Corporate Finance Berk 3rd Edition Test Bank

Corporate Finance Berk 3rd Edition

Test Bank

Full download chapter at: https://testbankbell.com/product/corporate-

finance-berk-3rd-edition-test-bank/

Corporate Finance, 3e (Berk/DeMarzo)

Chapter 1 The Corporation

1.1 The Four Types of Firms

1) A sole proprietorship is owned by:

A) one person.
B) two of more persons.
C) shareholders.
D) bankers.
Answer: A
Diff: 1
Section: 1.1 The Four Types of Firms
Skill: Definition

2) Which of the following organization forms for a business does NOT avoid double taxation?
A) Limited partnership
B) "C" corporation
C) "S" corporation
D) Limited liability company
Answer: B
Diff: 1
Section: 1.1 The Four Types of Firms
Skill: Conceptual

3) Which of the following organization forms accounts for the most revenue?
A) "S" corporation
B) Limited partnership
C) "C" corporation
D) Limited liability company
Answer: C
Diff: 1
Section: 1.1 The Four Types of Firms
Skill: Conceptual
1
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Visit TestBankBell.com to get complete for all chapters

4) Which of the following organization forms accounts for the greatest number of firms?
A) "S" corporation
B) Limited partnership
C) Sole proprietorship
D) "C" corporation
Answer: C
Diff: 1
Section: 1.1 The Four Types of Firms
Skill: Conceptual

2
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
5) Which of the following is NOT an advantage of a sole proprietorship?
A) Single taxation
B) Ease of setup
C) Limited liability
D) No separation of ownership and control
Answer: C
Diff: 2
Section: 1.1 The Four Types of Firms
Skill: Conceptual

6) Which of the following statements regarding limited partnerships is TRUE?

A) There is no limit on a limited partner's liability.
B) A limited partner's liability is limited by the amount of their investment.
C) A limited partner is not liable until all the assets of the general partners have been exhausted.
D) A general partner's liability is limited by the amount of their investment.
Answer: B
Diff: 2
Section: 1.1 The Four Types of Firms
Skill: Conceptual

7) Which of the following is/are an advantage of incorporation?

A) Access to capital markets
B) Limited liability
C) Unlimited life
D) All of the above
Answer: D
Diff: 2
Section: 1.1 The Four Types of Firms
Skill: Conceptual

8) Which of the following statements is most correct?

A) An advantage to incorporation is that it allows for less regulation of the business.
B) An advantage of a corporation is that it is subject to double taxation.
C) Unlike a partnership, a disadvantage of a corporation is that has limited liability.
D) Corporations face more regulations when compared to partnerships.
Answer: D
Diff: 2
Section: 1.1 The Four Types of Firms
Skill: Conceptual

3
Copyright © 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Another random document
un-related content on Scribd:
for the layers to work apart. A pneumatic tire should always be pumped as
hard as possible, so that it stands up practically round under a loaded car.
While the car will ride a little harder under these conditions than when the
tires are soft, there will be greater resistance to punctures, and the life of the
tires will be increased. The normal wear to a tire should give it a smooth
surface, but if it is noticed that the tread is rough and uneven, it may be
taken for granted that the wheels do not run true. Rear wheels will be
thrown out of true by the springing or bending of the axle, and front wheels
also from this cause, but more probably from faulty adjustment of the
steering mechanism or the bending of the drag link or steering arms.
The grip of the tire on the road is much affected by the nature of the
surface, the traction on dry macadam being much greater than on wet
asphalt. When the pull of the engine on the wheel exceeds the grip of the
tire on the road, there will be a slip, and the wheel will revolve without
moving the car. This will wear the tread of the tire far more rapidly than
will ordinary running. The better the traction of the tires on the road
surface, the less will be the tendency of the car to skid or slide sideways,
and less power will be lost through the slipping of the wheels. To reduce the
chance of slipping, because of wet asphalt or muddy roads, various devices
are in use, all of which encircle the tread of the tire, and present a rough
surface. The form in most general use consists of chains that fit across the
tread, these being detachable and used only in case of necessity. While it is
often done, it is nevertheless bad practice to apply chains or other antiskid
devices to only one of the rear wheels instead of to both, for it increases the
diameter of the wheel and makes a difference in the resistance against the
wheel, causing the differential to operate at all times. The differential is not
constructed to operate steadily, and will wear rapidly if forced to do so.

SPRINGS
 F . 48.—A, Full elliptic spring; B, half elliptic spring.
In addition to tires, an automobile is fitted with springs, which are
necessary to absorb the shocks and jolts that are too great to be taken up by
the tires. These are usually full or half elliptic (Fig. 48), and made of flat
plates, or leaves, of different lengths, the small being placed on the large,
and all bound together at the center. The combined action of the springs and
tires permits the frame and body of the car to move in a nearly straight line,
while the wheels and axles follow the inequalities of the road. When springs
break, as is frequently the case, it is from the rebound of the body that
results when the wheels drop into a deep hole, the upward movement
separating the leaves, and the entire strain coming on the long leaves alone.
To prevent this, shock absorbers are recommended, which permit the
springs to have a certain amount of action, but check them if they tend to
expand or compress to too great an extent. They act either by the friction
between metal plates and washers, or by air or oil in a cylinder that permits
a piston to move freely to a certain degree, but presents resistance to a
greater motion. Shock absorbers are placed between the axles and frame,
and there should be four, two to each axle.

DISTANCE RODS

As the springs are placed between the axles and body and are flexible, it
is necessary to provide some method of preventing an obstruction in the
road from twisting the axle, as might result if one wheel struck heavy sand
or a stone while its mate was on good surface. A twist of this sort would
throw the axle out of line with the drive and bind the chain or driving shaft.
 F . 49.—D R R .
To prevent this, radius or distance rods are attached to the axle, one on
each side, extending to a point well forward on the frame (Fig. 49). These
rods are pivoted to the frame, and have a loose joint on the axle, so that the
latter is free to move up and down, but prevented from moving forward or
back. Distance rods are adjustable, and on chain-driven cars serve to adjust
the chains, which are tightened by lengthening the rods and slackened by
shortening them.
 CHAPTER XI

TROUBLES

P ractice and experience are the best instructors in keeping the car
running, and the operator quickly acquires the ability to recognize the
source of trouble from the action of the engine in failing to deliver power,
or from the manner in which it stops. Each part of the mechanism may be
counted on to give trouble, and the possibilities are numerous, but in
general it may be said that an interference with the proper operation of the
engine may be laid to the failure of the ignition system or gasoline supply, a
defect of the combustion space in not retaining the pressure, or the
overheating of the engine.

IGNITION TROUBLES

The ignition system is the greatest producer of trouble, and the reason is
usually difficult to locate. Any interference with the flow of the current, or
leaks by which it evades passing over the entire circuit, will cause irregular
running or the stopping of the engine, and the circuit must be maintained in
the best possible condition in order to prevent these as much as possible.
The wires should be well insulated, the insulation of the secondary circuit
being heavier than that of the primary because of the higher pressure of the
current that must be retained. The constant vibration to which the wires are
subjected requires the use of cable composed of a number of strands of fine
wire rather than a single heavy wire, for the latter is much more liable to be
broken; but in securing the end of a cable under a nut, great care must be
exercised that all of the strands are bound. A single strand is hardly
noticeable, but if it comes into contact with uninsulated metal, it will permit
the current to leak. In making connections, the best plan is to solder the end
of the cable to a copper or brass terminal which holds the strands secure,
and gives a firm bearing for the nut. Before making connections the
terminals should be scraped bright, and after running the nuts down firmly,
covered with vaseline to prevent corrosion. Corrosion of copper or brass
produces a greenish deposit (copper sulphate) which is an insulator, and
when it forms between the terminals of the conductor it produces high
resistance, cutting down or even preventing the flow of current. A worse
effect of corrosion is to bind the nuts on the screws, preventing their
removal. A loose connection presents resistance to the flow of current, and
the current will flow irregularly, as the vibrations bring the terminals
together or separate them. A wire broken at a terminal is easily seen, but
when a break occurs inside of the insulation, it is more difficult to detect.
When a broken wire is suspected, its circuit may be located by testing, and
new wires laid, one length at a time, until the faulty one is replaced. It is
poor economy to use cheap wire, for the best is none too good for the hard
use to which it is put. The wearing away of insulation by chafing will
produce a short circuit, and the wires should be prevented from coming into
contact with any part of the car or engine in such a manner as to give this
result.

THE BATTERY

When a battery is exhausted, or nearly so, it will not magnetize the core
of the coil sufficiently to induce a current that will give a strong enough
spark to ignite the mixture. The length of time that a battery should last, or
the mileage that it should give, is learned from experience, and when it is
exhausted in less time there is evidence that it has either been short-
circuited or that the current has been used too extravagantly.
The extra source of current that should be provided should not be
switched into circuit until the short circuit that exhausted the regular source
has been located and removed, or there will be a further waste of current. It
occasionally happens that through carelessness the battery is so connected
that one of the cells is reversed, in which case the current will be reduced
by the loss of the current from two cells, for the energy of the reversed cell
will neutralize that of another. If both sets of battery have become
exhausted by short circuit, current for further running may be obtained by
connecting the two sets together in multiple, supposing that each set is, as is
usual, connected in series.
 An apparently exhausted dry battery will recuperate, or pick up, if
allowed to stand, but a storage battery that shows 1.8 volts or less for each
cell should be immediately recharged, for further use will cause fatal injury.

THE MAGNETO

The principal troubles that come to magnetos are due to lack of

lubrication and the weakening of the permanent magnets. The clearance
between the armature and the pole pieces between which it revolves is very
small, and even slight wear of the bearings through insufficient lubrication
will permit the armature to touch. The oil cups with which the bearings are
provided must be kept filled, or if the parts are connected to a mechanical
lubricator, the proper adjustment must be maintained.
When a magnet is permitted to stand without a piece of iron connecting
the poles, the magnetism will dissipate; to prevent this, a bar of soft iron,
called a keeper, is placed across the poles, the magnetic lines of force
flowing through it from one pole to the other, and the strength being
retained. The permanent magnets forming the field of a magneto are very
strongly magnetized, and the proportion of the strength lost through misuse
will be large, resulting in their being weakened to such an extent that the
current produced will not be sufficient for ignition purposes. These magnets
can be re-magnetized by the makers when this occurs, the magneto
regaining its current-producing ability.
The strength of the magnets will be retained for a much longer period if,
when the car is standing, the armature is in such a position that it acts as a
keeper; this will occur when its iron core is horizontal. As the armature will
be in this position when the current is being produced, it is only necessary
to bring the engine to a stop at the point when one of the pistons is
approaching the end of a compression stroke. On leaving the car, the low
speed should be engaged and the clutch withdrawn; the engine may be
cranked slowly, and the armature held in position by throwing in the clutch
to hold the crank shaft when compression is nearly complete.
It is most inadvisable to take a magneto to pieces without an exact
knowledge of its construction. Except for lubricating the bearings, it is best
to leave it entirely alone. In setting a magneto, it must be remembered that
it is not delivering current continuously, and that when the iron core of the
armature is parallel to the poles of the magnets no current is produced. The
greatest strength of current is delivered as the core moves into a vertical
position, and revolving the armature by the fingers will show this, for
during part of a revolution it will turn easily, and during the rest of the
revolution there will be resistance. The engine should be cranked until a
piston is near the top of a compression stroke; holding it there, the magneto
gear may be meshed with that on the half-time or crank shaft in such a
manner that the armature core has moved a trifle past the vertical position.
This will result in the production of a current at the instant that it is
necessary for the ignition of the charge. (See Appendix.)

THE COIL

There is always a small spark between the vibrator contacts of a coil, and
in time the platinum will be burned and corroded, the oxide that forms
being an insulator and preventing the flow of the current. In such a case the
points may be smoothed with a fine flat file and polished on a strip of
leather, or if too far gone for this, may be renewed by soldering a short
length of platinum wire to the adjusting screw and a plate of the same metal
to the blade. While this job is a delicate one, it is not beyond the range of a
careful amateur.
When the insulation of the coil or condenser breaks down, as may result
from overwork or long use, it should be returned to the maker, for the
construction of a coil is exceedingly delicate, and repairs on it require
expert workmanship. It is not advisable to take the coil apart in any way,
beyond the vibrator parts, for inexperienced handling may injure it beyond
repair.

THE SPARK PLUG

The spark plug is a frequent source of trouble, for the insulation may
break down, or a carbon deposit may form between the points, either fault
permitting the current to pass without jumping the gap. Plugs should be so
made that when the parts are screwed together the strain will not come
against the insulation. Porcelain insulation is brittle, and may be cracked
inside the sleeve, the damage not showing on handling and inspection, but
being sufficient to permit the spark to pass inside of the sleeve instead of
between the points. Mica insulation is usually formed of a large number of
washers squeezed together under great pressure, but the action of the heat
and the presence of oil will frequently cause the layers to separate,
permitting a short circuit.
The carbon deposit that fouls and short-circuits spark plugs results from a
rich mixture, or overlubrication, and this should be prevented by proper
adjustments. Under the intense heat the carbon bakes hard, and can be
removed only by scraping or by the action of strong ammonia or gasoline.
As in scraping the smooth surface of the insulation may be scratched
(which would give a rough surface to which a fresh carbon deposit would
cling more tightly), the removal of the deposit by ammonia or gasoline,
applied with a stiff brush, is recommended.
The points between which the spark passes should be about one thirty-
second of an inch apart. After long use, the corrosion due to the heat of the
spark will increase this distance, when the points should be bent together.
The high compression through which the spark is required to pass presents
greater resistance than air at atmospheric pressure, practically in proportion
to the pressure, and a current that will produce a spark outside of the
cylinder may not have sufficient pressure to give a like result when the
engine is running. If the pressure of the compression is four times that of
the atmosphere, the current should be able to produce a spark four thirty-
seconds, or one eighth, of an inch long outside of the cylinder, and for
safety this should be increased four-fold.

THE IGNITER

The stationary point of the igniter is carried on the end of a screw that
passes through the cylinder head or wall, and by means of this screw its
position in relation to the moving point may be altered as desired. The
distance between the points when they are separated should be about one
sixteenth of an inch; more than this will result in the formation of a longer
spark between them, and as the passage of the spark through the high
resistance of the compressed charge will produce great heat, the igniter
points will be burned and corroded more than need be. The adjustment may
be made by loosening the lock nut on the stationary point, and running the
screw down until the stationary point is in contact with the movable when
the latter is acted on by the cam. The lock nut should be run down until it
bears lightly against the cylinder and the point then unscrewed, the lock nut
being carried with it, until the latter is about one sixteenth of an inch away
from the cylinder. This gives a corresponding distance between the igniter
points, and running the lock nut down firmly will secure it.
The tappet spring should be of considerable strength in order to snap the
movable point from the stationary when the tappet ceases to act. Too great
strength will bring the movable point against the stationary with such force
that the platinum plate that it carries will be battered out of place. The
principal difficulty that is encountered is the corrosion of these points, the
flow of the current being decreased or stopped by the insulating film that
covers them. The blow with which the two come together tends to knock
this off and to keep the surfaces flat, but when they become badly worn and
pitted they must be filed smooth.
The bearing in the cylinder wall in which the movable point rocks is
made after the manner of a valve; the opening must be tight in order to
prevent the leakage of compression, but sufficiently free to move as the cam
acts on the tappet. This joint cannot be lubricated with oil because of the
heat, and the two parts must therefore be kept as smooth as possible. To
attain this result they are ground together as engine valves are ground.

THE TIMER

The spring that keeps the revolving part of a timer in contact with the
stationary part must be of sufficient strength to squeeze out the vaseline
with which the timer is packed, as otherwise the grease will form an
insulating film between them, preventing the flow of the current. The timer
must be securely attached to its shaft, for if it is loose the contacts will be
made at the wrong time, and the sparks will not occur in the combustion
space at the correct intervals. All of its parts and connections should be as
firm as possible. The rods with which the stationary part is connected to the
control lever on the steering column should be provided with adjustments
by which lost motion due to wear may be taken up. There are usually
several joints in these rods, all of which may wear loose, and if there are no
means by which they may be kept tight, the lever will move a considerable
distance before the timer will respond. It is often possible to remedy this by
placing coil springs in such positions that they take up the lost motion. A
timer should be so set on the half-time shaft that the revolving contact is
just touching the stationary contact when the piston is at its highest point in
the cylinder on the compression stroke, the control lever being in nearly its
most retarded position.
As dirt will interfere with the action of a timer, the cover should always
be in place and tightly secured.

THE SECONDARY DISTRIBUTER

A secondary distributer will give trouble through loose contacts, dirt, or

the splitting of the spark, the effect of the last being the passing of the spark
from the revolving part to two or more contact points instead of but one.
Particles from the carbon brush in wearing off may stick to the insulating
ring between the contacts and form a path, or a strand of wire may project,
producing the same result.

THE SWITCH

Loose switch parts will prevent the flow of the current or give a vibrating
contact, and should be frequently looked after. If the switch is mounted on
metal, as is occasionally the case, a loosening of the parts or the wearing of
the insulation will result in a short circuit that is difficult to locate because
the good condition of the switch is usually taken for granted.

GASOLINE TROUBLES

Commercial gasoline is frequently dirty, carrying particles of matter that

will stop the fine passages and openings of the carburetor, or containing
water, the presence of which will prevent the proper operation of the
engine. Dirt may be removed by the use of a strainer made of fine wire
gauze, and water may be separated by filtering the liquid through chamois
skin, the gasoline passing through and the water remaining. It is advisable
to have a strainer and trap placed in the piping that connects the tank with
the carburetor to form the lowest point of the system, the gasoline passing
through it and being cleansed of dirt and water.

THE TANK

The tank of a gravity feed system is always provided with a small hole or
vent, usually drilled through the filling cap, through which air may enter to
replace the gasoline that is drawn off in the running of the engine. If this
hole becomes plugged with dirt, the escape of the gasoline will reduce the
pressure in the tank to such an extent that further flow will be prevented,
and the engine will stop with all of the symptoms of a lack of gasoline. On
opening the tank for the purpose of investigation, the air supply will be
renewed, and the engine will again run, to stop slowly as before. Clearing
the hole will relieve the condition. This vent may also cause trouble in
permitting water to enter and contaminate the gasoline, this being liable to
happen when the car is washed.
The pipe by which the gasoline flows from the tank to the carburetor
should project slightly above the bottom of the tank, to prevent sediment
from being drawn into it.
As gasoline rots rubber rapidly, hose should never be used to conduct it,
nor should joints be packed with rubber. Copper and brass are attacked by
gasoline less than other metals, and should always be used in preference to
iron, which is corroded by the liquid. Joints may be made tight by the use of
shellac or soap.

THE CARBURETOR

Besides the possibility of getting out of adjustment, the greatest trouble

with a carburetor comes from the clogging of the passages and openings
with dirt. When dirt enters, it clogs the gasoline inlet valve and prevents it
from seating properly, the float chamber being flooded as a result. When the
level in the float chamber is raised, more than the required amount of
gasoline flows out of the spray nozzle, and the mixture that is produced is
too rich. This will also result from the bending of the valve stem or the
wearing of the seat, either of which will prevent the proper shutting-off of
the flow when the correct level in the float is reached.
 A flooding float chamber may also be caused by a float that is out of
adjustment on its stem or too heavy. In the course of time the gasoline will
cut a hole through the metal of a float and leak in, and leakage will also
occur if the soldered joints open, the float then becoming too heavy and not
closing the gasoline inlet valve at the correct time. These holes will be too
small to permit the gasoline to be poured out, but by placing the float in hot
water, the gasoline will be evaporated and driven out as a gas. In repairing a
float, as little solder as possible should be used in order that the weight of
the float may not be greatly altered. A cork float will become soggy and
heavy if the varnish coating is damaged and the gasoline soaks in.
Carburetors are built so that the float valve and spray nozzle may be
easily cleaned, for by withdrawing plugs fine wire may be run through
them. When a carburetor is taken apart for more thorough cleaning, the
position of the gasoline and air adjustments should be remembered, in order
that they may be replaced in approximately the correct positions, thus
saving time in making the adjustments that will be necessary.
The main air intake should be kept clean, especially when it is covered
with a wire gauze screen. Dirt will reduce the size of the opening, and the
air that enters will not be sufficient to give a mixture of the correct
proportion. The screen should be kept clean and free from oil, for the latter
is a dust collector.

COMPRESSION TROUBLES

A leak in the combustion space will reduce the compression by

permitting the fresh mixture to escape during the compression stroke, and
will also give an escape for the pressure resulting from the combustion, the
pressure on the piston being reduced in consequence. The most frequent
cause of leakage is worn valves, the intense heat tending to warp the disks
and to roughen their surfaces, the exhaust valve being especially liable to
this as it is surrounded by the hot gases during the time that it is open. A
badly fitting spark plug, igniter stem, relief cock, or other opening into the
combustion space will produce the same result. Whenever possible, these
parts should be fitted with copper asbestos washers, which are soft enough
to squeeze into the inequalities of the surface, at the same time resisting the
heat and pressure.
 When piston rings or cylinder walls are cut or scratched by running
without oil, the pressure will escape into the crank case, which, while warm
when the engine is running properly, will be heated to a very noticeable
degree under these circumstances. The only remedy is the use of new piston
rings and the reboring of the cylinder. Piston rings, being of cast iron, are
brittle, and must be handled carefully. To place them in position in their
grooves, thin strips of steel, like pieces of a hack-saw blade, should be
bound to the piston, covering all but the lower groove. The ring for this
groove can then be slipped on, and when it is in position the steel strips
moved upward to expose the upper grooves, one at a time.
Piston rings are usually prevented from revolving around the piston by
pins driven into the piston between their ends; if these are not provided, the
turning of the rings will bring their ends into line, and the pressure will leak
through them. The appearance of the rings is the best indication as to
whether they are permitting leakage; if they are tight, they will be smooth
and polished all around, but if there is leakage, they will be streaked with
black carbon deposit.
Other losses of compression may be due to a cracked piston, cylinder
head or wall, the former being indicated by a hot crank case and the latter
by the presence of water in the cylinder and crank case.

COOLING TROUBLES

The failing of the cooling or lubrication systems will permit the engine to
heat, and if continued will produce disastrous results. The radiator of a
water-cooled engine should begin to heat shortly after the engine has
started, and will rapidly become warm all over, thus showing that the water
is circulating properly. A failure of the circulation may be due to a clogged
pump or passage, and the cause should be located and removed without
delay. Dirt in the water is the most usual cause of the failure of the pump,
and also of the stopping of the circulation in the gravity system. A strainer
should be fitted to the filling cap of the radiator to remove bits of wood,
leaves, sand, etc. The connections of the water system are frequently made
of rubber hose, and this in rotting will free bits of rubber that will prevent
the flow. A difficulty occurring at the clamps that attach the hose to the
metal pipes is the tearing off of a strip of the rubber lining, which closes the
passage after the manner of a valve.
The fan must be kept running correctly, and if belt-driven, the belt must
be kept tight and the pulleys free from oil that would permit slipping.
Water that has been heated freezes much more readily than water that has
not, and therefore the water system of an automobile must be carefully
guarded against low temperatures. A freeze of the water may crack the
water jackets or split the radiator, either of which will require the laying up
of the car for repairs. The best protection is to draw off the water if there is
the slightest danger of freezing, drain cocks being provided at the low
points of the system for this purpose. If this is not practicable, a solution of
four pounds of calcium chloride to the gallon of water, mixed hot and
allowed to cool, may be used, and it will stand a temperature of 15° F.
below zero without freezing.
The flanges or corresponding parts of an air-cooled motor should be kept
clean, for dirt will prevent the free radiation of heat.
A lack of lubricating oil, either through the failure of the supply or the
clogging of the pipes, will cause the engine to heat and the piston to stick or
seize. When the car is new, it is better to supply too much oil than too little,
but when the bearings have smoothed down the supply may be reduced.
The operation of the engine is the only indication as to whether it is
receiving a proper amount of oil, and rather than run the risk of
underlubricating the piston rings and cylinder walls, it is better to have
enough to produce a faint smoke at the exhaust pipe. This will show that the
engine is receiving a little more than is necessary. Too much oil in the
cylinder will foul the spark plug, and as this would prevent the passing of
the spark, it is to be as much avoided as too little.
When the lubricator pipes are clogged, the easiest method of clearing out
the obstruction is to force air through them by means of a foot pump.
 CHAPTER XII

LOCATING TROUBLE

A ny interference with the regular running of an automobile is usually

due to engine trouble, and the nature of the irregularity or the
unfamiliar noise will often give a clew to the experienced driver by which
the fault may be located. When the engine shows that something is wrong,
it is of little use to guess at the cause, for changing an adjustment without
being sure that it is the right thing to do will probably add to the difficulty
instead of remove it. The laying out of a system for the location of a fault is
not difficult, and its application simplifies matters when trouble is
encountered. By following a process of elimination, the condition of the
different parts of the mechanism can be learned, and if on test the ignition
system proves to be operating correctly, the production of the mixture may
be considered to be guilty until that in turn is shown to be innocent.

MAKE-AND-BREAK IGNITION

An engine equipped with the make-and-break ignition system is always

provided with a conducting bar across the top or side of the cylinders,
called a bus bar, connected with the source of current, and each igniter is
connected to it through a switch. If one of the cylinders fires regularly, it is
an indication that the current is being generated properly, and that no time
need be wasted in examining the generator. By means of the switches, the
igniters may be tested individually by cranking the engine with one switch
closed and the others open. When the clutch is disengaged the engine
should run on one cylinder, and if this is the case, the igniter on the line of
the closed switch is shown to be in good condition. The opening of this
switch and the closing of the next will give a comparison when the engine
is again cranked, and if explosions occur, the igniter points may be adjusted
until the two cylinders work equally well. If the cylinder does not operate,
the stationary igniter point should be withdrawn and its contact examined;
this should be bright and clean. The movable point should be worked by
hand, to determine whether the joint is stuck or the spring weak or broken.
If none of the cylinders show signs of explosions, the connections should
be examined to make sure that they are secure. On systems employing a
magneto alone, the wiring consists of a single wire from the magneto to the
bus bar, and the shorter wires from there to the igniters. These wires are
clearly visible, and any loose connections or broken wires may be detected
without difficulty. If the connections and wiring are in good condition, the
fault may be located in the magneto, or, if it has recently been dismounted,
its incorrect setting in relation to the crank shaft. (See Appendix.)
If the ignition system proves to be in proper working order, attention may
be paid to the carburetor and its connections.

JUMP-SPARK IGNITION

In testing an engine fitted with the jump-spark ignition system, the circuit
should be closed and the crank shaft revolved twice, attention being paid to
the sound of the vibrators. On a four-cylinder engine, the timer makes four
contacts in two revolutions of the crank shaft, and if all of the vibrators are
heard it is proof that the primary circuit is in good condition, and not the
seat of the trouble. If only one of the vibrators buzzes, the battery circuit
may be considered to be working properly, for otherwise no current could
have passed to the coil box. The trouble may then be identified as being in
part if not altogether in the adjustment of the vibrators of the dead coils,
their connections with the timer, or in the timer itself. One end of a short
piece of wire should be touched to the timer binding post of one of the dead
coils, and the other to any metal part of the engine, the lubricator, for
instance, to form a short circuit through the primary circuit with the
exception of the timer and its connections. If the vibrator buzzes, the
trouble is not in the coil, but in that part of the circuit cut out by the short-
circuiting wire. The same piece of wire may be used to bridge across to any
metal part of the engine from the binding post on the timer at which the
wire from the coil is connected, and if the wire from the coil to the timer is
in good condition, the vibrator will again buzz, showing that the fault must
be in the timer, for all other parts of the primary circuit of that particular
coil have been proven to be working correctly. A dirty or faulty contact in
the timer, or a loose connection, will probably be the cause.
If the primary circuit is shown to be in good order, attention may at once
be given to the gasoline feed, for while the secondary circuits have not been
tested, it is extremely unlikely that the spark plugs or their connections will
prove defective on all four cylinders at the same time.

THE CARBURETOR

Touching the primer of the carburetor will show whether the gasoline
flows to the float chamber, for if it is present it will spurt out of the opening
through which the priming stem passes. If the air inlet is so arranged as to
permit it, gasoline dropping out of it when the carburetor is primed
excessively indicates that the liquid flows out of the spray nozzle, this part
thus being shown to be clear. If no gasoline shows around the priming stem,
the feed pipe or float valve may be suspected of being clogged, it being
taken for granted that there is gasoline in the tank and that the supply cock
is open. If it is found that gasoline is present in the air inlet, and that the
carburetor is damp with it when the primer has not been touched, it
indicates that the float chamber is flooded; the carburetor should be taken
apart for inspection and thorough cleaning.

ENGINE WILL NOT START

When the engine will not start on cranking it eight times or so, it is
useless to continue to crank it, for there is every reason to believe that
something is wrong. Too often the difficulty is in forgetting to switch on the
ignition circuit or to open the gasoline feed. Cranking the engine slowly
will not reduce the pressure in the inlet pipe sufficiently to draw out of the
spray nozzle the quantity of gasoline required to form an inflammable
mixture; quick cranking is necessary. Too much priming will result in the
formation of a rich mixture; the gasoline should be permitted to evaporate,
or the carburetor drained, and then primed gently.
The failure of an engine to start on a cold day may be due to the slowness
with which gasoline evaporates when chilled. As it is obviously most
unwise to heat the carburetor with a flame, the best thing to do in such a
case is to pack it with cloths soaked with hot water. A little gasoline
squirted into the air inlet, or cotton waste soaked with gasoline and held
over the same opening, will almost always permit the engine to be started;
another method is to squirt a few drops of gasoline into the cylinders
through the relief cocks.

ENGINE DOES NOT DELIVER FULL POWER

Regularly occurring explosions indicate that the cylinders are receiving

the proper quantity of mixture, and that the ignition is operating correctly. If
under these conditions the engine fails to deliver full power, which is shown
by the sluggish running of the car, the trouble may be identified as the result
of a condition by which power is absorbed between the engine and wheels.
This may be from a slipping clutch, binding brakes, or tight bearings, these
more probably on the wheels than on the change-speed mechanism or drive.
The brake rods may get out of adjustment, or the spring stick, with the
result that the bands or shoes are in continual contact with the drums. A
simple test for the condition of the brakes is to push the car across the floor
by hand; it is not difficult to recognize unusual stiffness. This test also
applies to the wheel bearings. Engine or transmission bearings that are too
tight will heat, and a touch of the hand will show the presence of this
condition. A tight bearing should be permitted to cool before readjusting it
and proceeding.

WEAK EXPLOSIONS

Regular but weak explosions may be due to too rich or too poor a
mixture, or to the escape of compression. Cranking the engine twice will
produce a compression stroke in each of the four cylinders, and if there is a
leak, the ease with which the piston in which it occurs may be pulled over
dead center will show its presence. A little soapy water around the spark
plug, relief cock, or other opening into the combustion space will show the
escape of compression in the formation of bubbles. A hiss inside of the
cylinder indicates a leaky piston ring, or that the openings of the rings are in
line, and when this sound is sharp and clear, the presence of a broken ring.
An additional proof of this is the undue heating of the crank case. If the
compression is correct, the carburetor may be readjusted to improve the
quality of the mixture. A poor mixture may be due to the partial clogging of
the spray nozzle or its passages, and a rich mixture to the choking of the air
inlet by dirt or dust, this being especially liable to occur when the part is
oily.

MISSING EXPLOSIONS

The missing of explosions is a common failing of automobile engines,

and while it may be due to a variety of causes, the most usual is that the
spark does not pass. It is not always an easy matter to determine which of
the cylinders is missing; if the missing is constant, the coolness of the
exhaust pipe of one as compared to the others locates the fault. If the
missing is not constant, the difference in temperature will not be noticeable,
but the one at fault may be located by holding down all of the vibrators but
one. If the cylinder corresponding to the free vibrator runs steadily, its
vibrator may be held down and another released, this being continued until
the faulty cylinder is located. The condition of the secondary circuit of this
cylinder may be ascertained by disconnecting the secondary wire from the
plug, and holding it about a half inch away from the plug terminal while the
engine is cranked. If no spark passes when the timer makes contact, the
trouble is in either the wire or the coil; if a spark shows, it should be of
good strength, for a current that will produce a fair spark in the open may
not have sufficient strength to produce a like result when under
compression. If a good spark shows, the spark plug may be suspected of
being fouled and thus short-circuited, of having a breakdown in its
insulation, or of there being too great a distance between its points. The
threads wear a little each time that a spark plug is removed from the
cylinder, and in order to retain a gas-tight joint it is best not to unscrew the
plug unless it is necessary.
If the secondary circuit is proven to be in good condition, attention
should be paid to the carburetor, for a poor mixture, or water in the
gasoline, will cause the engine to miss. A badly fitting exhaust valve will
permit the burned gases to be drawn back into the cylinder, the fresh charge
thus being weakened, and as the valve will shift around on its seat, this may
happen irregularly. Missing will also be caused by a weak or broken inlet-
valve spring, or by the sticking of the inlet valve, these conditions resulting
in failure to retain the mixture in the combustion space during the
compression stroke. This pushing back into the inlet pipe of the charge will
usually produce a popping or gurgling noise that is easily recognized.

MISSING AT HIGH SPEED

If an engine runs well at low speed, but misses when speeded up, the
trouble may be due to weak battery, stuck vibrator blade, or loose
connections. A battery that will produce a good spark at low engine speed
may not be able to respond to the greatly increased demands of high speed,
and similarly, at low speed the period during which the timer holds the
circuit closed is longer than at high speed, and the vibrator has more time to
get into action before the circuit is broken. A loose connection may be so
shaken by the vibrations of high speed as to break the circuit.

ENGINE STARTS WELL, BUT COMES TO A STOP

If the battery is nearly exhausted, it will recuperate during a rest to such

an extent that it will produce good sparks, but as its condition of strength is
only temporary, the engine will slow down and come to a stop as the current
fails. This action of the engine may also be due to carburetor defects by
which the vibrations of running either cause the flooding of the float
chamber or the clogging of the spray nozzle, the mixture in both cases
becoming noninflammable; the condition will also result from an air-bound
supply tank.

OVERHEATING

It sometimes happens that the engine will continue to run after the
ignition circuit is opened. This may be due to a failure of the water
circulation, which is indicated by the low temperature of the radiator, or by
the low speed or stopping of the fan from a slipping or broken belt. If the
cooling system is working properly, the lubrication must be investigated. If
the oil is flowing as it should, the cause will be found in the formation of a
carbon deposit in the combustion space, fine points of which will become
incandescent and ignite the mixture as it passes into the cylinder or as it is