Electricity and chemical substances

The effect of electricity on chemical substances

Some materials or substances allow electricity to flow through them while others do not.
Material or substance that conduct electricity contain either free mobile electrons (in
metals) or ions (in molten or aqueous ionic compounds).

Terms to be used
1. Electricity is the flow of charge
2. A conductor is a substance or material that allows charge/ electricity to flow through it
e.g. metals.
3. A non-conductor (or insulator) is a substance or material that does not allow charge/
electricity to flow through it e.g. wood, plastic
4. An electrolyte is a compound which when in molten state or aqueous state will conduct
an electric current and will be decomposed by it.
a) A strong electrolyte is one which is completely ionized in aqueous or molten states.
Examples include; mineral acids (e.g. HCl, HNO3, H2SO4), alkalis (e.g. NaOH, KOH)
and salts (e.g. NaCl, CuSO4).
Strong electrolytes are very good conductors of electricity.
b) A weak electrolyte is one which is only slightly ionized in aqueous or molten states.
Examples include; water, ammonia solution and weak acids (e.g. carbonic acid,
ethanoic acid, oxalic acid)
Weak electrolytes are poor conductors of electricity because they only form few ions.
5. A non-electrolyte is a compound which when in molten or aqueous states does not
conduct electricity and cannot be decomposed by an electric current.
Examples include; cane sugar, alcohols, benzene, urea and most organic compounds.
Non-electrolytes only exist as molecules and are incapable of forming ions.
6. Electrolysis is the decomposition of a compound (electrolyte) either in molten state or
aqueous state by passing an electric current through it.

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Electricity and chemical substances

7. An electrode is a terminal or pole usually made of carbon or a metal through which

current (flow of electrons) enters or leaves the electrolyte.
a) Cathode is the electrode at which the electrons enter the electrolyte (or leave the
external circuit)
b) Anode is the electrode at which electrons leave the electrolyte (or enter the external
circuit).
Note: During electrolysis, the anode is the positive terminal while the cathode is the
negative terminal.

The ionic theory

It was put forward in 1880 by Arrhenius. It states that “electrolytes consist of both
positive and negative ions”.
The positive ions are called cations while the negative ions are called anions.
When in molten or aqueous states, ionic compounds ionize to form cations and anions.

Some examples of electrolytes and the ions they form when ionized
Ions formed when ionized
Electrolyte Formula Cation(s) Anion(s)
1. Sulphuric acid H2SO4 2H+ SO42−
2. Sodium chloride NaCl Na+ Cl−
3. Sodium hydroxide NaOH Na+ OH─
4. Copper(II) sulphate CuSO4 Cu2+ SO42−
5. Lead(II) nitrate Pb(NO3)2 Pb2+ 2NO3−
6. Ethanoic acid CH3COOH H+ CH3COO−
7. Potassium ethanoate CH3COOK K+ CH3COO−
8. Lead(II) bromide PbBr2 Pb2+ 2Br ─
9. Hydrochloric acid HCl ? ?

Water as an electrolyte
Water is a very weak electrolyte which is only slightly ionized
H2O (l) H+ (aq) + OH ¯ (aq)

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Electricity and chemical substances

Movement of electrons and ions during electrolysis

▪ The D.C supply such as battery is used to moves electrons through the wire to the
electrodes. This is the electric current outside the electrolyte.
▪ Electrons flow from D.C supply to the cathode where they are received by cations.
▪ In the electrolyte, cations (positive ions) are attracted to the cathode (negative electrode)
while anions (negative ions) are attracted to the anode (positive electrode). This flow of
ions is the electric current inside the electrolyte. The ions transfer electrons to the anode
then back to the D.C source
▪ At the cathode, cations discharge by gaining electrons (reduction reaction)
Examples of reduction reactions that occur at the cathode;
Cu2+ (aq) + 2e → Cu (s)
2H+ (aq) + 2e → H2 (g)
Na+ (aq) + e → Na (s)
Cl2 (g) + 2e → 2Cl─ (aq)
▪ At the anode, anions discharge by losing electrons (oxidation reaction)
Examples of oxidation reactions that can occur at the anode;
4OH─ (aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2 (g) + 4e
2Cl─ (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e
2Br─ (aq) → Br2 (g) + 2e
Cu(s) → Cu2+ (aq) + 2e

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Electricity and chemical substances

Memory aid for reactions that occur at the cathode and anode
ANOX REDCAT [Anode-Oxidation: Reduction-Cathode]
Remember: OIL-RIG (Oxidation Is Loss of electrons and Reduction Is Gaining of electrons)

The selective (preferential) discharge of ions during electrolysis

When two or more ions of similar charge are present under similar conditions in a given
electrolyte, only one is preferentially selected for discharge depending on the following
factors;
1. Position of the ion in the electrochemical series

During electrolysis, any ion in the electrolyte will discharge in preference to those above
it in the electrochemical series, keeping all the other factors constant.
For example, in an electrolyte consisting of both sodium (Na+) ions and hydrogen (H+)
ions, H+ ions will discharge at the cathode in preference to Na+ ions because H+ is lower
than Na+ in the electrochemical series.

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Electricity and chemical substances

2. Concentration of the ion

A high concentration of the ion in solution tends to promote its discharge.
For example, when concentrated Hydrochloric acid is electrolyzed, Cl− (from ionization
of HCl) will discharge in preference to OH─ (from the ionization of water) because of the
concentration effect. However, if the acid is very dilute, OH─ ions will discharge in
preference to Cl ¯.
3. Nature of the electrodes
The nature of the electrode used may sometimes influence the choice of ion for
discharge. For example; when sodium chloride solution is electrolyzed using platinum
cathode, H+ ions discharge in preference to Na+. However, if a mercury cathode is used,
Na+ ions discharge in preference to H+.

Electrolysis of various electrolytes

1. Electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid using platinum electrodes (electrolysis of
water).
Both electrodes are made up of platinum (platinum foil)

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Electricity and chemical substances

In aqueous sulphuric acid solution,

H2SO4 (aq) → 2H+ (aq) + SO42− (aq)
H2O (l) H+ (aq) + OH─ (aq)
Ions present: H+, SO42─, OH─

Reaction at the cathode

H+ ions migrate to the cathode and discharge by gaining electrons to form hydrogen gas.
Equation: 2H+ (aq) + 2e → H2 (g)
Observation: Bubbles of a colourless gas (hydrogen) that burns with a pop sound when
tested with a burning splint

Reaction at the anode

Both SO42− and OH─ ions migrate to the anode where OH─ ions discharge in preference
to SO42− ions because of OH─ ions being lower than SO42− ions in the electrochemical
series.
Equation: 4OH─ (aq) → 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e
Observation: Bubbles of a colourless gas (oxygen) that relights or rekindles a glowing
splint.

Overall equation for the reaction

Reaction at the cathode: (2H+(aq) + 2e → H2 (g) ) X2 ←so as to balance with the electrons lost at the anode
4H+(aq) + 4e → 2H2 (g) ………………………..(i)
Reaction at the anode: 4 OH─ (aq) → 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e ………….…(ii)
Add equation (i) + (ii): 4H+(aq) + 4OH─ (aq) + 4e → 2H2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e
Eliminate the 4e on either side of the equation
Overall equation: 4H+(aq) + 4OH─ (aq) → 2H2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)
The products of the reaction are hydrogen gas (at the cathode) and oxygen gas (at the
anode) in a ratio of 2:1 This is equivalent to the electrolysis of water.

2. Electrolysis of Copper(II) sulphate solution using platinum or carbon electrodes

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Electricity and chemical substances

In aqueous copper(II) sulphate solution,

CuSO4(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + SO42−(aq)
H2O(l) H+ (aq) + OH─(aq)
Ions present: Cu2+, H+, SO42─, OH─

Reaction at the cathode

Cu2+ and H+ ions migrate to the cathode where Cu2+ ions are discharged in preference
to H+ ions because Cu2+ is lower than H+ in the electrochemical series.
Equation: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e → Cu (s)
Observations:
• A brown solid (Copper metal) is deposited around the cathode resulting into increase
in size and mass of the cathode.
• The blue colour of Copper(II) sulphate solution fades and eventually turns colourless
due to the discharge of Cu2+ responsible for the blue colour.

Reaction at the anode

SO42– and OH─ ions migrate to the anode where OH─ discharge because of being lower
than SO42– in the electrochemical series.
Equation: 4 OH─(aq) → 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e

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Electricity and chemical substances

Observation: Bubbles of a colourless gas (oxygen) that relights a glowing splint.

Overall equation for the reaction

Reaction at the cathode: (Cu2+ (aq) + 2e → Cu (s))x2
2Cu2+ (aq) + 4e → 2Cu (s)
Reaction at the anode: 4OH─(aq) → 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e
Overall equation: 2Cu2+(aq) + 4OH─(aq) → 2Cu (s) + 2H2O (l) + O2(g)

Summary of observations
▪ Brown solid of copper metal is deposited at
the cathode (increases in size and mass)
▪ At the anode bubbles of a colourless gas
(oxygen) formed that relights a glowing
splint.
▪ Blue colour of copper(II) sulphate solution
fades and eventually turns colourless
▪ Solution becomes acidic due to H+ and
SO42– remaining in solution

3. Electrolysis of copper(II) sulphate solution using copper electrodes

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Electricity and chemical substances

In aqueous copper(II) sulphate solution,

CuSO4(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + SO42−(aq)
H2O(l) H+ (aq) + OH─(aq)
Ions present: Cu2+, H+, SO42─, OH─

Reaction at the cathode

Cu2+ and H+ ions migrate to the cathode where Cu2+ ions are discharged in preference
to H+ ions because Cu2+ is lower than H+ in the electrochemical series.
Equation: Cu2+ (aq) + 2e → Cu (s)
Observation: A brown solid (Copper metal) is deposited around the cathode resulting
into increase in size and mass of the cathode.

Reaction at the anode

Three possible oxidation reactions can occur at the cathode;
i) discharge of SO42– ions,
ii) discharge of OH─ and
iii) copper metal dissolving in solution to form Cu2+ ions.
Reaction (iii) occurs most readily
Equation: Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e
Observation: The anode dissolves, therefore reduces in size and mass.

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Electricity and chemical substances

Overall equation for the reaction

Reaction at the cathode: Cu2+(aq) + 2e → Cu (s)
Reaction at the anode: Cu (s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e
Overall equation:

Summary of observations
▪ Brown solid of copper metal is deposited at
the cathode (increases in size and mass)
▪ The anode dissolves therefore it reduces in
size and mass.
▪ Blue colour of copper(II) sulphate solution
does not fade since Cu2+ that discharge at
the cathode are replaced at the anode when
it dissolves. Therefore, the process only
transfers copper from the anode to the
cathode.
NB: This arrangement can be used to purify
copper whereby impure copper is made the
anode and pure copper the cathode.

4. Electrolysis of sodium hydroxide solution using platinum electrodes.

NB: the setup is the same as that for electrolysis of dilute sulphuric acid.
In aqueous sodium hydroxide solution,
NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH─ (aq)
H2O (l) H+ (aq) + OH─ (aq)
Ions present: Na+, H+, OH─

Reaction at the cathode

Na+ and H+ ions migrate to the cathode. H+ being lower than Na+ in the electrochemical
series discharge in preference to than Na+.
Equation: 2H+ (aq) + 2e → H2 (g)
Observation: Bubbles of a colourless gas (hydrogen) that burns with a pop sound when
tested with a burning splint

Reaction at the anode

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Electricity and chemical substances

OH─ ions migrate to the anode and discharge.

Equation: 4OH─ (aq) → 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e
Observation: Bubbles of a colourless gas (oxygen) that relights or rekindles a glowing
splint.

Overall equation for the reaction

Reaction at the cathode: 4H+(aq) + 4e → 2H2 (g)
Reaction at the anode: 4 OH─ (aq) → 2H2O (l) + O2 (g) + 4e
Overall equation: 4H+(aq) + 4OH─ (aq) → 2H2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)
NB: The process is equivalent to the electrolysis of water or dilute sulphuric acid.

5. Electrolysis of concentrated hydrochloric acid solution using carbon electrodes.

In solution,
HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)
H2O (l) H+ (aq) + OH─ (aq)
Ions present: H+, Cl─, OH─

Reaction at the cathode

H+ ions migrate to the cathode and discharge by gaining electrons to form hydrogen gas.
Equation: 2H+ (aq) + 2e → H2 (g)
Observation: Bubbles of a colourless gas (hydrogen) that burns with a pop sound when
tested with a burning splint

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Electricity and chemical substances

Reaction at the anode

Cl─ and OH─ ions migrate to the anode. Cl− ions discharge because of their greater
concentration in solution than OH─ ions.
Equation: 2Cl− (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e
Observation: A pale greenish−yellow gas (chlorine) is evolved which turns wet blue
litmus paper pink and then bleaches it.

Overall equation for the reaction

Reaction at the cathode: 2H+ (aq) + 2e → H2 (g)
Reaction at the anode: 2Cl− (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e
Overall equation: 2H+ (aq) + 2Cl− (aq) → H2 (g) + Cl2 (g)
Equal volumes of hydrogen gas and chlorine gas are produced.

NB: Electrolysis of dilute HCl yields H2 gas at the cathode and O2 gas at the anode due
to the discharge of OH─ instead of Cl−

6. Electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution (brine) using platinum or

carbon electrodes
NB: The setup is the same as for electrolysis of concentrated hydrochloric acid.
In solution,
NaCl (aq) → Na+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)
H2O (l) H+ (aq) + OH─ (aq)
Ions present: Na+, H+, Cl─, OH─

Reaction at the cathode

Na+ and H+ ions migrate to the cathode. H+ ions being lower in the electrochemical
series discharge in preference to Na+ ions. Hydrogen gas is evolved at the cathode.
Equation: 2H+ (aq) + 2e → H2 (g)
Observation: Bubbles of a colourless gas (hydrogen) that burns with a pop sound when
tested with a burning splint.

Reaction at the anode

Cl─ and OH─ ions migrate to the anode. Cl− ions discharge because of their greater
concentration in solution than OH─ ions.
Equation: 2Cl− (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e

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Electricity and chemical substances

Observation: A pale greenish-yellow gas (chlorine) is evolved which turns wet blue
litmus paper pink and then bleaches it.
Note: An inert electrode of carbon is used as the anode so as to resist attack by chlorine

Overall equation for the reaction

Reaction at the cathode: 2H+ (aq) + 2e → H2 (g)
Reaction at the anode: 2Cl− (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e
Overall equation: 2H+ (aq) + 2Cl− (aq) → H2 (g) + Cl2 (g)
Equal volumes of hydrogen gas and chlorine gas are produced.
NB: Some OH─ ions may discharge to form O2 gas as the process goes on.

7. Electrolysis of concentrated sodium chloride solution (brine) using the flowing

mercury cathode and carbon anode
In solution,
NaCl (aq) → Na+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)
H2O (l) H+ (aq) + OH─ (aq)
Ions present: Na+, H+, Cl─, OH─

Reaction at the mercury cathode

Na+ and H+ ions migrate to the cathode. Na+ ions discharge in preference to H+ ions
because of the nature of cathode used.
Equation: Na+ (aq) + e → Na (s)
Sodium combines with mercury cathode to form the sodium amalgam.
Na (s) + Hg (l) → Na/Hg (l)
The sodium amalgam (Na/Hg) dissolves in water to form sodium hydroxide and
Hydrogen gas. Mercury is regained.
2Na/Hg (l) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g) + 2Hg (l)
A flowing mercury cathode so as to enable the discharge of Na+ instead of H+

Reaction at the carbon anode

Cl─ and OH─ ions migrate to the anode. Cl− ions discharge because of their greater
concentration in solution than OH─ ions.
Equation: 2Cl− (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e
Observation: A pale greenish-yellow gas (chlorine) is evolved which turns wet blue
litmus paper pink and then bleaches it.

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Electricity and chemical substances

Note: An inert electrode of carbon is used as the anode so as to resist attack by chlorine

Overall equation for the reaction

Reaction at the cathode: 2Na+ (aq) + 2e → 2Na (s)
Reaction at the anode: 2Cl− (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e
Overall equation: 2Na+ (aq) + 2Cl− (aq) → 2Na (s) + Cl2 (g)

This process is used in the industrial manufacture of sodium hydroxide, Chlorine gas
and Hydrogen gas.

8. Electrolysis of dilute sodium chloride solution using platinum or carbon

electrodes.
In solution,
NaCl (aq) → Na+ (aq) + Cl− (aq)
H2O (l) H+ (aq) + OH─ (aq)
Ions present: Na+, H+, Cl─, OH─

At the cathode: 2H+ (aq) + 2e → H2 (g) [H+ is lower than Na+ in the electrochemical series]
At the anode: 4OH─(aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e [OH─ is lower than Cl─ in the electrochemical series]
Overall equation: 4H+ (aq) + 4OH─ (aq) → 2H2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + O2 (g)
This is equivalent to the electrolysis of water or dilute sulphuric acid.

9. Electrolysis of saturated Lead(II) bromide solution using carbon electrodes.

In solution,
PbBr2 (aq) → Pb2+ (aq) + 2Br─ (aq)
H2O (l) H+ (aq) + OH─ (aq)
Ions present: Pb2+, H+, Br─, OH─

Pb2+ and Br− ions discharge due to their high concentration in solution.
At the cathode: Pb2+ (aq) + 2e → Pb (s) [grey metal deposited]
At the anode: 2Br– (aq) → 2e + Br2 (l) [brown liquid formed]
Overall equation: Pb2+ (aq) + 2Br – (aq) → Br2 (l) + Pb (s)

10. Electrolysis of molten (or fused) Lead(II) bromide using carbon electrodes.

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Electricity and chemical substances

In molten state, Lead(II) bromide ionizes.

PbBr2 (l) → Pb2+ (l) + 2Br─ (l)
Ions present: Pb2+ and Br─

Pb2+ and Br─ ions discharge because

they are the only ions present in the
electrolyte

Cathode: Pb2+(l) + 2e → Pb(s) [grey metal]

Anode: 2Br–(l) → 2e + Br2(g) [brown fumes]
Overall: Pb2+ (l) + 2Br– (l) → Br2(g) + Pb (s)

11. Electrolysis of molten (fused) Lead(II) iodide using carbon electrodes.

Lead(II) Iodide in molten state ionizes.
PbI2 (l) → Pb2+ (l) + 2I− (l)
Ions present: Pb2+ and I−

Pb2+ and I− discharge.

At the cathode: Pb2+ (l) + 2e → Pb (s) [grey metal deposit]
At the anode: 2I– (l) → 2e + I2 (l) [purple vapour]
Overall reaction: Pb2+(l) + 2I– (l) → I2(l) + Pb (s)

Uses and applications of electrolysis

1. Extraction of metals
Reactive metals such as potassium, sodium, magnesium and Aluminium are extracted
on large scale by methods involving electrolysis.
Sodium, potassium and magnesium metals are produced by electrolysis of their molten
chlorides.
Aluminium is produced by electrolysis of a solution of its oxide.

2. Purification of impure metals

Metals such as copper and zinc may be refined (purified) by methods involving
electrolysis.
The impure metal is made the anode, the pure metal the cathode and the electrolyte is a
solution containing the metal ion.

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Electricity and chemical substances

For example, during the purification of copper, impure copper is made the anode, pure
copper the cathode and copper(II) sulphate the electrolyte.

3. Electroplating
Electroplating is the process of coating a metal (or any other substance) with another
metal by electrolysis.
Electroplating aims at improving the appearance a substance (metal) or providing
greater resistance to corrosion or rusting. For example; cutlery and roofing material
coated with zinc (zinc plating), chromium (chromium plating), silver (silver plating), nickel
etc. Silver plating a spoon

4. Industrial manufacture of chemicals

Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride using the flowing mercury cathode cell is used to
manufacture of sodium hydroxide, chlorine gas and hydrogen gas on large scale.

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Electricity and chemical substances

Sodium hydroxide is used in the manufacture of soap, paper and other useful products.

Electrochemical Cells
During electrolysis (in an electrolytic cell), an electric current produces a chemical change
when passed through an electrolyte. However, in an electrochemical cell, chemical
reactions produce an electric current.
An electrochemical cell converts chemical energy in electrical energy.

The production of an electric current from a chemical reaction

Reactions that take place in electrochemical cells to generate electricity are reduction –
oxidation (Redox) reactions. Any cell that generates electric current by reduction-oxidation
reactions is called a galvanic cell or voltaic cell.
A simple cell is made up of two different metals that are widely separated in the
electrochemical series (e.g. copper and magnesium) placed in an electrolyte (e.g. dilute
sulphuric acid).

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Electricity and chemical substances

Observation:
The bulb lights, indicating the flow of electric current in the circuit (current flows from copper
to magnesium), magnesium dissolves in the electrolyte and hydrogen gas is formed as
bubbles of a colourless gas on the copper plate.

Explanation:
Magnesium (the more electropositive) ionizes by electron loss. Electrons pass from
magnesium to copper through the external circuit. This is equivalent to the flow of a
conventional current in the opposite direction.
At the copper plate surface, electrons reduce hydrogen ions in the electrolyte to form
hydrogen gas. Magnesium becomes the cathode and Copper the anode of this voltaic cell.

Equations:
Ionization of the electrolyte: H2SO4(aq) → 2H+(aq) + SO42−(aq)
Half-cell reaction at the Anode: Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2e−
Half-cell reaction at the cathode: 2H+(aq) + 2e− → H2(g)
Overall equation: Mg (s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
Cell notation (or convention): Mg (s) / Mg2+(aq) // 2H+(aq) / H2(g)

Theoretically, current can continue to flow for as long as the materials last. In practice,
bubbles of hydrogen gas adhere on to the surface of copper cutting off much of its contact
with the electrolyte causing “polarization” of the cell.

The Daniel cell

It’s made up of two half cells i.e. copper in 1M copper(II) sulphate solution and zinc in 1M
zinc sulphate solution. The two half cells are separated using either a porous partition or a
salt bridge as shown in the diagrams below;

Voltmeter
V
Salt bridge

Zinc electrode Copper electrode

Zinc sulphate Copper (II) sulphate

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Electricity and chemical substances

NB: The salt bridge (made up of potassium chloride) allows electrons to flow between the
half-cells (beakers) without allowing the solutions to mix.

Observation:
The voltmeter deflects, the zinc terminal (anode) decreases in size and the copper terminal
(cathode) increases in size.

Explanation:
Zinc being more electropositive than copper, it ionizes by electron loss causing zinc to
dissolve into solution hence decreasing the size of the zinc terminal.
Electrons pass from zinc (anode) to Copper (cathode) through the external circuit. This is
equivalent to the flow of a conventional current in the opposite direction.
At the Copper terminal, electrons reduce Copper(II) ions, Cu2+ to copper metal which is
deposited at the anode causing it to increase in size.
The voltage across the terminals is registered by the voltmeter (usually 1.1V).
The cell stops producing an electric current when the whole zinc electrode is used up.

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Electricity and chemical substances

Equations:
Ionization of zinc sulphate: ZnSO4(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + SO42−(aq)
Ionization of Copper(II) sulphate: CuSO4(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + SO42−(aq)
Half-cell reaction at the anode: Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e− (Also represented as Zn(s)/Zn2+(aq))
Half-cell reaction at the cathode: Cu2+(aq) + 2e− → Cu(s) (Also represented as Cu2+(aq)/Cu(s))
Overall equation: Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
Cell notation (or convention): Zn(s) / Zn2+(aq) // Cu2+(aq) / Cu(s)

Read about:
▪ Primary cells and secondary cells
▪ Leclanché cell or dry cell
▪ Lead-acid accumulators
(Reference: page 173 and 174, A new certificate chemistry by A. Holderness and John
Lambert)

Revision questions
1.
2.

Additional notes/ Comments/ Views:

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▬END▬
Compiled by Nsumba Emmanuel Tel: +256 782 683 112, Email: [email protected]
© 2020 Edition

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