Strength of Materials

Index

Topics Page
1. Stress and Strain 2

2. Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams 15

3. Bending and Shear Stresses 21

4. Principal Stress and Strain 27

5. Deflection of Beams 30

6. Torsion 39

7. Thin Cylinders & Buckling of column 44

8. Testing of Materials 51

Page 1 of 60
Stress and Strain
Stress: The force of resistance per unit area, offered by a body against
deformation is known as stress.

Fig.1: Stress
It is denoted by a symbol ‘σ’. And mathematically expressed as

TYPES OF STRESSES:
only two basic stresses exist.
(1) Normal stress and
(2) Shear stress.
(i) Normal stresses:
If the force applied are perpendicular or normal to areas concerned, then
these are termed as normal stresses.
The normal stresses are generally denoted by a Greek letter (σ).

Fig.2 Uniaxial Normal Stress

Page 2 of 60
Fig.3: Biaxial Normal Stress

Fig.4: Triaxial Normal Stress

Tensile or compressive stresses:
The normal stresses can be either tensile or compressive depending upon the
direction of the load.
Sign convention: The tensile forces are termed as (+ve ) while the
compressive forces are termed as negative (-ve).
(ii)Shear Stress:
when cross-sectional area of a block of material is subject to a distribution of
forces which are parallel to the area concerned. Such forces are associated
with a shearing of the material, are known as shear forces. The stress
produced by these forces are known as shear stresses.

Page 3 of 60
Fig.5: Shear stress
It is generally denoted by ‘τ’ and expressed as

The complementary shear stresses are equal in magnitude.

The same form of relationship can be obtained for the other two pair of shear
stress components to arrive at the relations,
τxy=τyx
τyz=τzy
Sign convections for shear stresses:
Shear stress tending to turn the element Clockwise is taken as Positive.
Shear stress tending to turn the element Anticlockwise is taken as Negative.
STRAIN
When a prismatic bar is subjected to axial load, it undergoes a change in
length, as indicated in Figure. This change in length is usually called
deformation.

Page 4 of 60
Fig.6: Deformation of bar under axial load
If the axial force is tensile, the length of the bar is increased, while if the axial
force is compressive, there is shortening of the length of the bar.
The deformation (i.e. elongation or shortening) per unit length of the bar is
termed as strain and denoted by ε or e.

Classification of strain
(i) Longitudinal strain:
The ratio of axial deformation along the length of the applied load to the
original length of the body is known as longitudinal (or linear) strain.
L = Length of the body,
P = Tensile force acting on the body,
δL = Increase in the length of the body in the direction of P.
Then,

(ii) Lateral strain:

The strain at right angles to the direction of applied load is known as lateral
strain. Let a rectangular bar of length L, breadth b and depth d is subjected to
an axial tensile load P. The length of the bar with increase while the breadth
and depth will decrease.
δL = Increase in length,
δb = Decrease in breadth, and
δd = Decrease in depth.

Page 5 of 60
Fig.8: strain

(iii)Shear Strain
Change in initial right angle between two-line elements which are parallel to x
and y-axis respectively.

Fig.9: Shear strain

STRESS - STRAIN DIAGRAM

The mechanical properties of a material are determined in the laboratory by
performing tests on small specimens of the material, in the materials testing

Page 6 of 60
laboratory. The most common materials test is the tension test performed on
a cylindrical specimen of the material.

Fig.16: Stress strain Diagram

A = Proportional Limit Oa = Linear Deformation
B = Elastic Limit Ob = Elastic Deformation
C = Yield Point bd = Perfect Plastic Yielding
C’ = Lower Yield Point de = Strain hardening
E = Ultimate Strength ef = Necking
F = Rupture Strength/ Fracture strength
It is customary to base all the stress calculations on the original cross-
sectional area of the specimen, and since the latter is not constant, the
stresses so calculated are known as Nominal stresses.
LINEAR ELASTICITY: HOOKE’S LAW
The slope of stress-strain curve is called the young’s modulus of elasticity (E):
Slope of stress-strain curve,

This equation is known as Hooke’s law.

Page 7 of 60
Type of Metal Behaviour

Fig.17: Stress strain Diagram

ELONGATION OF BAR UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITION
UNIFORMLY TAPERING CIRCULAR BAR
Let us now consider a uniformly tapering circular bar, subjected to an axial
force P, as shown in Figure. The bar of length L has a diameter d1 at one end
and d2 at the other end (d2 > d1).

Page 8 of 60
Fig.18: Uniformly tapering circular bar

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
Bars In Series

Fig.19: A prismatic bar subjected to multiple loads

It stated that
"the resultant strain in bar will be equal to the algebraic sum of the strains
caused by the individual forces acting along the length of the member.
Thus, if a member of uniform section is subjected to a number of forces, the
resulting deformation (ΔL) is given by

Elastic constants
Elastic constants are those factors which determine the deformations
produced by a given stress system acting on a material.
Various elastic constants are :

Page 9 of 60
(i) Modulus of elasticity (E)
(ii) Poisson’s ratio (μ or 1/m)
(iii) Modulus of rigidity (G or N)
(iv) Bulk modulus (K)
Materials on the basis of elastic properties
(i)Homogeneous Material
When a material exhibits same elastic properties at any point in a given
directions than the material is known as homogenous material.
(ii)Isotropic Material
When a material exhibits Same elastic properties at any direction at a given
point than the material is known as Isotropic Material.
(iii)Anisotropic Material
When a material exhibits different elastic properties at every direction at a
every point than the material is known as Isotropic Material.
(v) Orthotropic Material
When a material exhibits Same elastic properties at only orthogonal direction
at a given point than the material is known as Orthotropic Material.
For a homogeneous and isotropic material, the number of independent elastic
constants are two.
Material No. of independent elastic constants
Isotropic 2
Orthotropic 9
Anisotropic 21

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
When an axial load, P is applied along the longitudinal axis of a bar due to
which length of the bar will be increases in the direction of applied load and a
stress, σ is induced in the bar.

Page 10 of 60
The ratio of stress to longitudinal strain, within elastic limits, is called the
modulus of elasticity (E):

POISSON’S RATIO
It is the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain.
It is an unitless quantity which is generally denoted as μ or 1/m.

VOLUMETRIC STRAIN
Volumetric Strain Due to Three Mutually Perpendicular Stress
Figure shows a parallelepiped subjected to three tensile load P1, P2 and P3 in
the three mutually perpendicular direction.
Then,

Page 11 of 60
Fig. Parallelepiped subjected to Three Mutually Perpendicular Stress
Since any axial load produces a strain in its own direction and an opposite
kind of strain in every direction at right angles to this direction.
we have,

Adding the three expressions of Equations we get.

Hydrostatic static state of stress-

In case of hydrostatic state of stress, the applied stress in all direction are
equal and tensile in nature.
i.e. σ1 = σ2 = σ3 = σ

Page 12 of 60
since Eϵ and σ in the above expression are positive numbers, must also be
positive.

Thus, maximum value poison’s ratio is 0.5

Volumetric Strain Due to Single Direct Stress
Figure shows a rectangular bar of length L, width b and thickness t subjected
to single direct load (P) acting along its longitudinal axis. Let this stress σ
generated to be tensile in nature.

Fig. Volumetric strain

SHEAR MODULUS OR MODULUS OF RIGIDITY

The shear modules or modulus of rigidity expresses the relation between
shear stress and shear strain.

Page 13 of 60
where G = modulus of rigidity
ɸ = Shear strain (in radians) (also sometimes denoted by the symbol γ)
BULK MODULUS
When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular like stresses of
equal intensity (σ).
Then the ratio of direct stress (σ) to the corresponding volumetric strain (ϵv) is
defined as the bulk modulus K for the material of the body.
Which is generally denoted as ‘K’

RELATION BETWEEN DIFFERENT ELASTIC PROPERTIES

Value of any Elastic constant should be ≥ 0

E, K, G > 0
µ ≥ 0 [µcork = 0]
If K should be positive,
Then 1 – 2µ ≥ 0

Page 14 of 60
Always
G≤E
For metals

Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

A Beam is defined as a structural member subjected to transverse shear
loads during its functionality. Due to those transverse shear loads, beams are
subjected to variable shear force and variable bending moment.
Shear force at a cross section of beam is the sum of all the vertical forces
either at the left side or at the right side of that cross section.
Bending moment at a cross section of beam is the sum of all the moments
either at the left side or at the right side of that cross section.
Types of Rigid Supports
Simple Supports

Page 15 of 60
Roller Support
Hinge Support (or) Pin Support
Fixed Supports
Clamped Supports (or) Built-in Supports
(a) Roller Support – resists vertical forces only

(b) Hinge support or pin connection – resists horizontal and vertical forces

(c) Fixed support or built-in end

Note: The distance between two supports is known as “span”.

Types of Beams

Page 16 of 60
Statically Determinate Beam
A beam is said to be statically determinate if all its reaction components can
be calculated by applying three conditions of static equilibrium.
Statically Indeterminate Beam
When the number of unknown reaction components exceeds the static
conditions of equilibrium, the beam is said to be statically indeterminate.
TYPES OF LOAD
The following are the important types of load acting on a beam,
Concentrated or point load,
Uniformly distributed load, and
Uniformly varying load.
(i) Concentrated or Point Load: load act at a point.

Page 17 of 60
(ii) Uniformly Distributed Load: load spread over a beam, rate of loading w is
uniform along the length.

(iii) Uniformly Varying Load: load spread over a beam, rate of loading varies
from point to point along the beam.

SIGN CONVENTIONS FOR SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

Shear force: If moving from left to right, then take all upward forces as
positive and downward as negative.
Or if the shear force tries to rotate the element clockwise then it is takes as
positive & if the shear force tries to rotate the element anticlockwise then it is
takes as negative.

Page 18 of 60
Bending moment: If moving from left to right, take clockwise moment as
positive and anticlockwise as negative.
Or if forces are forming sagging moment then it is taken as positive and if
forces are forming hogging moment then it is taken as negative.

Page 19 of 60
RELATIONS BETWEEN LOAD, SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

RELATIONS BETWEEN LOAD, SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT

The rate of change of shear force is equal to the rate of loading.

The rate of change of bending moment is equal to the shear force at the
section.

Some Examples:-

Page 20 of 60
Bending and Shear Stresses
Bending stresses on Beams:
Beam:
The term beam refers to a component that is designed to support transverse
loads, that is, loads that act perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam
as shown in figure.

Page 21 of 60
Fig: A supported beam loaded by a force and a distribution of pressure
Bending:
·When the beam is bent by the action of downward transverse loads, the
fibres near the top of the beam contract in length whereas the fibres near the
bottom of the beam extend.
·Somewhere in between, there will be a plane where the fibres do not change
length. This is called the neutral surface. Such a deformation of beam is
called the bending.

Fig: Positive and Negative bending and draw for negative bending
Bending Moment Equation:
Following assumptions are made while deriving the bending moment
equation:
Assumptions:
The constraints put on the geometry would form the assumptions:
Beam is initially straight and has a constant cross-section.

Page 22 of 60
Beam is made of homogeneous material and the beam has
a longitudinal plane of symmetry.
Resultant of the applied loads lies in the plane of symmetry.
The geometry of the overall member is such that bending not buckling is the
primary cause of failure.
Elastic limit is nowhere exceeded, and ‘E’ is same in tension and compression.
Plane cross - sections remains plane before and after bending.
The bending equation is given as:

where M is the Moment of resistance,

y is the distance of the considered strip from the Neutral Axis,
I is the moment of inertial of the section about the N.A,
E is the Young's modulus
σ is the bending stress
R is the radius of curvature of the beam,
From the equation, we also get,

The term 1/R (= ρ) is known as the curvature of the section and is inversely
proportional to the flexural rigidity (EI) of the section.
SECTION MODULUS
From simple bending theory equation, the maximum stress obtained in any
cross-section is given as:

For any given allowable stress, the maximum moment which can be accepted
by a particular shape of cross-section is therefore

Page 23 of 60
For ready comparison of the strength of various beam cross-section this
relationship is sometimes written in the form

where

is termed as section modulus.

STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO BENDING:
As we know that strain energy per unit volume =

SHEAR STRESSES IN BEAMS:

·Consider a beam of rectangular cross section of width (b) and depth (d),
subjected to a vertical force (F).
· The shear stress (τ) act parallel to the S.F. and the distribution of the shear
stress is uniform across the width b of the beam.
Assumptions in finding out the expression for transverse shear stress:

Page 24 of 60
For all values of y, τ is uniform across the width of the cross-section,
irrespective of its shape.
is derived from the assumption that bending stress varies linearly across the
section and is zero at the centroid.
The material is homogeneous and isotropic, and the value of E is the same for
tension as well as compression.
Expression for transverse shear stress:

where τ is the shear stress, F is the shear Force, I is the moment of Inertia. Z
is the section modulus of the beam, A is the area of cross section and is the
centroidal distance.
SHEAR STRESS FORMULA FOR DIFFRENT SECTIONS:

Page 25 of 60
SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION OVER OTHER SECTIONS:

Page 26 of 60
Principal Stress and Strain
Stress tensor:
A tensor is a multi-dimensional array of numerical values that can be used to
describe the physical state or properties of a material. A simple example of a
geo-physically relevant tensor is stress.
Sign conventions:
While analysing a stress system, the general conventions have been taken as
follows:
A tensile stress is positive and compressive stress, negative.
A pair of shear stresses on parallel planes forming a clockwise couple is
positive and a pair with counterclockwise couple, negative.
Clockwise angle is taken as positive and counterclockwise as negative.

Page 27 of 60
Methods to find stresses at a point:
The stresses on a point are determined by the following methods:
Analytical method, and
Graphical method
Sum of Direct stresses of two mutually perpendicular stresses:

PRINCIPAL STRESSES
In general, a body may be acted upon by direct stresses and shear stresses.
However, it will be seen that even in such complex systems of loading, there
exist three mutually perpendicular planes, on each of which the resultant
stress is wholly normal. These are known as principal planes and the normal
stress across these planes, as principal stresses.
The larger of the two stresses σ1 is called the major principal stress, and the
smaller one σ2 as the minor principal stress. The corresponding planes are
known as major and minor principal planes.
In two-dimensional problems, the third principal stress is taken to be zero.
As shear stress is zero in principal planes:

Page 28 of 60
Page 29 of 60
MOHR'S STRESS CIRCLE
The stress components on any inclined plane can easily be found with the
help of a geometrical construction known as Mohr’s stress circle.
Some points about Mohr's Circle:

Deflection of Beams
The deformation of a beam is usually expressed in terms of its deflection
from its original unloaded position. The deflection is measured from the
original neutral surface of the beam to the neutral surface of the deformed
beam. The configuration assumed by the deformed neutral surface is known
as the elastic curve of the beam.
Slope of a Beam: Slope of a beam is the angle between deflected beam to the
actual beam at the same point.
Deflection of Beam: Deflection is defined as the vertical displacement of a
point on a loaded beam. There are many methods to find out the slope and
deflection at a section in a loaded beam.

Page 30 of 60
The maximum deflection occurs where the slope is zero. The position of the
maximum deflection is found out by equating the slope equation zero. Then
the value of x is substituted in the deflection equation to calculate the
maximum deflection
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION OF THE DEFLECTION CURVE OF BEAM

Methods of Determining Beam Deflections

Numerous methods are available for the determination of beam deflections.
These methods include:
Double Integration Method:
This is most suitable when concentrated or udl over entire length is acting on
the beam. A double integration method is a powerful tool in solving deflection

Page 31 of 60
and slope of a beam at any point because we will be able to get the equation
of the elastic curve.
A double integration method is a powerful tool in solving deflection and slope
of a beam at any point because we will be able to get the equation of the
elastic curve.

In calculus, the radius of curvature of a curve y = f(x) is given by:

In the derivation of flexure formula, the radius of curvature of a beam is

ρ=EI/M
Deflection of beams is so small, such that the slope of the elastic curve dy/dx
is very small, and squaring this expression the value becomes practically
negligible, hence:

If EI is constant, the equation may be written as:

EIy′′=M
where x and y are the coordinates shown in the figure of the elastic curve of
the beam under load.
y is the deflection of the beam at any distance x.
E is the modulus of elasticity of the beam,
I represent the moment of inertia about the neutral axis, and

Page 32 of 60
M represents the bending moment at a distance x from the end of the beam.
The product EI is called the flexural rigidity of the beam.

Integrating one time:

The first integration y'(dy/dx) yields the Slope of the Elastic Curve.

Second Integration:

The second integration y gives the Deflection of the Beam at any distance x.
The resulting solution must contain two constants of integration since EI y" =
M is of second order.
These two constants must be evaluated from known conditions concerning
the slope deflection at certain points of the beam.
For instance, in the case of a simply supported beam with rigid supports, at x
= 0 and x = L, the deflection y = 0, and in locating the point of maximum
deflection, we simply set the slope of the elastic curve y' to zero
Area Moment Method (Mohr's Method):
Another method of determining the slopes and deflections in beams is the
area-moment method, which involves the area of the moment diagram. The
moment-area method is a
The moment-area method is a semi graphical procedure that utilizes the
properties of the area under the bending moment diagram. It is the quickest
way to compute the deflection at a specific location if the bending moment
diagram has a simple shape.

Page 33 of 60
Theorems of Area-Moment Method:
Theorem 1

The angle between the tangent of the deflection curve of two points A and B
is equal to the negative area of M/EI diagram between the points.

Theorem 2

The deviation of B from tangent at A is equal to the negative of the statical

moment (or the first moment) with respect to B, of the M/EI
diagram area between A and B.

Method of Superposition: The method of superposition, in which the applied

loading is represented as a series of simple loads for which deflection
formulas are available. Then the desired deflection is computed by adding the
contributions of the component loads(principle of superposition).
Mostly direct formula is used in questions, hence it is advised to look for the
beam deflection formula which are directly asked from this topic rather than
going for long derivations.
Deflection for Common Loadings:

Page 34 of 60
Concentrated load at the free end of cantilever beam (origin at A):
Maximum Moment, M =−PL
Slope at end: θ= PL2/2EI
Maximum deflection: δ=PL3 /3EI
Deflection Equation (y is positive downward): EIy=(Px2)(3L−x)/6
2 .Concentrated load at any point on the span of cantilever beam
Maximum Moment: M= -wa
Slope at end: θ=wa2/2EI
Maximum deflection: δ = wa3(3L−a)/6EI
Deflection Equation (y is positive downward),
EIy=Px2(3a−x)/6 for 0 < x <a
EIy=Pa2(3x−a)/6 for a < x <L
Uniformly distributed load over the entire length of cantilever beam
Maximum Moment: M=−wL2/2
Slope at end: θ = wL3/6EI
Maximum deflection: δ=wL4/8EI
Deflection Equation (y is positive downward): EIy=wx2(6L2−4Lx+x2)/120L
Triangular load, full at the fixed end and zero at the free end
Maximum Moment: M=−wL2/6
Slope at end: θ= wL3/24EI
Maximum deflection, δ=wL4/30EI
Deflection Equation (y is positive
downward): EIy=wx2(10L3−10L2x+5Lx2−x3)/120L
Moment load at the free end of cantilever beam
Maximum Moment: M=−M
Slope at end: θ=ML/EI

Page 35 of 60
Maximum deflection: δ=ML2/2EI
Deflection Equation (y is positive downward): EIy=Mx2/2
Concentrated load at the midspan of simple beam
Maximum Moment: M=PL/4
Slope at end: θA=θB = WL2/16EI
Maximum deflection: δ=PL3/48EI
Deflection Equation (y is positive
downward): EIy=Px{(3/4)L2−x2)}/12 for 0<x<L/2
Uniformly distributed load over the entire span of simple beam
Maximum Moment: M=wL2/8
Slope at end: θL=θR=wL3/24EI
Maximum deflection: δ = 5wL4/384EI
Deflection Equation (y is positive downward): EIy=wx(L3−2Lx2+x3)/24
9.Triangle load with zero at one support and full at the other support of
simple beam
Maximum Moment: M=woL2/9√3
Slope at end,
θL= 7wL3/360EI
θR= 8wL3/360EI
Maximum deflection: δ=2.5wL4/384EI at x=0.519L
Deflection Equation (y is positive downward), EIy=wx(7L4−10L2x+3x)/360L
Triangular load with zero at each support and full at the midspan of simple
beam
Maximum Moment: M=wL2/12
Slope at end, θL=θR=5wL3/192EI
Maximum deflection: δ=wL4/120EI

Page 36 of 60
Deflection Equation (y is positive
downward): EIy=wox(25L4−40L2x2+16x4)/960L for 0<x<L/2
Conjugate Beam method
Support conditions for the real and conjugate beam:

DEFLECTIONS BY CASTIGLIANO'S THEOREM:

Beam Deflection Formula:

Cantilever Beams:

Page 37 of 60
Simply supported Beams:

Page 38 of 60
Torsion
It’s magnitude is given as the product of the force and the distance between
the force.

Fig.: Magnitude and representation of Torque

Figure shows a bar or shaft of circular section, subjected to torque T. Such a
case is a case of pure torsion,

Fig.: Shaft is under pure torsion

J/R is known as torsional section modulus.,& GJ is known as torsional rigidity

of the bar or the shaft.
The above relation states that the intensity of shear stress at any point in the
cross-section of a shaft subjected to pure torsion is proportional to its
distance from the center and the variation of shear stress with respect to
radial distance is linear.

Page 39 of 60
Fig.: Variation of Torsional Shear Stress
Polar moment of inertia

(a) For a solid shaft of circular section,

Torsional section modulus

(b) For a hollow circular shaft,

SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN DIFFERENT SECTIONS

It is zero at the center and increases in the radially outward direction and
become maximum at the outer periphery And for hollow circular shaft, it is
minimum at inner radius and maximum at the outer periphery.
(a) Solid circular section:

Page 40 of 60
(b) Hollow circular section

POWER TRANSMITTED

DESIGN OF SHAFT
While designing a shaft, we calculate the maximum torque that can be
transmitted from the shaft.
The resisting couple should be equal to the applied torque. Hence

MAXIMUM TORQUE TRANSMITTED BY A CIRCULAR SHAFT

(a) CIRCULAR SOLID SHAFT
The maximum torque transmitted by a circular solid shaft is obtained from the
maximum shear stress-induced at the outer surface of the solid shaft.

(b) HOLLOW CIRCULAR SHAFTS

Page 41 of 60
Torque transmitted by a hollow circular shaft Is obtained in the same way as
for a solid shaft,

COMPOSITE SHAFTS:
(i) Series connection:
If two or more shaft of different material, diameter or basic forms are
connected together in such a way that each carries the same torque, then the
shafts are said to be connected in series & the composite shaft so produced
is therefore termed as series connection.

for two shafts in series T1 = T2 = T

θAC = θAB + θBC

(ii)parallel connection:
If two shafts are loaded in such a way that angle of twist on both the shaft is
the same then this type of connection is known as a parallel connection of
shaft.

Page 42 of 60
For parallel connection of shaft
Torque is cumulative, T = T1 + T2 and θ1 = θ2

STRAIN ENERGY IN TORSION

Consider a solid shaft of length L, under the action of torque T.

The torsional strain energy of shaft is equal to the work done in twisting.

TORSIONAL STIFFNESS (K)

Torsional stiffness is defined as the amount of torque or twisting couple
required to produce a twist of unit radian. And it represented by ‘K’

Page 43 of 60
Thin Cylinders & Buckling of column
Thin pressure vessel is defined as a closed cylindrical or spherical container
designed to hold or store fluids at a pressure substantially different from
ambient pressure. Pressure vessels can be classified as
(i) on the basis of ratio of diameter to its thickness

where, D is the inner diameter of the shell & t is the thickness of the shell.
(ii) On the basis of shape of the pressure vessel

However, Spherical pressure vessels are better, but due to fabrication

difficulty, cylindrical pressure vessels are most commonly used.
Common examples of pressure vessels are steam boilers, reservoirs, tanks,
working chambers of engines, gas cylinders etc.
THIN CYLINDRICAL SHELL SUBJECT TO INTERNAL PRESSURE
Consider a thin cylinder of internal diameter d and wall thickness t, subject to
internal gauge pressure P. The following stresses are induced in the cylinder-
(a) Circumferential tensile stress (or hoop stress) σH.
(b) Longitudinal (or axial) tensile stress σL.
(c) Radial compressive stress σR which varies from a value at the inner
surface equal to the atmosphere pressure at the outside surface.
Assumptions followed in thin pressure vessels
Stresses are assumed to be distributed uniformly
Area is calculated considering the pressure vessel as thin
Radial stresses are neglected

Page 44 of 60
Biaxial state of stress is assumed to be applicable
(a) Circumferential stress or Hoop stress, σH
There are normal stresses which act in the direction of circumference. Due to
internal fluid pressure these are tensile in nature. In thin pressure vessels,
hoop stresses are assumed to be uniform across thickness.

In the figure we have shown a one half of the cylinder. This cylinder is
subjected to an internal pressure P.
Pressure force by fluid ≤ Resisting force owing to hoop stresses σH
P x Projected Area ≤ 2.σh.L.t

P.d.L ≤ 2.σh.L.t

In ηL is the efficiency of the Longitudinal riveted joint,

Similarly,
(b) Longitudinal stress (or axial stress) σL
Pressure force by fluid ≤ Resisting force owing to longitudinal stresses σL

Page 45 of 60
In ηL is the efficiency of the circumferential riveted joint,

Thus, the magnitude of the longitudinal stress is one half of the

circumferential stress, both the stresses being of tensile nature.
Hoop strain or Circumferential strain -

Longitudinal Strain or axial strain

Ratio of Hoop Strain to Longitudinal Strain

Volumetric Strain or Change in the Internal Volume

THIN SPHERICAL SHELLS

Figure shows a thin spherical shell of internal diameter ‘d’ and thickness ‘t’
and subjected to an internal fluid pressure ‘P’.

Page 46 of 60
Hoop stress/longitudinal stress
Pressure force by fluid ≤ Resisting force owing to Hoop/Longitudinal stresses

Hoop stress/longitudinal strain

Volumetric strain of sphere

Columns and Struts:

A structural member subjected to an axial compressive force is called strut.
As per definition strut may be horizontal, inclined or even vertical.
The vertical strut is called a column.
Euler’s Column Theory
Assumptions of Euler's theory:
Euler's theory is based on the following assumptions:
(i). Axis of the column is perfectly straight when unloaded.

Page 47 of 60
(ii). The line of thrust coincides exactly with the unstrained axis of the column.
(iii). Flexural rigidity El is uniform.
(iv) Material is isotropic and homogeneous.
Limitation of Euler’s Formula
There is always crookedness in the column and the load may not be exactly
axial.
This formula does not take into account the axial stress and the buckling load
is given by this formula may be much more than the actual buckling load.
Euler’s Buckling (or crippling load)
The maximum load at which the column tends to have lateral displacement or
tends to buckle is known as buckling or crippling load. Load columns can be
analysed with the Euler’s column formulas can be given as

where, E = Modulus of elasticity, Le= Effective Length of column, and I =

Moment of inertia of column section.
For both end hinged:

in case of Column hinged at both end Le = L

For one end fixed and other free:

Page 48 of 60
in case of column one end fixed and other free: Le = 2L

For both end fixed:

in case of Column with both end Fixed Le = L/2

For one end fixed and other hinged:

in case of Column with one end fixed and other hinged Le = L/√2

Effective Length for different End conditions

Page 49 of 60
Slenderness Ratio (S)
The slenderness ratio of a compression member is defined as the ratio of its
effective length to least radius of gyration.

Modes of failure of Columns

Rankine’s Formula:
Rankine proposed an empirical formula for columns which coven all Lasts
ranging from very short to very long struts. He proposed the relation

Pc = σC. A = ultimate load for a strut

Eulerian crippling load for the standard case

Page 50 of 60
Testing of Materials

HARDNESS TESTING

Hardness represents the resistance of a material to indentation, penetration

and scratching. In hardness testing, a loaded ball or diamond is pressed
against the surface of a material which causes the plastic deformation of the
same. This deformation is measured by one of the following methods:

(i) Brinell Hardness test-

In this method, a steel hardened ball is pressed into the surface of the
material under a specified load. The load is held in position for a fixed period
and then released. This leaves a permanent impression in the surface of the
material. Then either measure the diameter or the depth of the impression.

The Brinell specimen Hardness Number (BHN) is defined as the ratio of the
applied load to the spherical area of the impression.

Where, P is in Newton.

Conversion tables are also available to determine the hardness number.

Page 51 of 60
(ii) Vicker Pyramid Diamond Method

This method is also similar to the Brinell method except that the indenter is a
136° pyramid diamond on a square base. As hardness of diamond is
excessively high. It can be used for the whole range of materials.

The Vicker Pyramid Number (VPN) is defined as the ratio of applied load to
the impressed area. The area is calculated by measuring the length of the
diagonal of the square impression on the surface of the material.

(iii) Rockwell Hardness Method –

The scale ranges between 0‐100. It uses either a diamond 120° cone indenter
or ball indenter made of hardened steel.

Depending on the combination of indenter and load there are several Rockwell
hardness scales. Three most commonly used Rockwell hardness scales are
given in table.

Page 52 of 60
 The applied load depends on the hardness of material. As a thumb rule the
load used for measuring the hardness of steel = 30D2 kg; where D is the
diameter of the ball. If D = 10mm the load to be used = 3000kg.

IMPACT TESTING

Static tests are useful only when the loads are static in nature. These tests do
not indicate the resistance of a material against shock or impact loads to
which usually the automobile parts are subjected to. In such cases, an impact
test has to be undertaken. An impact test indicates the toughness of a
material which is defined as the energy absorbed by the specimen without
fracture.

The following are the main types of impact tests undertaken:

(i) Izod Impact Test

Figure shows an Izod impact testing machine. It consists of an anvil in which

a notched specimen can be fixed. The specimen is taken of some standard
dimensions. While fixing, care is to be taken to have the notch on the side of
the falling hammer and the level with the level of top face of the hammer.

Page 53 of 60
(ii) Charpy Impact Test

This test is similar to the Izod impact test except that instead of fixing the
notched specimen in the anvil, it is supported at each end as a beam as
shown in Figure. The hammer strikes at notch in the centre. Impact tests are
important as they can reveal the temper brittleness in heat treated materials
such as nickel chrome steels.

Testing of materials:

Testing of materials is very important part of the from the point of view of
design and manufacturing. It provides the information of material properties,
help in ensuring the quality, help in preventing the failures and also helps to
make choices among different available materials.

There are mainly two types of testing performed on materials named

Mechanical testing and Non-destructive testing. Here, only mechanical testing
will be discussed.

Mechanical Testing

Mechanical testing is a destructive type of testing that utilizes static or

dynamic forces to reveal the properties of the material. Mechanical testing
includes the different types of testing such as Tensile test, hardness testing,
impact test, fatigue test, creep test, bend test, etc.

1. Tensile testing:

This test is performed on the universal testing machines (UTM). In this test,
the specimen is subjected to uniaxial tensile force in a controlled way until its

Page 54 of 60
failure. This test helps us in accessing the following properties ductility, yield
strength, tensile strength, Young's modulus (E), and Poisson's ratio (μ).

Select the standard specimen and grip it in the crossheads with proper
adjustment. While setting up the job, use the adjusting knob to make zero at
lower points to zero to remove the dead weight of the lower table. Now, lock
the job, fix the extensometer between the gauge length ( to find the
extension), and apply the

Ductility: It relates the elongation during the tensile test of the material and it
is defined as the percentage elongation.

Tensile strength: It is defined as the maximum load per unit cross-section

area which the material can bear before breaking. It is given as:

Yield Strength: It is the strength of the material above which permanent

deformation takes place in the material under stress.

Young's Modulus (E): It is also known as the modulus of elasticity (E) of the
material and it represents the stiffness of the material. It is the measure of the
regain of shape and size of the material on the removal of the load.

Compression Test:

A compression test is also carried on the universal testing machine (UTM).

Here, the load applied is compressive in nature and specimen is loaded till it
fails.

Page 55 of 60
The compression test is generally carried out for the Brittle materials.

2. Hardness Test

Hardness is the surface property of the material which shows the resistance
of a material against indentation, penetration and scratching.

Hardness test are as follows:

1. Brinell Hardness test: In Brinell hardness test a steel or tungsten carbide

ball is used to make a impression in the material under a specified load.

2.Vickers Hardness test: It uses the pyramid indenter of square shape and
length of the diagonals of the indentation is measured to calculate the
hardness number. It is suitable for very hard and tough materials.

Page 56 of 60
Vickers hardness number is given by:

Where F is the applied force (in kg) and D is the average diameter of the
diagonals measured.

3. Rockwell Hardness test: Rockwell test sues the diamond cone-shaped or

spherical ball type of indenter for the indentation purpose. There are many
scales in the Rockwell testing but C scale is the most commonly used scale
and hardness on it is denoted as HRC.

3. Toughness or Impact test

Toughness tests are carried at high strain rates and the energy absorbed by
the materials in breaking the specimen is considered the toughness of the
material. There are two types of impact tests named Izod and Charpy tests.

Izod test:

For Izod impact testing, the specimen is kept vertically as a cantilever beam.
The specimen is kept in such a way that the notch side faces the striking
hammer.

Page 57 of 60
Charpy test:

The Charpy test shows whether a metal is either brittle or ductile and it is used
for predicting ductile to brittle transition.

In the Charpy test, the specimen is placed horizontally and fixed at both ends
i.e. it is a simply supported beam. Striking hammer strikes from the opposite
side of the notch.

4. Flexural or Bending Test

The bend test is a qualitative test that can be used to access the ductility and
soundness of a workpiece. Generally, it is used for the butt-welded joints to
control their quality.

In bend tests, the Rectangular specimen is supported at both ends, and then
the load is applied vertically at one or two points. The fracture stress in
bending is called as the modulus of rupture, flexural strength.

Page 58 of 60
5. Shear Test:

The shear test is used to determine the shear strength of the material which is
the maximum shear stress that the material can bear before the appearance
of any failure. It plays a key role in the design of fasteners such as bolts and
screws.

6. Fatigue Test:

Fatigue is the permanent failure of the material due to fluctuating stresses

and failure takes place below the yield point of the metal. The number of
cycles at which failure occurs is measured and these can vary from a couple
of hundreds to millions of cycles.

The failure of the specimen under rotating loading is termed fatigue failure.
Rotating loading results in completely reversed stresses.

The results of the fatigue test are plotted as an S–N curve which is the
graphical representation of stress amplitude and the number of stress cycles
(N) before the fatigue failure on a log-log graph paper.

Page 59 of 60
Page 60 of 60