Springer Series in Optical Sciences

Volume 213

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William T. Rhodes, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, USA

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Ali Adibi, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, USA
Toshimitsu Asakura, Hokkai-Gakuen University, Sapporo, Japan
Theodor W. Hänsch, Max-Planck-Institut für Quantenoptik, Garching, Germany
Ferenc Krausz, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Garching, Germany
Barry R. Masters, Cambridge, USA
Katsumi Midorikawa, Saitama, Japan
Bo A. J. Monemar, Department of Physics and Measurement Technology,
Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
Herbert Venghaus, Fraunhofer Institut für Nachrichtentechnik, Berlin, Germany
Horst Weber, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Harald Weinfurter, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, München,
Germany
Springer Series in Optical Sciences

The Springer Series in Optical Sciences, under the leadership of Editor-in-Chief

William T. Rhodes, Georgia Institute of Technology, USA, provides an expanding
selection of research monographs in all major areas of optics: lasers and quantum
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Arthur McGurn

Nanophotonics

123
Arthur McGurn
Department of Physics
Western Michigan University
Kalamazoo, MI
USA

ISSN 0342-4111 ISSN 1556-1534 (electronic)

Springer Series in Optical Sciences
ISBN 978-3-319-77071-0 ISBN 978-3-319-77072-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77072-7
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018933512

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

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Dedicated to my wife, Maria.
Preface

This book is meant as an introduction to nanophotonics for students. It covers a

number of topics that are important to the subject and which supply a basis for
continuing on to a more advanced undertaking in the field. References to the recent
literature and reviews of that literature are provided to direct the student on to a
more advanced treatment.
The focus in the presentations is on analytical treatments. These often provide
insight into the principles operating in a phenomenon. Such insights are not as
readily available in computer simulation methods. However, work in nanophotonics
is often simulation oriented so that the commonly used methods of computer
simulation in electrodynamics are explained.
A chapter on mathematical preliminaries discusses common methods used in the
study of composite and periodic media, providing an introduction to material sci-
ence techniques. Simulation methods are also addressed, undertaking a basic
consideration of the standard simulation techniques.
A focus is on presenting an introduction to photonic crystals, plasmonics, and
metamaterials as foundations of many nanophotonic studies. Discussions of optical
waveguides, circuitry, and impurity systems are presented for these types of media.
In addition, topics of negative refraction, perfect lenses, and the propagation of
radiation in metamaterials are introduced. Enhanced transmission is discussed along
with a variety of other device-related properties in these types of engineered media.
Forces in nanosystems are discussed, involving a variety of magnetic, electric,
and electrodynamic effects. These have various technological applications in
biology, nanoscience systems, and nanomechanical devices. Included in these
discussions are diverse nanoparticle mechanical interactions, the optical tweezer,
Penning and Paul ion traps, and the Casimir force between surfaces.
A brief review of the properties of lasers is given. The approach is based on the
ideas of nonlinearity and the similarity of the laser transition to that of a
second-order phase transition. A focus is on discussions of the vertical column laser
and on spasers. Unlike lasers, the spaser involves the generation of coherent surface
plasmon polaritons in nanooptical systems.

vii
viii Preface

Basic principles of near-field microscopy are presented. This technique intro-

duces the possibility of sub-wavelength resolution of optical images. As such it
provides for a significant advance in optical imaging technology.
A final topic is a discussion of the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox, the Bell’s
inequality, and an introduction to quantum computing. These have been of great
current interest and provide a potential for the application of many of the ideas in
nanophotonics.
In the history of the development of nanophotonics, a variety of different sys-
tems of units have been used to present new results. In the presentation given here,
the development of the various results has been made in the original system of units
in which they were formulated.
The author would like to thank the Department of Physics at the University of
California, Riverside, for extending the use of the University Library. I also thank
Ms. Robin De Haan in our Physics Department at Western Michigan University for
help with Word. I thank Western Michigan University for providing the opportunity
to write this book.

Rancho Mirage, California Arthur McGurn

Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 1
1.1 Mathematical Preliminaries and Examples of Specific
Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Photonic Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Metamaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Plasmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.5 Nonlinear Properties of Nano-optical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6 Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.7 Near-Field Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.8 Quantum Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.9 The Focus of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2 Mathematical Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1 Dielectric Properties of Composites and Photonic Crystals . . . . . 30
2.1.1 General Theory for Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2 General Theory for Periodic Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3 Finite Difference Time Domain Simulations, Method
of Moments, and Finite Element Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 68
2.3.1 Computer Simulation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 68
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... 92
3 Photonic Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 93
3.1 Plane Wave Expansion Methods for the Determination
of Photonic Crystal Band Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 96
3.2 Green’s Function Method for Impurity Modes
in Photonic Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.3 Method of Wannier Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.4 Photonic Crystal Waveguides: Analytical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

ix
x Contents

4 Plasmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.1 Surface Plasmon-Polaritons on a Planar Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
4.1.1 Example of a Dielectric-Metal or Semiconductor
Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
4.1.2 Example of a Dielectric-Dielectric Interface . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.1.3 Example of a Metallic Slab in Vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.2 Surface Plasmon-Polariton Modes for Shape Resonances,
Gratings, and Light Scattering from Rough Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . 183
4.2.1 Shape Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
4.2.2 Scattering from Gratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.2.3 Scattering from Rough Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.2.4 Surface Plasmon-Polariton Modes for Light Scattering
from Thin Films with Rough Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
4.2.5 Speckle Correlations in the Reflection and
Transmission of Light Through a Thin Film . . . . . . . . . 236
4.3 Some Application of Plasmon-Polaritons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
4.3.1 Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
4.3.2 Subwavelength Properties in Light-Guiding, Spasers,
and Plasmonic Circuitry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
4.3.3 Plasmonic Subwavelength Enhanced Transmission
of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
5 Metamaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
5.1 Basic Properties of Metamaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
5.1.1 Properties of Split Ring Resonators and Split Ring
Resonator Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
5.1.2 Negative Refractive Index Metamaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
5.1.3 Refraction Between Positive and Negative
Index Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
5.2 Perfect Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
5.2.1 Ideas of the Perfect Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
5.2.2 Other Applications of Positive–Negative
Refractive Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
5.3 Radiation in a Negative Indexed Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
5.3.1 Doppler Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
5.3.2 Cherenkov Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
5.4 Application of Metamaterials in Antenna Design . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
5.5 Photonic Crystal Solutions to the Negative Refractive Index
Problem and Hyperbolic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
5.5.1 Photonic Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
5.5.2 Hyperbolic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Contents xi

6 Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
6.1 Magnetic Forces for the Manipulation of Nanoparticles . . . . . . . . 386
6.1.1 Review of Magnetostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
6.1.2 Forces on Ferromagnetic Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
6.1.3 Forces on Paramagnetic Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
6.1.4 Forces on Diamagnetic Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
6.2 Electric Forces for the Manipulation of Nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . 395
6.3 Ion Traps Based on Electric Forces: Paul and Penning Traps . . . 396
6.3.1 Earnshaw’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
6.3.2 Time-Dependent Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
6.3.3 Paul and Penning Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
6.4 Optical Tweezer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
6.4.1 Momentum Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
6.4.2 Momentum Consideration of Light Incident on Slabs
and Spherical Particles in the Geometric
Optics Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
6.4.3 Force on a Dielectric Sphere When the Wavelength
of Light Is Large Compared to the Sphere Radius . . . . . 406
6.5 Casimir Effect and Casimir Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
6.5.1 Theory of Casimir Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
7 Lasers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
7.1 A Simplified Model of Laser Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
7.1.1 Statistical Properties of the N Atom System . . . . . . . . . . 425
7.1.2 Laser Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
7.2 Semiconductor Lasers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
7.2.1 Homojunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
7.2.2 Heterojunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
7.2.3 Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
7.3 Spasers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
8 Near Field Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
8.1 Evanescent Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
8.2 Model of a Surface Probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
8.3 First Proposal by Synge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
8.4 Subsequent Realizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
8.5 An Experimental Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
9 Nonlinear Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
9.1 Photonic Crystal Composed of Kerr Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
9.1.1 Model of Finite Kerr Nonlinear Layers: Scattering
Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
xii Contents

9.2 Generation of Second Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477

9.2.1 Basics of Second Harmonic Generation and the Phase
Matching Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
9.2.2 Applications of Photonic Crystal and Metamaterials to
Second Harmonic Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
10 Quantum Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
10.1 Bell’s Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
10.2 Entanglement and the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Paper . . . . . . . . . 500
10.2.1 Nature of Entangled and Non-entangled State
Wavefunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
10.2.2 Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
10.2.3 Measurements of Entanglement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
10.3 Quantum Information and Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
10.3.1 Ideas of Classical Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
10.3.2 Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545