ACIDS

An acid is a substance, which when dissolved in water produces hydrogen H+ as

the only positive ion e.g.
HCI H+ + Cl-
HNO3 H+ + NO-3
This is called ionization.
An acid is also defined as a substance which in aqueous solution produces
hydroxonium (oxonium) ion H3O+ as the only positive ion e.g
HCl(aq) + H2O(i) H3O+(ag) + Cl- (ag)
HNO3(aq) + H2O(i) H3O(aq) + NO3(aq)
H+(aq) + H2O(i) H3O+(aq)
We have two types of acids: Organic, and Inorganic. Organic acids occur as natural
products in plants and animals e.g ethanoic acid from vinegar, lactic acid from
milk, citric acid from lime, lemon while inorganic acids are prepared from
inorganic matter e.g. HCl, HNO3, H3PO.
BASICITY of an acid is the number of replaceable hydrogen ions H+ in one
molecule of the acid. Basicity of some common acids include:
Acids Ions produced Basicity
HCl H+ Cl- 1 or monobasic
H2SO4 2H+ SO2-4 2 or dibasic
H3PO4 3H+ PO3-4 3 or tribasic
CH3COOH H+ CH3COO- 1 or monobasic

NOTE: Not all the hydrogen atoms in a molecule of an acid are replaceable by a
metal e.g. in CH3COOH, and one hydrogen ion is replaceable.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
1. Dilute acids have sour taste.
2. Acids turn blue litmus red.
3. Concentrated forms of strong acids like HCl, HNO3 are corrosive.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
Acids react with some metals like Zinc, iron and magnesium to liberate H2 gas.
Acid + metal Salt + Hydrogen
2HCl + Zn(s) ZnCl2 + H2
Acids react with insoluble bases and alkalis (soluble bases) to form salts and water
only. This is called neutralization reaction.
Acid + base Salt + Water
H2SO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) K2SO4 + 2H2O(i)
Acids react with trioxocarbonates IV to liberate CO2.
2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(i) + Co2(g)
acid sodium trioxocarbonate IV salt water carbon IV oxide

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DILUTE AND CONCENTRATED ACID

If a large amount of water is added to a small amount of acid, the resulting acid
solution is dilute acid. If only a little water is added to a relatively huge amount of
acid, the solution will be concentrated acid.

DEFINITION OF STRONG ACIDS AND WEAK ACIDS

Strong acids are acids that dissociate completely or almost completely in water.
Strong acids can also be defined as acid that produces large amount of hydrogen
(H+) in water. Examples of strong acids are HCl, H2SO4, HNO3.

HCl H+ + Cl-
100 96% of hydrogen ion

Weak Acids are acids that only dissociate partially in water. Weak acids only gives
small amount of H+ when dissolve in water. Examples of weak acids are
CH3COOH, H2SO3, C2H5COOH, etc.

CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+
100 4% 4% remaining CH3COOH will not
dissociate

PREPARATION OF ACIDS

1. By the reaction between an acid anhydride and water e.g. carbon IV oxide
dissolve in water to form a weak acid trioxocarbonate IV acid.
 CO(g) + H2O H2CO3
trioxocarbonate IV acid

b. SO3 sulphur VI oxide.

SO3 dissolves in water to form H2SO4
SO3 + H2O H2SO4

c. SO2 sulphur IV oxide.

SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)

Acid anhydrides are non- metallic oxides. They dissolve in water to produce acids.

2. By direct combination of constituent elements in the presences of suitable

catalyst e.g. Hydrogen gas combines with chlorine in the presence of
activated charcoal as the catalyst.
H2(g) + Cl2(g) activated 2HCl(g)
charcoal
hydrochloric acid
H2(g) + Br2(g) platinum
2HBr(g)
hydrobromine acid
3. By displacing a weaker or more volatile acid from its salts by a stronger or
less volatile acid e.g.
NaCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) NaHSO4(aq) + HCl(aq)
. hydrochloric acid

USES OF ACIDS

1. In the manufacture of fertilizers, dyes, detergents, explosives, plastics and

other chemicals.
2. In dissolving metals and to remove rust.
3. In the production of salts, soft drinks and baking powder.
4. As food preservatives and mild antiseptic or germicides.
5. In oil refineries.
6. As an electrolyte in dead acid.
7. As a drying, dehydrating and oxidizing agents.

BASES
A base is a substance which will neutralize an acid to yield salt and water only.
Bases are oxides or hydroxide of metals. Examples of bases are Na2O, K2O,
NaOH, KOH. Alkalis are soluble bases.
An alkali is a compound which produces hydroxyl ions OH when dissolved in
water.

NaOH(s) + H2O(i) OH-(aq) + Na+(aq)

Na2O(s) + H2O(i) NaOH(aq)

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF BASES/ ALKALIS

1. Alkalis have a bitter taste.

2. Alkalis turn red litmus paper blue.
3. Alkalis have soapy feel.
4. Concentrated alkalis like NaOH and KOH are corrosive.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF BASES/ ALKALIS

1. Neutralization reaction in bases react with acids to form salt and water only.

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O

2. Reaction with Ammonium Salt: Alkalis react with ammonium salts in the
presence of heat to give ammonia gas.

Ca[OH]2(aq) + 2NH4Cl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O + 2NH3(g)

ammonia gas

PREPARATION OF BASES/ ALKALIS

1. Most metals combine directly with oxygen when heated to form basic
oxides.
2Ca(g) + O2(g) 2CaO(s)
2. Soluble oxides of metals dissolve in water to give alkalis.
Na2O(s) + H2O(i) 2NaOH(aq)
3. Some metals react with water or steam to produce alkalis and hydrogen.
Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)
. magnesium oxide

STRONG BASE AND WEAK BASE

Strong base is a base that fully dissociates to give large amount of OH- ions in
solution. Examples of strong base are NaOH, Ca[OH]2. Weak base dissociates only
partially to give small amount of OH- ions in solution.

USES OF SOME ALKALIS

1. NaOH is used in petrol refining and in the manufacturing of soap, sodium

salts and plastics.
2. KOH is used in dyeing and electroplating and in the manufacturing of liquid
soap.
3. Ca[OH]2 is used in neutralizing of acidic soils and in the manufacture of
mortar, cement and plaster.
4. NH4OH is used as reagent in the laboratory and is used for bleaching cloth
and as detergent.
5. Alkalis are important substances used in industries for the manufacture of
glass, soap, paper, crayon and softening of hard water.

MEASUREMENT OF ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY

The pH scale is a numbered scale from 0 to 14, used to measure the degree of
acidity or alkalinity of a solution. pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration.
pH meter or a universal indicator can be used to measure pH of a solution.

A solution with a pH value of 7 is neutral i.e. is neither acidic nor alkaline. pH

value less than 7 is acidic and acidity increases as the number decreases while pH
value of more than 7 is alkaline and alkalinity increases as the value increases
above 7.

PH RANGE AND COLOR CHANGES OF A UNIVERSAL INDICATOR

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Red Orange Yellow Green Blu Violet Purple

e

ACID- BASE INDICATOR

Indicators are weak organic acids or bases (dyes) which identify chemical
compounds as an acid or a base by their color change in solution as the pH of the
solution changes.
UNIVERSAL INDICATOR

This is a mixture of indicators which work at different pH ranges. Examples of

some indicators and color change in acid or base/ alkaline medium.

INDICATOR COLOR IN ACIDIC COLOR IN ALKALINE

SOLUTION SOLUTION

Methyl Orange Red Yellow

Litmus Red Blue

Phenolphthalein Colorless Pink

pH: The pH is the logarithm to base 10 of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion
concentration.
pH= log10[1/H+] or pH= -log10H+

Example: Find the pH of a solution with H+ ion concentration (a) 0.001m (b)
0.0005m
(a) [H+] = 0.001m = 10-3 mol/dm3
pH = -log10[-103]
= - [-3] log1010
= 3, since log1010 = 1.
= 3.
(b) [H ] = 0.00005m = 5.0 x 10-4 mol/dm3
+

= log10 [H+] = [-log105.0 + log1010-4]

= - [0.7 – 4log1010]
= -[0.7 – 4] = 3.3

IMPORTANCE OF pH

1. Knowledge of pH value is used to control the quality of public water supply.

2. It is also useful in medicine and pharmacy.
3. Knowledge of pH is used in agriculture activities to control the acidity or
alkalinity of soil.
4. It is also important in sewage disposal, treatment of industrial waste and
environmental protection of rivers.

SALTS
A salt is the compound formed when all or part of the replaceable (ionizable)
hydrogen of an acid is replaced by metallic or ammonium ions. Most salts are
formed by neutralization reaction.
Acid + Base Salt + Water

TYPES OF SALTS

There are five main types of salts namely normal salts, acid salts, basic salts,
double salts, and complex salts.
1. NORMAL SALTS: They are formed when all the replaceable hydrogen ions in
an acid have been completely replaced by metallic ions or base.
HCl(g) + KOH(aq) KCl(aq) + H2O(water)
2. ACID SALTS: Acid salts are formed when the replaceable hydrogen ions in
acid are only partially replaced by a metal.
H2SO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaHSO4(aq) + H2
acid salts

Acid salts have hydrogen atom in their molecule. Acid salts can react with more
base to form a normal salt.
NaHPO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) Na3PO4(aq) + H2O(i)
sodium tetraoxosulphate V

3. BASIC SALTS: Basic Salts are formed when there is an insufficient supply of
acid which is needed for the complete neutralization of the base. Basic salts
contains hydroxide ion, OH in their molecule and have properties of a base.
Example of basic salts are Ba(OH)Cl, Barium hydroxide Chloride, Zinc hydroxide
Chloride – Zn(OH) Cl(aq)
Basic salts can react with more acid to form normal salts.
Zn(OH)Cl(aq) + HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2O
zinc hydride chloride zinc chloride

Basic Salts Normal Salts

4. DOUBLE SALTS: Double salts are salts which ionize to produce 3 different
types of ions in a solution. Usually, two of those ions are positively charged (they
are metallic or ammonium ions), while the third is negatively charged.
(NH4)2 Fe(SO4)2 Fe2+, NH+4 and SO2-4
ammonium iron II

tetraoxosulphate IV

5. COMPLEX SALTS: Complex salts contain complex ions e.g.

Na2Zn(OH)4(aq) 2Na+(aq) + [Zn(OH)4]2-(aq)
sodium tetraoxozincate
PREPARATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS

1. Reaction of dilute acid on a metal: Direct displacement of the hydrogen ion

in an acid by a metal leads to formation of a salt. E.g.
Zn(s) + HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
metal acid salt hydrogen

Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)

2. By neutralization reaction: Reaction between an acid and a base leads to
formation of a salt.
2NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O
base acid salt water

3. Reaction of a dilute acid and trioxocarbonate IV salt: Trioxocarbonate IV

reacts with acid to give salt, H2O and CO2.
HCl(aq) + CaCo3 CaCl2(aq) + H2O(i) + Co2(g)
4. By direct combination of the constituent elements: Examples include Iron III
Chloride which is prepared by passing dry chlorine gas over heated iron
filling.
2Fe(s) + 3Cl2 heat 2FeCl2(s)
Iron III Chloride

PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS

1. Double Decantation: Double decantation involves exchange of ionic radicals

of the reactants.
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4(aq) + NaCl(aq)
barium tetraoxosulphate IV sodium chloride

2. Combination of constituent elements: Insoluble salts are also prepared by the

direct combination of constituent elements e.g. sulphides, salts.
Ha + Cl2(q) HgCl2(s)
Fe(s) + S(s) FeS(s)
iron sulphide

USES

1. Salts are used in the manufacture of many industrial and agricultural

substances.
2. Sodium chloride is used
a. As preservatives for meat, fish and other perishable foods.
 b. In soap making, to separate soap from glycerin.
3. Sodium trioxocarbonate IV decahydrate can be used in water softening,
glass and paper making.
4. Sodium hydrogen trioxocarbonate IV is used as baking powder.

WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION

Hydrated salts contain a fixed definite amount of water known as the water of
crystallization e.g.
CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(i) CuSO4 + 5H2O
anhydrous copper II hydrated salt

tetraoxosulphate VI salt

SALTS WITH WATER OF SALTS WITHOUT WATER OF

CRYSTALLIZATION CRYSTALLIZATION

Blue copper II tetraoxosulphate VI Sodium chloride; NaCl

pentahydrate; CuSO4, 5H20

Iron II tetraoxosulphate VI Potassium trioxonitrate V; KNO3

teplahydrate; FeSO4, 7H2O

Sodium trioxocarbonate IV Ammonium oxosulphate VI;

decahydrate; Na2CO3, 10H2O (NH4)2SO4

Water of crystallization can be removed easily from the crystals either by heating
the salt or by dehydrating with concentrated acid like H2SO4 to form anhydrous
salt. Anhydrous salt is salt that do not contain water of crystallization.

DETERMINING WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION

7.47g of hydrated Copper II tetraoxosulphate VI crystals were heated in a dish to

constant mass. The residue was found to weigh 4.77g. Calculate the number of
moles of water crystallization in the hydrated salt. [Cu=63.5, S=32, O=16, H=10]

Formula of anhydrous copper II tetraoxosulphate VI is CuSO4.

Molar mass of CuSO4 x H2O= 63.5 + 32 + (4 x 16) + 18x.
159.5 + 18x.
Molar mass of CuSO4 = 63.5 + 32 + (4 x 16)
= 159.5
Mass of hydrated CuSO4 x H2O = 7.47g
Mass of anhydrous CuSO4 = 4.77g
Mass of H2O lost = (7.47 – 4.77) = 2.70g

FORMULA FOR CALCULATING NUMBER OF WATER OF MOLECULES

Mass of water lost___ = Molar mass of water loss___

Mass of hydrated salt Molar mass of hydrated salt

For this example,

Mass of water loss_____ = Molar mass of xH2O____________

Mass of hydrated CuSO4 Molar mass of CuSO4 hydrated salt

2.7_ =
_____18x______
7.47 159.5 + 18x
7.47 x 18x = (2.7 x 159.5) + (18x x 2.70)
(18x x 7.47) – (18x x 2.70) = 159.5 x 2.7
18x (7.47-2.70) = 159.5 x 2.7
18x x 4.70 = 430.65
84.6x = 430.65
x = 430.65
84.6 x = 5.09 or 5 moles.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOME SALTS

EFFLORESCENCE: Some hydrated salts, when exposed to the atmosphere, give

off part or all of their water of crystallization spontaneously to form a lower
dehydrated or anhydrous salt. The salts are said to be efflorescent and this
phenomenon is efflorescence. For example:
Na2CO3, 10H2O(s) Na2CO3, H2O(q) + 9H2O
sodium trioxocarbonate decahydrate sodium trioxocarbonate IV

DELIQUESCENCE: Some salts absorbs much water from the atmosphere that
they dissolve in it to form an aqueous solution of the compounds. This
phenomenon is known as deliquescence and the substances are said to be
deliquescent. Examples of such substances are Calcium chloride, CaCl2, Sodium
hydroxide, NaOH, Potassium hydroxide, KOH.
HYGROSCOPY: Hygroscopic compounds also absorb water when exposed to
atmosphere, but will not form solution. Rather, they become moist or sticky.
Examples include: Calcium Oxide CaO, Copper II oxide, CuO and concentrated
H2So4

DRYING AGENTS

Hygroscopic and deliquescent compounds are very useful as drying agents. For
example, dry gases in the laboratory are called dehydration are called drying agents
or desiccator because of their great affinity for water.
NOTE: A dry agent must not be able to react with the gas to be dried.

COMMON DRYING AGENTS AND THE GASES THEY DRY

DRYING AGENT GASES THAT THESE DRYING

AGENTS DRY

Concentrated Tetraoxosulphate VI All gases except Ammonia, H2S

Fused Calcium Chloride All gases except Ammonia

Phosphorus IV Oxide All gases except Ammonia

Calcium Oxide (Quick lime) Ammonia gases

Silica gel Suitable for all gases

Drying agents are commonly used in desiccators for drying substances.

Desiccator
Substance to be dried

Wire gauze
Drying agent

IONIC REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS

Most acids, alkalis and salts dissolve in water to form . It is these ions, they
react together with, to form other components. Therefore, their reactions can be
referred to as ionic reactions. For example:
H+Cl-(aq) + Na+OH-(aq) Na+Cl-(aq) + H2O(i)
CONDUCTANCE OF ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Most acids, bases and salts are electrolytes. Electrolytes are substances in solution
or molten form which conduct electric current and is decomposed. Extent on
electrolytes will conduct electricity will depend on its ionization in water. Strong
electrolytes are strong acids e.g. H2SO4 and alkalis NaOH and most ionize
completely in solution while weak electrolytes e.g. weak acid e.g. CH3COOH
ionize only slightly in water.

CARBON
Carbon has a symbol of C, 6 electrons, electronic configuration of 2, 4. Carbon
uses valency of 4 to form mainly covalent compounds. Carbon occurs naturally in
pure form as diamond and graphite. Impure form of carbon are coal, Co2, natural
gas, petroleum and wood. Compounds of carbon includes CaCO3, MgCO3, CO2,
CO. Carbon is also an essential constituent of all living things.

ALLOTROPY is the ability of an element to exist in three or more structural forms

in the same physical state. Crystalline carbon are DIAMOND and GRAOHITE,
while the amorphous or non- crystalline forms of carbon are coal, coke, charcoal,
lamp- black, sugar charcoal and animal charcoal.

DIAMOND: Diamond is the purest form of naturally occurring carbon. It is found

as colourless, lusterless and stainless solid. Diamond is octahedral in shape. It is an
eight sided figure. Carbon uses its four valency to form covalent bonds. It is a giant
molecule in which the carbon atoms are relatively packed. When graphite is
subjected to very high pressure and temperature for several hours in the presence
of a catalyst such as nickel, artificial diamond is formed.
Graphite Nickel Diamond
high temperature

PROPERTIES OF DIAMOND

1. It is the hardest known substance.

2. It has a high melting point.
3. It is very dense and resistant to high temperature and chemical attack.
4. It is a non- conductor of heat and electricity because it has no free valence
electrons.
STRUCTURE OF THE DIAMOND

USES OF DIAMOND

1. Diamond is used as abrasives to sharpen very hard tools because diamond is

very hard and very dense.
2. It is used in the manufacture of glass, cutters and lock breaker.
3. Diamond is also used as a pivot support in precision instruments.
4. It has a high refractive index so it is used as jewelry.

GRAPHITE: Carbon atoms, in graphite are arranged in layers made up of

hexagonal rings with spaces in between the layers of structures. Bond between the
carbon atoms in the rings are strong but the layers are held together by weak
Vander Waals forces. It is the weak force that allows movement of the plane
parallel to each other and it is this that makes graphite a good conductor of heat.

PROPERTIES OF GRAPHITE

1. Graphite is an opaque, soft, crystalline solid with metallic luster. It is

chemically inert and has a high melting point, but less dense than diamond.
2. Graphite is a good conductor of heat and electricity because of the presence
of mobile electrons in the crystal lattice.
USES OF GRAPHITE

1. Graphite is used as a lubricant in engine.

2. Mixture of graphite and clay is used in the manufacture of lead pencils.
3. It is used as electrodes in electrolytes because it is a good conductor of
electricity.
4. Graphite is used as a black pigment in paints and as neutron moderator in
atomic piles.

DIFFERENCES IN PROPERTIES OF DIAMOND AND GRAPHITE

DIAMOND GRAPHITE

Colourless, transparent solid with high Black, opaque solid with a metallic
refractive index lustre

Density is 3.5g/cm3 Average density is 2.3g/cm3

Hardest natural substance known Very soft

Non- conductor of electricity Good conductor of electricity

Octahedral in shape Hexagonal in shape

Very inert but burns in air about 9000C More reactive than diamond but burns
to form CO2 in air at about 7000C and reacts with
HNO3 to form oxides

AMORPHOUS CARBON

Amorphous carbon are non- crystalline and impure form of carbon.

1. Wood charcoal: formed when wood is burned in limited supply of air. It is a

good absorbent of poisonous gases, also, it is used for the purification of
noble gases and the recovery of industrial solvents. Wood charcoal is also
used as domestic fuel.
2. Animal charcoal: is produced by heating bones in a limited supply of air. It
has a property of absorbing colouring matter, hence, it is used in
decolourizing crude sugar and petroleum jelly.
 3. Sugar charcoal: Sugar charcoal is formed when sugar is dehydrated either by
burning sugar in a limited supply of air or by the use of concentrated H2SO4
on sugar.

C6H12O6 Conc. H2SO4

6C + 6H2O
Dehydration

4. Carbon black, lamp black or soot: Lamp black is obtained by burning the
wick of an oil lamp excessively so that it leaves a deposit of soot on the
lamp glass. While carbon black is obtained from coal gas, natural gas or
petroleum, carbon black is used on additive to rubber, in the manufacture of
rubber tyres. Carbon black is also used in making printers ink, carbon paper,
black shoe polish, typewriting ribbons and for hardening the plastics for hi-
fi records. A system that produces sound image with high accuracy.

COAL

Coal is a black organic rock formed from the vegetation of carboniferous period
which was protected from complete decay by overlaying water washed earth
deposits. There are four types of coal, peat, lignite (brown coal), bi luminous (soft
coal) and anthracite (hard coal). Coal is widely used as fuel to generate power for
steam engines, factories, electrical plants, domestic heating and for making various
chemicals.

DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF COAL

When coal is heated to a very high temperature in the absence of air, the process is
called destructive distillation of coal. Destructive distillation of coal yields four
main products namely coke, ammonia Cal liquor, coal tar and coal gas.

COAL destructive distillation Coke, Ammonia Cal liquor + Coal Tar + Coal Gas
at very high temp. absence of air

COKE: is the non- volatile residue left behind after the destructive distillation of
coal. It burns smoothly without smoke. It is used as both industrial and domestic
fuel. Also, in the manufacture of gaseous fuel and as a reducing agent in the
extraction of metals from their ores.

AMMONIA CAL LIQUOR: is a solution of ammonia in water. It is used in the

preparation of ammonium tetraoxosulphate VI which is used as a fertilizer.
COAL TAR: is a thick, black liquid. It is a mixture of many organic substances
such as benzene, toluene, etc. Coal tar is used in the synthesis of useful chemicals
e.g disinfectants or killing insect pests and microorganisms.

COAL GAS: is a volatile substance made up of a mixture of gases such as

hydrogen, methane, carbon II oxide, ethane, etc. Coal gas is a gaseous fuel.

GASEFICATION OF COKE (FUEL GASES)