrons are bound to their respective atoms and there are very few electrons in the
conduction band. So, the population of electrons are very high in the valence band. When
the electrons stay near to the atoms and as atoms are highly packed (very close to each
other), these electrons are also subjected to face various electrostatics forces due to other
nearby electrons. Because of these forces, the electrons displaces a bit from their original
orientations/position, creating a positive and negative charge separations and thus a dipole.
 Polar molecule Non-polar molecule
Induced dipole

Polarization and Electric Field Lines

Polarization of a dielectric in electric field gives rise to bound charges on the surfaces, creating σi, - σi.
 Electric Dipole
Two equal but opposite charges +q and –q, separated by a distance 2a

q Dipole Moment

p 2a p  charge×displacement

-q
 q×2aˆj  2qaˆj

p Points from negative to positive charge

 Dipole in Uniform Field

E  Eˆi
p  2qa(cosq ˆi  sin q ˆj)

Total Net Force: Fnet  F  F  qE  (q)E  0

Torque on Dipole: τ  rF  p E

  rF sin(q )   2a  qE  sin(q )  pE sin(q )
p tends to align with the electric field
In conductors charges will be pushed to the boundary by external field.

In dielectrics charges are attached to atoms or molecules.

The electric field can distort the charge distribution of a dielectric atom or molecule by two
principal mechanisms: stretching and rotating.

Normally, the dipole moment is zero on large scales since atomic dipoles are oriented in
random directions.

Immersion of a dielectric in an electric field polarizes atoms and tends to align the atomic
dipoles.
p  E
p Dipole moment of an atom
 Atomic polarizability

Considering the bulk of atoms

together. If we sum up all the
dipole moments of the atoms
and then divide by it’s total
volume we get, dipole
moment per unit volume.

Polarization/Dipole
𝐏 moment per unit Volume
𝐏 Polarization

𝐏 Polarization

𝐏 Polarization
We already introduced the concept of bound charges inside the dielectric in
presence of an electric field. There are two types of bound charges, Volume
bound charge (𝝆𝒃 ), which stays inside the material and surface bound charge
(𝝈𝒃 ), which stays on the surface of the material.

volume bound charge density b    P

surface bound charge density  b  P  nˆ ,

where nˆ is the normal to the surface.
Irrespective of these bound charges there are also some free charges inside a dielectric
material. These free charges are not bound to any atoms and they are free to move inside
the conduction band but it’s number is significantly less than the number of bound charges.
𝛒𝐟 Volume free charge density.

Total charge density inside a dielectric 𝝆 = 𝝆𝒃 + 𝝆𝒇

 Let us apply Gauss’s law inside a dielectric material. From the differential form of Gauss’s
law, one can write:
𝛒 𝛒𝐛 + 𝛒𝐟 From the relationships we learnt in previous
𝛁.𝐄= = slides, we can express this as,
𝛆𝟎 𝛆𝟎

𝛁.𝐄=
− 𝛁.𝐏+𝛒𝐟 𝛁 . (𝜺𝟎 𝑬 + 𝑷 ) = 𝝆𝒇
𝛆𝟎

𝑫 = (𝜺𝟎 𝑬 + 𝑷 )
Let us introduce a new vector, Electric Displacement
vector. This is equivalent to electric field inside a dielectric media.

Therefore, the above expression can be expressed as: 𝛁 . 𝑫 = 𝝆𝒇

Differential form of Gauss’s law inside a
𝛁 . 𝑫 = 𝝆𝒇 dielectric medium
 𝑫. 𝒅𝒂 = 𝑸𝒇,𝑬𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒅

Integral form of Gauss’s Law inside a dielectric media.

𝐐𝐟,𝐄𝐧𝐜𝐥𝐨𝐬𝐞𝐝 : Free charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface
Electrostatics in one picture
 3. Magneto-statics and electromagnetism

Ampere Circuital Law, Maxwell displacement

current and correction in Ampere Circuital Law.
Maxwell electromagnetic equations (differential
and integral forms)
Physical significance of Maxwell equations.
Magneto-statics is the study of magnetic fields in systems where the currents
are steady (not changing with time). It is the magnetic analogue of
electrostatics, where the charges are stationary. Here, electrons are moving with
a constant velocity.

Source of Magnetic field Current

Source of Current Moving Electrons

But how do we measure/calculate magnetic field? For simplicity, we will

consider current and not moving electrons to calculate magnetic field.
 Biot-Savart Law
• The magnetic field due to an element of current is
  0 i ds  rˆ  0 i ds  r 1
 c  speed of light
dB    0 0
4p r 2
4p r 3 
dB
0 = permeability constant (out of
exactly 4p  107 T  m/A page)

• The magnetic field wraps in circles around a wire.

The direction of the magnetic field is easy to find
using the right-hand rule.
• Put the thumb of your right hand in the direction of
the current, and your fingers curl in the direction of
B.
 Direction of Magnetic Field
1. Which drawing below shows the correct direction of the magnetic
field, B, at the point P?

A. I. B into
B B into
B. II. B into page
page
B
C. III. page
i i i i
D. IV. P P P
P
P i
E. V

I II III IV V
 B due to a Long Straight Wire
Just add up all of the contributions ds to the current,   0 i ds  r
keeping track of distance r. 
B  2  dB 
i  r sin q ds dB 
0 2p
0

0 r3 4p r 3

Notice that r  R2  s2
And r sin 𝜃 = R, So the integral becomes
 0i  R ds
2p 0 ( R 2  s 2 )3 / 2
B

The integral is a little tricky, and finally


 0i  s   0i
B  2 2 
2pR  R  s  0 2pR

 0i
B
2pR B due to current in a long straight wire
   0 i ds  r
dB 
4p r 3
   0i
r  ds  
B dB   ds
0 4pR 2 0

ds  Rd
 0i   0i
2 0
B Rd 
4pR 4pR
 0 i
B B due to current in circular arc

4pR
 0i
B B at center of a full circle
2R
 Force Between Two Parallel Currents
  
 Recall that a wire carrying a current in a magnetic field feels a force. FB  iL  B
 When there are two parallel wires carrying current, the magnetic
field from one causes a force on the other.
 When the currents are parallel, the two wires are pulled together.
 When the currents are anti-parallel, the two wires are forced apart. F

  
To calculate the force on b Fba  ib L  Ba
due to a, i  0 ia
B 0

2pR 2p d
0ia ib L
Fba  Force between two parallel currents
2pd
 Ampere’s Law/ Ampere’s Circuital theorem
 Ampere’s Law for magnetic fields is analogous to Gauss’ Law
for electric fields.
i1 i2
 Draw an “amperian loop” around a system of currents (like
the two wires at right). The loop can be any shape, but it
must be closed. 
 Add up the component of B along the loop, for each element
of length ds around this closed loop.
 The value of this integral is proportional to the current
enclosed:
 
 B  ds   i
0 enc

Ampere’s Law in
integral form
 Magnetic Field Outside a Long Straight Wire with
Current
 We already used the Biot-Savart Law to show that, for this
case, . 0i
B
2pr
 Let’s show it again, using Ampere’s Law:
 First, we are free to draw an Amperian loop of any shape, but
 
 B  ds  0ienc
since we know that the magnetic field goes in circles around a
wire, let’s choose a circular loop (of radius r).
 Then B and ds are parallel, and B is constant on the loop, so
 
   p   Ampere’s Law
B ds B 2 r 0 ienc
 And solving for B gives our earlier expression.
 0i
B
2pr
Let us start from Ampere’s Law in integral form arrive at the Ampere’s law in
differential form.
  𝐈𝐞𝐧𝐜 = 𝐉 . 𝐝𝐚
 B  d s   I
0 enc Line Integral Surface Integral

Therefore, 𝑩 . 𝒅𝒔 = 𝝁𝟎 𝐉 . 𝐝𝐚
Using Stokes’ theorem on the left hand side, the above expression can written as,
Since, the integration is computed
(𝛁 𝑿 𝑩 ). 𝒅𝒂 = 𝝁𝟎 𝐉 . 𝐝𝐚 inside a same material, the integral
both sides cancels out.

Ampere’s Law in
𝛁 X 𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑱 differential form
 Unlike electric field, magnetic field is a rotational vector. 𝛁 X 𝑩 ≠ 0
Any vector which has zero divergence is known as divergence less or
solenoidal vector. 𝛁 . 𝑩 = 0, and therefore Magnetic field (𝑩) is also known as
solenoidal vector.

Theorem: If the divergence of a vector field vanishes, then the vector can be expressed as
the curl of another vector potential.

Since, 𝛁 . 𝐁 = 0 and therefore, 𝐁 = 𝛁 X 𝐀. 𝐀 , is known as magnetic

vector potential. It is similar to electric potential in electro-static.
When 𝛁 . 𝐁 = 0, 𝐁.𝐝𝐚 is independent of the surface and 𝐁.𝐝𝐚 = 0 for any
closed surface.
 You remember, the Poisson’s equation in electrostatics! If not, I will repost that equation
again here. 𝟐 𝝆
𝛁 𝐕= -
𝜺𝟎
A similar equation exists in magneto statics also, we will get there shortly:

Let’s start from differential form of Ampere’s Law: 𝛁 X 𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑱

Plugging in the expression of 𝑩 in terms of 𝑨, the above expression becomes:

𝛁 X (𝛁 𝐗 𝐀) = 𝛍𝟎 𝐉 𝛁 (𝛁 . 𝐀 ) - 𝛁𝟐 𝐀 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐉

𝟐
𝐀𝐬, 𝛁 . 𝑨 = 0, then the above expression becomes, 𝛁 𝐀 = −𝛍𝟎 𝐉
Magneto-statics in one picture
Electromagnetism:
Maxwell’s Equations
“Electromagnetism is a branch of physics involving the study of the electromagnetic force, a
type of physical interaction that occurs between electrically charged particles. The
electromagnetic force is carried by electromagnetic fields composed of electric
fields and magnetic fields, and it is responsible for electromagnetic radiation such as light.”-
Wikipedia

Comparison between magneto-statics and electrostatics

𝛒
𝛁.𝐄=
𝛆𝟎
Gauss’s Law Maxwell’s
equations for
𝛁X𝐄=0 No Name electrostatics

Maxwell’s
𝛁.𝐁=0 No Name equations for
𝛁 X 𝐁 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐉 Ampere’s Law magneto-statics
 Maxwell’s equations in electromagnetism before Maxwell’s corrections
𝛒
𝟏. 𝛁 . 𝐄 = Gauss’s Law
𝛆𝟎
𝟐. 𝛁 . 𝐁 = 0 No Name (Non-existence of Magnetic Monopole)
𝛛𝐁
𝟑. 𝛁 X 𝐄 = - Faraday’s Law
𝛛𝐭
𝟒. 𝛁 X 𝐁 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐉 Ampere’s Law

These were the law’s already invented by scientists before Maxwell’s started working on
electrodynamics theories. Maxwell’s made correction to the last one (Ampere’s Law) and
re-derived Ampere's law (we will discuss this later) before his derivations of equations of
electromagnetic waves. Because of his immense contributions in electrodynamics, all the
above equations are combinedly known as Maxwell’s numbered as first, second, third
and forth as mentioned above chronologically. These are all in differential form and we
will discover their integral form also.
 Maxwell’s First equation

Differential Form, Also known as

Gauss’s Law.

By applying divergence theorem, it’s integral form can be arrived.

Already done in electrostatics.
  qenclosed
 E  dA 
closed
0 Integral form of Maxwell’s first equation
surface
 Maxwell’s Second equation
Maxwell’s Second equation, differential form.
This equation conforms that there is no magnetic
monopole.

Let us apply divergence theorem on both sides:

𝐁 . 𝐝𝐚 = 0

Maxwell’s Second equation,

integral form
 Maxwell’s Third equation

Also known as Faraday’s law of

Differential form
induction

Statement: Whenever there is a rotational electric field (Curl of electric field), there has to
a time variation of magnetic field but in opposite direction. Let’s dig into this a bit more. Any
rotational electric field produces a time variation of magnetic field. That means, we can
produce magnetic field from electric field and vice e versa. How do you think electric
generator work?

If we apply surface integral on the above expression it becomes,

𝛛
(𝛁 X 𝐄 ). 𝐝𝐚 = − (𝐁. 𝐝𝐚 ) Applying Stokes’s theorem on to the left
𝛛𝐭
𝛛
(𝐄 . 𝐝𝐥) = - ( 𝐁 . 𝐝𝐚 ) Integral form
𝛛𝐭
 Derivation of Displacement Current
dq d( EA )
For a capacitor, q  0 EA and I  dt  0 dt .
d (F E )
Now, the electric flux is given by EA, so: I   0 ,
dt
where this current , not being associated with charges, is
called the “Displacement current”, Id.
dF E
Hence: I d  0  0
dt
and:  B  ds  0( I  Id )
dF E
  B  ds  0 I  00
dt
 Derivation of Displacement Current
dq d( EA )
For a capacitor, q  0 EA and I  dt  0 dt .
d (F E )
Now, the electric flux is given by EA, so: I   0 ,
dt
where this current, not being associated with charges, is
called the “Displacement Current”, Id.
dF E
Hence: I d  0  0
dt
and:  B  dl  0( I  Id )
Ampere’s Law after dF
  B  dl  0 I  00 E
Maxwell’s Correction dt
 𝛛𝐄 Let’s take the surface integral on both
𝛁 X 𝐁 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐉 + 𝛍𝟎 𝛆𝟎 sides
𝛛𝐭

𝛛𝐄
(𝛁 X 𝐁). 𝐝𝐚 = (𝛍𝟎 𝐉 + 𝛍𝟎 𝛆𝟎 ). 𝐝𝐚
𝛛𝐭

𝛛𝐄 Integral form of Maxwell’s

𝐁. 𝐝𝐥 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐈𝐞𝐧𝐜 + 𝛍𝟎 𝛆𝟎 𝐝𝐚 forth equation.
𝛛𝐭
Differential form of Maxwell’s Equations after Corrections
𝛒
First 𝛁.𝐄= Gauss’s Law
𝛆𝟎
Second 𝛁.𝐁=0 No Name
(Non-existence of Magnetic Monopole)
𝛛𝐁
Third 𝛁X𝐄=- Faraday’s Law of
𝛛𝐭
electromagnetic induction
𝛛𝐄 Ampere’s Law
Forth 𝛁 X 𝐁 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐉 + 𝛍𝟎 𝛆𝟎
𝛛𝐭 with Maxwell’s
Correction
 Integral form of Maxwell’s Equations after Corrections
  qenclosed
First  E  dA 
closed
0
Gauss’s Law
surface

Second 𝐁 . 𝐝𝐚 = 0 No Name
𝛛 Faraday’s Law of
Third (𝐄 . 𝐝𝐥) = - ( 𝐁 . 𝐝𝐚 )
𝛛𝐭 electromagnetic induction

𝛛𝐄
Ampere’s Law
Forth 𝐁. 𝐝𝐥 = 𝛍𝟎 𝐈𝐞𝐧𝐜 + 𝛍𝟎 𝛆𝟎 𝐝𝐚 with Maxwell’s
𝛛𝐭
Correction