Intro To Ps Notes From Class

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Intro to PS - notes from class
Introduction to Political Science (Vrije Universiteit Brussel)
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Defining Politics
class 1
Video: ‘Miss world; My protest’. Do you consider this as a protest, Yes or no? What makes a political
act and when is it not considered a political act?
3 Different views
1. Politics as the art of government
Being linked to the government or the state (politics as the activity of running the country).
This vision is very narrow.
2. Politics as public affairs
This view takes a broader perspective on what politics are. Politics is what concerns public
life and the public sphere (private life = non-political). Institutions and organizations that are
‘open’ and operating in public for the public.
3. Politics as power
This view is the broadest view of politics. When an entity or person exercises power over
another. This takes place on every social interaction and social activity.
Definitions
Power is when A gets B to do something that B would not otherwise have done ( ex. A
teacher asking the students to stand up, or more profoundly the beauty pageant) àBy use
threat of force, manipulation/intimidation, promise of reward, power of number,…. ( Putting
pressure by being with a large number of people)
Politics can take place both in the public and private sphere
Defining politics
Politics = the activity through which people make, preserve and amend the general rules
under which they live. Politics is a social activity. Politics is linked to conflict and cooperation
(Development of rules to resolve conflicts and foster cooperation in society)
*Politics does not have a clear cut definition however it can be seen as/through one of these
3 definitions. (On an exam question you should explain that and also explain which of three it
could be by arguing how/why it can’t be the others)

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**Would a religious standpoint be considered political? Yes because it is outed in the open
and influences your social contacts. No, because religion is personal and takes place in the
private sphere
Studying Politics
There are no certainties in politics (ex: Trump winning the elections, ….)
Origins of political science
Originally seen as part of philosophy, It is a quite new discipline however it is a scientific

discipline because it is based on intellectual distance( objective and neutral distance ) zie
ppt
Approaches
2 main ways to look at political science. Lenses you wear to look at society
1. Philosophical tradition
The traditional way of thinking and raises questions
2. Empirical Tradition
Observes reality and dictate events and tries to analyze and explain why something
happens.
Concepts
Tools with which we think, criticize, argue, explain and analyze
The meaning of the concepts needs to be expressed in a definition (ex: in papers, ….)
Models
They offer you a representation of reality without having all of the complexity attached to it so
you can concentrate on the core of an issue. Political model by Easton
Theories
Why do people vote for Trump, why is there war
= Is a systematic explanation of empirical data
Theories are used to describe and explain political phenomena
Theories result from past research data

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Nation States
Class 2
What are states?
Today states are central entities of political organization in the world Yet they also encounter
several difficulties in larger parts of the world.
Common points:
- States are a form of social life ( a community)

- Power is vital for states (ex. By setting up an army, imposing taxes, installing laws
and regulation, …)
- The state is the highest institution of the country, it is the highest political community
of all
- States use symbols of statehood (flags, national anthem,…)
Despite these common points, there are huge variations in :
- Size
- Power (political and or military)
- Variation in age (Sovjet countries vs France, old vs new)
- Recognition: (Palestine,...)
What are the key features of states?
There are 5 key features that can make a state:
1. Territory: a state must have a geographical area/ a part of the world which is
considered as their own (the physical part of a state). The territory also needs
to exist and continue existing for a longer period of time (vast land and not an
iceberg/ice float -> needs continuity). The jurisdiction of a state is
geographically defined (once you enter a country you need to respect the
speed limit). A state also has a couple of activities linked to its territory:
- Defend its territory
- guard own borders
- Exploit its own resources
2. Sovereignty: the state holds the highest power and can (in principle) act in
freedom and independence within its own territory. Sovereignty can have 2
forms:
- Internal sovereignty: the state is free and can handle affairs
independently
- External sovereignty: how other states recognize the sovereignty of a
state
*States can voluntarily give up a part of their sovereignty (when a

country gets in the European Union) and there is also a certain

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limitation to sovereignty, a state cannot just do its own wishes.(there

can’t be widespread violence against the population)
3. People: the states need a population that:

- has to be permanent
- are legally recognizes members with rights and responsibilities
(=citizens)
- form a collective entity that share elements with each other: a history,
culture, ethnicity, common language,...(a nation)
*However in political science, there needs to be a distinction between

a state and a nation. When we talk about a state we are talking about
the territorial/political entity. However, when we talk about a nation we
refer to the cultural/political entity. On the other hand, a nation-state is
a state in which the majority of the population is united based on one
or more of the factors that define a nation.
4. Monopoly on use of force: the state is the only political entity that can use
force in a legitimate manner. In order to do so, safety is being enforced by
internal sovereignty (policemen and women) and external sovereignty (the
army)
*legitimate use meaning that it is accepted by people as correct, and in

accordance with their norms and values. (in America police force is being
criticized by the people, Black lives matter, and puts the legitimate use in
question)
5. Rule of law: the state is not above the law, but is subject to the law and has
to rules it has developed. The state also has the responsibility and obligation
to protect the rights of its citizens. A state can only limit the rights of its
citizens if it’s in accordance with the law.
Why do we have states?
There are 3 theoretical perspectives as to why we have stated:
1. Constitutional approach: the idea behind this approach is that states arise out of a
‘social contract’ between citizens and their rulers. Citizens wilfully give up a part of
their individual freedom to the state to offer protection and maintain social order.
2. Pluralist approach: this approach states that the state is there to regulate conflicts
(caused by the many different interests and values in society) and reconcile the
differences in society. Here the state acts as a neutral referee so that differences can
be overcome without violence or social disruption.
3. Conflict approach: in this approach the state also needs to regulate conflict,
however, it is often not a neutral arbiter. The state is often biased and favors certain
groups in society. Marxists say that the ones who have economic power in the

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country also have political power in the country and run the country, therefore in
conflicts the state is most likely to defend those with the most money.
How do states originate?
The development of new states often happens through one of these 3 processes:
1. Transformation: a state originates as a result of the gradual transformation that

takes place over many years. already existing political units transforming into
nation-states (France or Britain)
2. Unification: previously independent states decide to unify (Italian unification or
unification of Germany)
3. Secession: a process where political unis break-up/split up (Belgium, decolonized
states). Secessionist movements are still on the rise (Catalonia, Flanders, Scotland).
How do states develop?
Stein Rokkan created a model that consists of 4 stages of the development of a state.
1. State formation: in this first stage there are 2 crucial elements

- Territorial consolidation: territories start to solidify, small entities have formed
together and turn into larger centers of power (stabilizes)
- Development of state institutions: state institutions are being developed in
order to control territory and consolidate power
● providing internal order: installing police and courts
● providing external security: installing an army and diplomatic services
● extracting resources: installing taxes and tolls
● improving communication by roads, bridges, and infrastructure
2. Nation-building is the second stage of development. This stage is important in order
that the people feel connected to state and nation otherwise this can lead up to social
and political instability. This can happen by adopting a common language, having a
shared history(sometimes actively created; via education,...), a national anthem,
national emblems,...
3. Mass democracies are the linkage mechanisms between state and citizens by
- extension of voting rights
- legitimate opposition to the government
- peaceful alternation of power
4. Welfare states the need for redistribution of wealth and solidarity. In this stage, the
state can actively try to close the gap between rich and poor by progressive taxes,
social security, state housing, healthcare insurance, social security,...
Not all states go through these staged at the same time and it sometimes is difficult to
distinguish every state and some states can also regress or slide back.
● A failed state: a state that has lost control over its territory and is unable to fulfill the
basic functions of a sovereign state.

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The paradox is that states are omnipresent, yet, the power and importance of states is
declining due to the growing importance of:
- International organizations(UN, EU, WTO,...)

- International NGOs(Greenpeace,...)
- Multinationals(Apple)
- Sub-state actors and identities (regions, clans, identity groups,...)
In today’s world states still remain meaningful actors. States can give up part of their
sovereignty but they can also claim it back (ex: Brexit). There also is a return of the ‘strong
state’ in world politics. This means that new forms of nationalism and patriotism are being
created. One on One diplomacy is on the rise and the crises of international or supranational
government have damaged the reputation and aided in the rise of a strong state.

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Democracy
Class 3
What is or makes a democracy?

A political system in which government is based on a fair and open mandate from all
qualified citizens of a state.
Some important elements in this definition are:

- A country is governed by the people -> self-government
- A free and fair mandate
- Open competition (everyone can run)
- Qualified citizens: there is a lot of debate on what is a qualified citizen
Procedural definition
This definition of democracy looks at how a democracy should function. It also focuses on
how a regime is organized (institutional arrangements and procedures)
Substantive definitions
Looks at what democracy should do and also focuses/by focussing on the goals and
effectiveness of a democratic regime
There are 2 understandings of democracy (p.38)

1) Thin
Rests on the participation of citizens in political life and only the people have the power to
decide. (Only focuses on elections)
2) Thick
A thick understanding rests on not only the participation of citizens but also requires the
enforcement of constitutional and human rights.
There are also 2 forms of democracy

1) Direct democracy
Political decisions are taken directly by the citizens. This is a model of Athenian democracy.
There are 2 contemporary forms:
- Referendums: People vote directly on a political issue
- E-democracy: People express themselves via the internet
2) Representative democracy
Political decisions are taken by the chosen representative. The people still have a voice in
the decision making through the elections and that way you can organize democracy on a
large scale.
Liberal democracies= combine both political rights and constitutional protection of individual
rights and liberties. It gives the opportunity for people to get involved and protection;
government by the people for the people(thick understanding)

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illiberal democracy= there are political rights however restrictions also exist on individual
rights (freedom of speech,...)
most democracies tend to be liberal and if democracy isn’t liberal it is democratic.
What is not a democracy?

Democratically disguised dictatorships: states who claim to use elections and democratic
institutions but, these elections aren’t free and fair (Vote manipulation, election fraud, …) The
difference between democratically disguised dictatorships and illiberal democracy is that the
democracies have elections but they are not free and fair however illiberal democracies the
elections are free and fair but the rights of the people are limited.
What are the requisites of democracy?

Socio-economic development supports democracy in many ways :
● it softens class struggles
● less corruption
● Rise of the middle class
● more education: knowledge and democratic values are spread
However economic development is no guarantee for democracy but it can be a driving force.
There are also other elements that play a role in having a good democracy:
- Political institutions: democratic stability depends on the quality of democratic
institutions
- Political structure: democratic stability also depends on the existence of a political
culture that can sustain democracy
Is there a global spread of democracy?

The way how countries moved from a non-democratic to a democratic system happens in 3
waves, the transition of a group of countries that turned democratic.(S. Huntington)
1. The first wave is the longest wave, 1926-1930: Western Europe and North America
2. The second wave happened after WWII and until 1970: Germany, Japan, India,
Israel, Austria (also due to decolonization)
3. The third wave starts in 1974-...; Southern Europe, Latin America, Asia Pacific and
Eastern Europe (Fall of the wall in Berlin)
Democracies haven’t grown a lot since 1998.
What are the challenges of democracy?

Since the 1990s there have been signs of a crisis of liberal democracy
- Decreasing trust in politics
- Declining levels of electoral participation
- The growing success of anti-establishment parties
- Young people are turning away from democracy
Democracy is also resilient and constantly reinventing itself:

- There is more access to representative institutions and improved transparency
- Democratic innovations focusing on more and better involvement of ‘ordinary
citizens’ and experts

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Political ideologies
Class 4
What is the nature of ideology?

Ideology is more or less a systematic, well-developed and comprehensive set of ideas and
beliefs about politics consisting of both statements about what is, and what ought to be
(a set of ideas about politics and the world, express ideas about what the world is like and
how society is and what the position of human beings is in his society)
All ideologies have a common core:

- have a set of ideas, beliefs, and values
- They are systematic, comprehensive and abstract
- Offer statements about what is (society)
- Statements about what ought to be
- A plan for action
There are also considerable variations. There can be debates on what each ideology
actually means. Major ideologies have many variations but they still have common points
with their rivals.
Ideology is also often about power and is central in power struggles and convincing others
that these views are better. Therefore ideologies have been criticized and accused of being
false sets of beliefs. They justify the interests of the ruling class and mislead and manipulate
the working class (Marxist theory).
*ideologies are not the same thing as political parties though they may have developed
themselves around an ideology, however, not all ideologies have a political party to defend
them (no feminist parties)
Liberalism
Liberalism developed in the 18th century to challenge absolutism and the divine right that
monarchs could have the idea that they could rule unchallenged. Liberalism contested the
unfairness of the feudal system and spread with the industrialization.
Liberalism had a set of basic principles: Individual liberty is a natural right that should be
given priority however it is not absolute (freedom under the law; you are free to do whatever
as long as it is legal)
There are two concepts of liberty:
- ‘Liberty from’: The absence of restraint (negative liberty)
- ‘Liberty to’: The actual capacity to do things (positive liberty, the actual mean in order
to do something)
The amount of intervention from the state is also something that varies from liberalism form
to form:
- In classical and neo-liberalism the idea of limited state power was very common,
saying that the state actually prevents people from doing what they wish. the state’s
intervention should stop at protecting individual rights
- Modern/social liberalism promoted the idea that the state can help people to
achieve things and are more in favor of state intervention however the state still

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shouldn’t put too many barriers because it would limit the people’s creativity. (not too
many rules, barriers or taxes)
*In the USA liberalism has a more specific meaning, the one above is more general.
Free market economics is also a key feature of liberalism:

- individuals should make their own economic decisions
- there should also be limits in state intervention in the economy because a market
regulated by the ‘invisible hand’ (the market-leading itself) can lead to efficiency and
good performances.
However, there do again exist differences in these views
- Classic/neo-liberalism: There should be no deregulation and or privatization at all
from the government. (laissez-faire view)
- Modern/social liberalism: the government should offer some economic regulation
so that growth, prosperity and social welfare can be maintained.
liberals tend to have a rather optimistic view of individuals and believe that actions should be
taken individually. However, this why it also tends to be a rather western ideology.
Conservatism
Developed at the end of the 18th century as a reaction against the political and economic
changes that were happening (french revolution). It had the desire to conserve traditional
social order and stood in the defense of autocracy but not everywhere in Europe.
One of the key points of conservatism is that they believe that society is a natural organism
that has many different and complex interconnecting parts. Because it is the fruit of such a
long process we cannot just disrupt certain things which is why we have to defend the status
quo and tradition. Reform should happen slowly and with cautious otherwise, society would
be disrupted and might collapse.
Concevatists have a pessimistic view of human nature and they would rather say that people
are limited. This is why there needs to be a social hierarchy, strong leadership, and strict law
enforcement. Inequality also is inevitable and natural( due to inborn talents) with
conservatism.
Christian democracy
It is sometimes seen as conservatism but it is not, however, it shares some similarities with
conservatism. They believe that there are natural groups (family, church, local community)of
society that form the cornerstone of society. These natural groups should be allowed to run
their own business in their own way (via subsidiarity). The state should create preconditions
for natural groups to function.
(they would usually argue in favor of family allowances and child money so that families can
take care of their kids and no in childcare facilities because then the state would take care of
children like liberals advocate)

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Socialism
It originated in Europe during the 19th century and developed out of class struggle formed by
the growth of industrial capitalism and had as its goal to represent the interests of industrial
workers operating in poor and inhumane conditions.
In other parts of the world, it originated in the 20th century and developed out of anticolonial
struggle which was also was linked a bit to nationalism saying that they were saying that
nations should have their own states and should be free from colonial oppression.
Socialism has a rather optimistic view of human nature saying that human beings are
reasonable, rational and social (everyone is better in collaboration with others). Social class
is one of the key communities = a group of people who share a similar socio-economic
position. (middle class, bourgeoisie)
Socialists stress the importance of equality and equal opportunities. Inequalities are the
product of the social environment and not inborn talents. The state should actively eliminate
inequalities. They also are in favor of reform in the system.
The role of the state in the economy should be more present. Social democracy is in favor of
a mixed economy so that some parts are privately owned in order to assure less inequality
however communism pleads for the total control of the economy by the state.
Nationalism
Originated in the 18th century after/during the development of nation-states with the idea
that each nation should have a state and had the right to political recognition. Nations can be
either cultural or civic communities:
- Cultural: this notion is based on a shared language, religion, ethnicity, common
descent. This is a rather exclusive criteria because you either have it or you don’t.
- Civic: based on the fact that people share a set of values, principles, civic loyalties,...
these are more inclusive criteria.
Green political thought

This ideology has its origins in the 1960s and was part of the development of new social,
environmental movements. They want to make sure that our society is sustainably
developed. They also are very in favor of local consumption and the direct participation of
the people in politics and democracy.
Populism
This is ideology is ‘thin’ because it does not offer a comprehensive worldview and it attaches
itself to other ideologies. The core features are:
- Society is separated in two groups: pure people vs the corrupt elite (media, other
parties,...)
- The power should be given back to the people (they also claim to speak for the
people as true representatives)

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The end of ideology?

All the ideologies have been brought much closer together since the 19th century. But lately,
there has been a polarization again of ideologies
Political behavior, pressure groups, and social movements

Class 5
What is political behavior and what forms does it take?

Political behavior is all political activities citizens engage in.
The 2 goals of this are
1. Giving information in order to signal preferences and demands
2. Exerting pressure so that preferences and demands are met by political
decision-makers
Example: a strike, a petition, becoming a member of a pressure group, running for office,
boycotting, filling in surveys, march, civil disobedience(= act that is unlawful but non-violent)
There is a distinction between the way you politically behave:

● Conventional participation: Organized by the government/political elites. (Ex. voting,
lobbying, joining a party, attending political meetings and rallies,...)
● Unconventional participation: Organized by participants but in order for it to be
effective it needs to have disruptive potential (Ex. strikes, sit-ins, protests,..)
● Internet participation: It can be used in both conventional and unconventional way (
twitter revolution vs party website)
What are patterns in political behavior?

Out of a survey to there was found that most people are not politically active however the
numbers overall political participation is rising and conventional participation seems to be
declining.
Bur, there is an expansion in the forms of participation: zie slide 13
Some people participate more than others depending on :

- Socioeconomic status: People with higher SES have more resources and skills.
- Civic voluntarism model: this model explains that people don’t participate because of
either one of these three reasons:
1. They can’t (No skills or resources)
2. They don’t want to (No interest, conflict avoidance, apathy)
3. Nobody asks them (No network)
What are the pressure groups and social movements?
A part of civil society (The layer between individuals and the state where they enter the
political sphere as individuals like NGO’s)
1. Organizations with a political purpose, aiming to influence government policies or
actions :
● Pressure groups
- Interest groups/occupational (58mins)

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- Cause groups/specific
Example: WWF, NRA, Amnesty international
● Social movements
- Old and new social movements
Example: MeToo movement, Pro-life movement, Black lives matter,...
2. Other voluntary organizations with no political purpose
● Like a sports group, hobby clubs, …
What are the differences between PG and SM?

● Organizations:
- PG: a greater degree of formal organization
- SM: Loosely knit organization
● Issues:
- SM focus on (somewhat) broader issues than PG
● Participants:
- PG: participants are members
- SM: participants share a common goal and identity
● Methods:
- PG: lobbying, direct techniques
- SM: unconventional, protest
What are the differences between pg/sm and parties

● Relation with government
- Both want to influence the government; parties want to become part of the
government
- Parties compete in elections
● Issues
- Focus on one policy area
- parties cover almost all policy areas
How do sm and pg operate?

They perform 2 main functions:
1. Interest aggregation: they form a single policy platform from a set of different
interests and view
2. Interest articulation: Expressing and voicing their views and demands
Interests= something that individuals or groups have at stake in the political process.
● Direct strategies:
- Lobbying: influencing policymakers in every branch of government through
personal contact (as soon as possible and as high up as possible mayor or
president for a better impact)
● Indirect strategies:
- Public campaigns ( making noise)

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- Using the media and social media

- Contestation in court (ex. suing the government for not doing enough in
relation to climate change)
What determines its power?

● Group features:
- Income
- Membership size and density
- Internal divisions
- Sanctions or disruptive potential
- Leadership
● Political environment/context
- Insider groups: recognized by the government vs outsider groups
- Public opinion (strong public support)
- Legitimacy (based on legitimate claims and have legitimate interests)
- Party alignment (linking themselves to a political party)
- Countervailing powers (groups face competition
What are the different systems of pressure groups?

See slides
What is the importance of political culture?

political culture is the entire set of values, attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions about
government and politics. (political trust, pride, political support, citizenship,...)
PC can often remain implicit and built on deep-seated beliefs and values. It is also acquired
by the process of political socialization.
There are 3 types of political culture:

1. Parochial culture: This one is narrow and restricted (the citizens have low awareness
of politics and a low involvement rate of political engagement)
2. Subject culture: the awareness is higher, and the citizens are law obedient and have
trust in the system however the citizens are not involved
3. Participant culture: the citizens have high awareness and high political participation
Civic culture
The combination of citizens having respect for authority, trust in political leaders/system and
citizens participating in politics this then ideally leads to a stable democracy.
The values that we had as citizens have shifted from material to post material
values(self-expression, community satisfaction, quality of life). This shift resulted in rapid
economic development and increases in material well-being. However, the consequence of
this cultural shift is that more and more new forms of political participation were created.
New political issues became more important (like feminism, environmental protection, racial
equality,...)

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Political parties and party government

Class 6
What is a political party?

A political party is an organization of politically like-minded people who seek political power
and public office in order t realize their policies. Parties are closer/linked to society and are a
part of civil society. all parties have a common core:
- a formal organization: they operate to some extent as a firm and have a set of rules
to assure a structure in the party and a hierarchy
- The people share the same ideologies (issue parties)
- their goal is to seek power by winning elections
- Try to influence policies and create their own policy platform
How do parties organize?

The development of parties happens in a couple of stages:->CUSTOMIZE
1. Caucus parties: these parties are led by elite people and originated in the 19th
century. The alliance was very loose and had no organizations outside of the
parliament because there were not a lot of members
2. Mass parties: originated in the 20th century outside of the parliament. These parties
try to have a large membership (in order to have the power of numbers). It is also has
a strong link to society.
3. Catch-all parties: originated in the 1970s. They try to have as many voters as
possible by advocating more general policies and a broader range of voters through
this broader electoral appeal
4. Cartel parties: originated in the 20th century, these states have an increased
reliance on state funding. Their main goal is to develop state policies and the role of
career politicians increases here. The parties are less connected to society and more
focused on policy making. ( vroeger waren er liberalen cafés socialistische cafés
extra maar nu minder en minder. eventually gaan ze terug moeten komen en het is is
ook meer aan het terugkomen, social media,...)
5. Electoral-professional parties: this originated at the end of the 10th century. these
parties consist of professional experts replace activists and members. The party
consists of party leader, voters and professionals-> memberless parties
6. Media-parties: since the 21s century the use of media has been used to win over
voters, they don’t have deep roots in society and no mass membership base
The shift in party organization over time reflects societal and political changes
What are the main party families?

A party family is a group of parties in different countries that have similar ideologies and
party programs. There are traditional party families:
- the socialists or social democratic parties
- Christian democratic parties
- liberal parties
- conservative parties
There are also newer party families like

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- green or ecologist parties

- national, populist regionalist parties
they are ‘new’ because they tackle new issues and came to life through newer methods.
These parties are sometimes also called anti-party or anti-politics parties -> they criticize the
politics in place.
Some less popular party families are:

- Agrarian parties (zie ppt)
- Communist parties
- Single issue parties
Left and right is the common way to categorize parties. However left and right doesn’t
always work for some parties and left and right definitions can change over time and
between countries. Left and right have a two-dimensional nature
1. On socio-economic issues (economically)
2. Post Materialistic issues (culturally)
This way of defining a party can be limiting
What are party systems and which different party systems exist?
the party system is a pattern or constellation of significant parties in a political system. You
can count significant parties based on the number of parties and the size or strength of
parties.
there are a couple of party systems

1. One-party system: this is a system with only one party where there is no real
opposition that is allowed (ex. PPT)-> non-democratic
2. Dominant-party system: 1 party that can govern alone because it has around 50% or
more votes/seats. There is an alternation of power.
3. Two-party system: 2 significant parties form the majority together 80% of
votes/seats. There is an alternation of power between the two major parties. (ex
Australia, Hungary, USA, UK)
4. Multi-party systems: 3 to more significant parties assemble because no party has
more than 50% of the seats. The government consists of 2 or more parties, partial
alternation of power. (ex. Argentina, Belgium, Netherlands, Indonesia, Ireland,
Israel,…)
In the multi-party system there still are 2 types:
- moderate pluralism: there are 3-5 main parties and they compete for the
center ground
- Polarized pluralism: 6 or more main parties that tend to move away from the
center and move towards the extremes
What are coalition governments and how are they formed?

Coalitions are governments of two or more parties. There are also different types of
governments:
- Majority government: government or coalition that has at least 50% + 1 seat in the
assembly

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- Minimum winning coalition: a coalition in which only those parties participate that
are minimally necessary for a majority government
- Minority government: a government or coalition that is smaller than MWC, it does
not have a majority of seats in the assembly and it is not rare or unstable
- Oversized coalition: a coalition that is larger than the MWC and has too many
parties
- Grand coalition: an oversized coalition that includes all parties or the largest of them
which one is better?

One-party government:
- this one is relatively stable
- it can do what it promised to do
- If another party comes to power it can undo the previous administration (
polarization)
Coalition government
- potentially unstable
- more continuity, fewer policy ‘swings’
- more cautious and consensual policies
Are parties good or bad for democracy?

Parties are bad for democracy because:
- They involve conflict (opposition between each other)
- They represent sectional interests (represent certain groups) -> Who represents the
general interest?
- They only care about their own interests and survival, not about the greater good
Parties are good for democracy because

- They represent group interests so that differences can be resolved in a peaceful
manner
- Competition and conflict can be good: It forces o search for better arguments
- Democracy is also about finding a middle ground and a compromise
- Parties perform vital functions in democracies:
● They offer a channel of communication information
● They encourage voters to go vote
● They recruit citizens for political office
● They organize our government
● They organize formal political competition for power
Iron law of oligarchy (R. Michels)

Oligarchy = a government that is run by the few
Within a party there is a lack of democratic decision making, they are controlled by a few
leaders no matter how democratic they try to be. Leaders inevitably ‘betray’ their
organizations by using their position for their own interest or push their personal agenda on
the party-members.

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This has triggered initiatives from parties to support intra-party democracy: this limits the
power of party leaders and gives members a larger say

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Voters and elections

Class 8
What are democratic elections?

Democratic elections require a large number of preconditions, they are free and fair with
universal adult suffrage, secret ballot, impartial administration, free and equal access to the
polls.
Voting comes in two main forms

1. Elections: Selecting/electing of political representatives
2. Referendums: Expressing a public opinion on a particular issue
What are the different voting/electoral systems?

A voting system is an arrangement/rules by which votes are converted into seats on
representative bodies
2 major categories:
1. Plurality/majority: The goal here is to identify a clear winner -> Larger parties win a
higher proportion of seats than the proportion of votes hey fain in the election
2. Proportional representation: The goal is to represent diversity-> the proportion of
seats is more or less the same as gained in the elections. (the constituencies tend to
be larger)
the major difference between both systems is the goal, the first on wants to identify a clear
winner in comparison to the proportional representation (PR), that wants to represent
diversity in a proportional manner.
There are also different voting systems within those 2 categories

● Plurality (majority)
- Simple plurality (first past the post)
The country is divided into small constituencies, in each of these
constituencies 1 candidate is elected (the one with the highest votes) and the
number of constituencies equals the number of seats. This is being used in
Legislative elections in the UK, USA, Canada, India, Nigeria, …
This system has a couple of advantages and disadvantages

Advantages: there is a clear winner which can lead to direct accountability
and is very simple and effective.
Disadvantages: larger parties are over represented and smaller parties are
under-represented. This system also waists votes.
- Second ballot
In this system, the country is also divided into smaller constituencies and
each of them elects one the candidates, however, the difference between this
system and the first past the post one is that the candidate who wins the
majority of the votes wins the seat. So the candidate needs 50% + 1 to win
the elections and because this doesn’t happen after one turn, there usually is
a second-round/ ballot to determine the winner. The second round is between

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the 2 candidates with the most votes. This is being used in: France
(presidential and legislative), presidential in Brazil, Austria, Poland, …
this also has advantages and disadvantages:

Advantages: It rather simple and straightforward so there is a clear winner.
Disadvantages: However this system is unfair for smaller/third parties and
might also strain voters’ patience and interest in politics (voters fatigue).
- Alternative vote: the voters rank candidates in order of preferences. In this
system, votes are not wasted or less waisted.
● Proportional representation: the constituencies tend to be larger than with the
plurality system and you elect multiple candidates (each party gets a seat)
- List PR: In this system, parties make a list of candidates where voters can
vote for the whole party list or specific preference votes (vote for one person
on the list). The parties get the same amount of seats as votes which makes it
more proportional.
Advantages: it’s proportional and fair to all parties. This system provides a
better representation of traditionally disadvantaged groups in politics (e.g
women)
Disadvantages: This can lead to the possible fragmentation of the party
system because there is no clear winner and on party alone cannot form a
majority government. That means that as a voter you don’t know in advance
how to evaluate the situation. Party leaders also have more power because
they decide on the rank order of candidates on lists.
- Single transferable vote: Voters rank candidates according to preference
but in a proportional way
- Mixed-member proportional: this is a two voting system at a time: you have
to vote for the district (past the post system) and you have to vote for party
lists. This is being used in Germany
How are voting systems linked to party government?

Duverger’s law states that the voting system is linked to all sorts of outcomes like, how many
women are involved in parliament, confidence in government, high voter turnout. He also
says the electoral and voting systems is related to:
1. Party system:
- In plurality/majority system countries they tend to have two-party systems
(two relevant parties competing against each other)
- In a PR system, they tend to have a multi-party system
2. Composition of government:
- In plurality/majority system they to have a one-party government
- in PR there is a coalition government
In countries like the USA and UK there is always a two-party system due to the way how
votes are converted into seats, small parties become smaller and large parties larger
(mechanical effect). There also is a psychological effect as voters know that there only a
couple of parties that have a chance of winning.

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Who votes and why?

Voter turnout = the number of citizens casting a valid vote expressed either as a percentage
(%) of eligible voters (people who can vote) or as a percentage (%) of registered voters
(people who signed up to vote).
Voter turnout does vary substantially from country to country. There are numerous
system/context factors that influence voter turnout.
- The importance of the election: For example, national elections can be higher than
regional elections
- The electoral system: PR system can lead to higher voter turnout than
plurality/majority systems (because you have the feeling that your vote counts)
- If there is a close/high competition in an election
- The frequency of elections: the more elections the fewer people will vote
- Compulsory voting: whether you have the obligation to show up or not
There are also a couple of individual factors that explain the differences in voter turnout.
- Socio-economic status: people who are higher educated are more likely to vote
- Socio-demographic: age, ethnicity, residence,...
- Party identification: the extent to which you are attached to a certain party
- Values and culture (habit): If someone has learned to it they will always do it
What explains voting choice?

There are a number of factors that influence voting behavior and a couple of ways that can a
voter can vote.
Economic performance has an impact on voting behavior. It also depends on the perception
of government responsibility (is the economic success linked to the government?) and party
identification (how attached you feel to a party).
Another theory behind the voting choice is the sociological approach. It links voting behavior
to group membership and cleavages in society (explain voting choice by looking at the group
that a person is a member of or identifies to):
- Cleavages= deep and persistent differences in society (class, religion, race,
language,...)
- Group interests and attitudes shape party allegiances
There also is class-based voting: voting is based on socio-economic differences (occupation,

income, wealth). This means that economically vulnerable groups are more likely to vote for
left-wing parties in W-Europe.
Religious voting means that religious affinity can shape your party choice. This is even
present in secular countries (Catholics vote for Christian democratic parties).

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Psychological voting is linking your voting choice as being the result of psychological
attachment/bond to your party. Party loyalties and party identification create and shape party
allegiances. However, there is a growing partisan de-alignment. This means that there is a
decline in the extent to which people identify with a party -> Party de-alignment (the result of
socio-economic and rise of post-materialism). This leads to an increase in new party voting.
Voting patterns are less stable and more varied, change in voting from election to election->
increased volatility.
Rational choice model: a vote choice based on a rational calculation of what is in your own
best interest. Each voter compares and examine party programs and decide which one
operates in your best interest.
Issue voting: voting based on one issue rather than on class membership or party programs.

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Public policy and the bureaucracy

Class 9
What is the difference between polities, politics, and policies?

Polities are the macro-political institutions that deal with democracies, authoritarian regimes
and nation-states. Politics is about the rules of the game, parliament, executives,
governance, social movements,...
What are policies?

Policies are a set of interrelated decisions made by the government with the aim of steering
public, social and economic life and policymaking is the process of making those decisions
There 4 types of policies
1. Regulative: government regulating individual acts and collective acts

2. Distributive: The government offers services to people like picking up trash, public
transportation,
3. Redistributive: Taking money from the rich/ those who have money and giving it to
the poor/less fortunate(ex: progressive taxation)
4. Constitutive: policies that are guaranteed no matter what.
The policy cycle consists of 5 steps:

1. Policy initiation (= agenda setting): Turning an individual problem into a collective
problem. Policy agenda is not the same as the public agenda, not all problems on
the public agenda move up to the policy agenda. The selection process happens
through societal pressure, lobbying and not all problems can be added to the policy
list due to insufficient funds.
- Traditional model:
● Importance, the seriousness of the problem however, what is
important?
● Economic cycle: the issues on the agenda reflect the situation of the
economy (in times of economic prosperity there are other priorities
than when i is doing bad-> attention to unemployment)
● Political business cycle: Just like the economic cycle the political cycle
is a reflection of the time left until the next election/where you are in
the political cycle
2. Policy formulation: coming up with a solution for the problem
The phase in which policy options are elaborated. In this phase, there are a limited
number of actors. The phase is both technical-rational and competitive phase: there
is a lot of competition but it still needs to be doable
As a technical rational process:
- Define the problem and issue
- Set the objective: where do you want to land
- Analyze the policy options: what steps need to be taken
- Choose the instruments:

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● Nodality: Raising awareness and give information about the

consequences of their behavior (for example with smoking)
● Authority: imposing sanctions, this can be both positive and negative
● Treasure: Using financial taxes to reduce behavior
● Organization: Change infrastructure to change behavior (ID checking
for cigarettes, planting trees on the side of roads)
● (Nudging): Changing behavior by being pushed in the right directions
Policy formulation is a pretty competitive field:

- The struggle between different frames
3. Policy adoption (= decision making): The process through which public officials
decide which proposed set of policy options to adopt. There are 2 possible options:
- Non-decision: not making a decision and either lifting the issue during
elections or not deciding on it at all
- Decision: When decision making happens there are 3 decision-making
models:
● Rational model: Being very clear about your goal and taking a leap
towards this goal
● Incremental model (muddling through): decision-maker is prudent and
conservative. Decision making is trial and error. This is better at
explaining stability than change
● Belief system model: This works in three levels:
Agenda setting :
- From below:
● Citizens/groups/social movements put issues on the agenda and try to win
support from the government. They do this through petitions, media, riots,
strikes
● Works best in a pluralist system
- From above:
● Government and leaders put issues on the agenda and rally support among
citizens
● Leaders mobilize citizens for support
Media is a linkage mechanism
Favorable conditions for agenda-setting:

- The power of number: the more the better
- Positional power
- Framing: how you present the issue is important and can have a big impact. Link it to
something that everyone finds important (migration, climate, economy)
- Clear, simple communication
- Focusing events: linking your problem to an event that happened
- Media attention
4. Policy implementation: Actually putting the policy to practice

There are two types of implementation:

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- Top-Down: People on top decide and lower-level people execute. This has
uniformity and control
- Bottom-Up: The people that are lower level have the knowledge to implement
effectively. This is more flexible
5. Policy evaluation: evaluating if the policy that was adopted actually works.
There is an important distinction between output and outcome (what you put out vs
the results)
- Policy termination: the desired situation happens
- Policy feedback: your policy needs to be revised because it doesn’t have the
desired outcome
(the difference between efficiency and effectiveness is that effectiveness is about if the policy
actually solves the problem and efficiency is about whether the policy solves it a the lowest
possible cost.
There are also 3 types of evaluation:
1. Economy, efficiency and effectiveness (3E’s)
2. Process
3. Client satisfaction
these are rarely put in practice, few politicians actually evaluate their policies because
politicians don’t want to be confronted with their failures.
What is the difference between politicians and bureaucrats?

They have different functions (a bureaucrat is someone that works in administration and
politicians are the ones that make decisions) but there are other differences between them.
Politicians are elected and bureaucrats are elected. Politicians are short term and
bureaucrats are there for the long term. Bureaucrats are also experts in the field of policy
and have a lot of experience compared to politicians who are generalists and just know a
little out of every field. Politicians are concentrated on being re-elected but bureaucrats are
more professional. Politicians are externally oriented and try to convince the citizens,
bureaucrats are internally oriented and want to make sure their administration works
smoothly. The measure of success for politicians is public opinion and for B it’s the following
of rules
What are the functions of bureaucracy?

● The first task of bureaucracy is administration: making sure that laws or policies are
implemented
● They also give politicians advice on what policies should be adopted. In this sense,
you can see a reversal of power.
● They also ensure stability and continuity. Bureaucrats are usually appointed for life
but every new president places new appointees, this allows alteration.
How are bureaucracies organized?

There is the first model: Weber’s ideal type of bureaucracy

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● This bureaucracy has a clear structure and hierarchy: The relations are organized in
the shape of a pyramid. People on the top level make the decisions and people lower
on the level only execute and develop these decisions and can only follow what the
people on top have decided
● This system is also very functional because everyone in the pyramid has a specific
function/ask to fulfill
● Bureaucrats are neutral and don’t let their opinion in the way of fulfilling their tasks.
They have to keep their opinion to themselves.
● They are also permanently appointed: They are selected for life and cannot be fired
(unless they do something fundamentally wrong), this is a safety mechanism
● Legalism: Bureaucrats follow rules.
The 2nd model: New public management

● Decentralization and departmentalization
- Big government is bad government: we need to reduce the number of tasks
that big governments do.
- Skeletal state: governments need to come back to this state and be undone
of all its fat and focussing on their core issues (policing, security, stimulating
the economy)
- Privatization: other problems that are not fundamental to the state need to be
left to the private sector (like climate change, culture sector, Public
transportation, …)
● Output oriented
- Customer-oriented, they need to perform well and reach their goals
- Attaining goals is more important than strictly following the rules
- Performance and quality management
What is the power of bureaucrats and how can it be controlled?

In practice, bureaucrats are more powerful than politicians because of:
- Their strategic position linked to their knowledge and networks
- logistical power:
● larger in numbers
● Permanently elected
● they are full-time advisors
- Their status is very important in determining their power
This power is also a source of problems because there is a lack of accountability and
possible corruption or maladministration. There are a couple of control mechanisms to
prevent this:
- Accountability: Hold bureaucrats accountable to government, parliament, courts or
public
- Allow alternation to prevent the growth of too much power and control the top of the
bureaucracy (politicization)
- Create counter bureaucracies: have a personal staff of advisors for politicians

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Legislatures & executives

Class 10
What does ‘separation of powers’ mean?
The idea behind this is to avoid having all the power concentrated in one person but
separating the powers to a certain extent (executive, legislative, judicial) so that there is a
control mechanism to allow them to control each other and prevent abuse of power and
absolutism. (power controls power ) the process looks a little like this
Ideally, each power should operate in an autonomous manner so that each power can put
power on others easily. However this system tends to be inefficient because the fact that
they are autonomous makes it difficult for them to coordinate (legislatures can decide
something, however, the judiciary system might not apply it and in practice, the powers
aren’t that separated. (Executive can appoint judges however judiciary need to approve it/
legislatives can make laws, however, the king and prime minister need to sign them -> The
powers aren’t that separated). The separation of powers also depends from country to
country. ( clear separation of power in America and more intertwined power in Western
countries).
What are legislatures?

Legislatures are the body of government that is responsible for discussing and passing
legislation but also to keep watch of the executive. This is the generic term used for
lawmakers in this class. (synonyms: parliament, congress)
How do legislatures organize?

Legislatures can organize in a unicameral or bicameral way.
1. Unicameral:
- The legislature consists of 1 single chamber/house (like in China, Denmark,
Sweden, Iceland)
2. Bicameral:
- The legislature consists of 2 chambers (like in Belgium, UK, Austria,...)
The 2 chambers have different functions. The lower house/first chamber represents the
whole country. While the Upper house/second chamber/Senate represents social or

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territorial groups (like: in Germany Bundesrat: the regions are represented). When the
senate consists out of elected members, you can see that it is more powerful.
There are also different versions of bicameralism:

- Strong bicameralism: there, both chambers have equal powers (Argentina, Brazil,
Italy, Mexico, Romania, US, …)
- Weak bicameralism: here, the second chamber is politically and constitutionally
subordinate to the first chamber and doesn’t have much power. (like the UK,
Belgium, Germany, India, Japan, Spain, …)
Within legislature you also have very important subgroups that are powerful too.
● Parliamentary party groups:
This is how parties organize in the legislature. For each party, there is a
parliamentary party group that serves as a subunit for members of the same party
within the legislature. In many European countries the representatives operate under
a strict party discipline (they will all vote in a similar manner and only propose policies
that are in line with the party wants and asks them to do -> Party discipline).
● Legislative committees:
These are small groups in legislative that prepare and examine legislation, control
executive power and investigate matters of public concern. They are very powerful
and consist of different people from different parties however they act as experts on
certain issues (ex. committee on social affairs, foreign affairs, environment, … ->
Thematic committees). Because they are experts they have the power to scrutinize
and change amendments (a very powerful group of the legislature).
What are the functions of legislatures?

Legislatures have 4 key roles to play:
1. Representation
Legislatures represent the interests of the electorate and their constituencies. (they want to
put themselves as representatives of certain groups in society) -> Substantive representation
Legislatures are often not representative of society in socio-economic terms: looking at the
social profile of the legislatures and seeing if it corresponds to the socio-demographic

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characteristics of society as a whole. There tends to be an overrepresentation of certain

groups in society. -> Descriptive representation
If you have elected people who aren’t really connected to society as a whole, that might
create a gap between politics and society.
2. Legitimation
It is very important that legislatures are elected by the people and regularly have debates
and public debates to guarantee the legitimacy of the system. (more normative)
Legitimacy = the process of making something morally or ethically acceptable or right in the
eyes f the general public.
3. Law-making
The act of initiating, debating/discussing and passing/voting (on) laws. Legislative can have
positive: the ability to initiate or propose laws. They can also have negative legislative power:
the ability to consider, amending, delay or reject proposed laws. The primary function of
legislative is not to make laws, They rarely monopolize lawmaking because the function of
law-ming power is shared with the executive. (most bills introduced by executives and not
legislature are passed)
4. Scrutiny
This is becoming the most important function of many legislators. Controlling or checking
executive power. Legislative can veto decisions made by the executive in power. They can
also approve executive appointments (the chosen pm bv). Every week members of the
executive in power go to the legislatures/ parliament and have to answer questions raised by
the members of the parliament (opportunity for the executive to account/ convince others
that they are doing a good job and to explain themselves). Legislatures can also remove
executives from office:
● Vote of no confidence (parliamentary systems)
● Impeachment (presidential systems)
Legislative committees also play an important role in this function of legislatures because
they are policy experts and have all this knowledge and experience so they can keep a close
watch on executives regarding policies since they are the ones supervising, reviewing and
amend bills.
How do executives operate?

Executives can take many forms but they are often centralized around the leadership of a
single person or a small group of individuals (usually related to parliamentary systems).
There is a difference between 2 forms of function

● Head of state: There is an office of formal authority and a largely ceremonial function.
His or her political power very limited. (Symbolic power). In parliamentary
● Head of government: The chief executive, he or she has real executive power. This
can be a president, prime minister or chancellor and so on.
In a parliamentary system, these two functions (symbolic and executive) are occupied by two
different persons whilst in presidential systems, the two functions overlap and are fulfilled by
one person.

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Executives have three main functions

1. Decision making (initiating government action and formulating public policies)
2. Executing and implementing public policy (turning laws into action)
3. Coordinating the activities of the state (more efficient for that)
What is the relationship between legislatures and executives?

The way they function together depends on the (governmental) system. (3 systems)
- Parliamentary system
Parliamentary systems work more like a fusion of power systems. The different
branches work together and mix and blend powers. The only directly elected body in
the government by the people in the legislature. They at their turn also elect an
executive that comes from the legislature. (The scrutiny power is very important for
the parliament because the parliament is the only link with the electorate/people,
question time moments are very important because that is when the time where
executive can explain themselves to the people via legislatures)
- Presidential system
2 different entities that are much more separated. Both the president and legislature
are directly elected by the people which means that the two can work independently.
- Semi-presidential system
This is a mixture of the 2 former systems. The executive power is shared between
the president and the prime minister. The president is elected by the people and the
prime minister is appointed by the prime minister who assembles a cabinet. Usually,
there is cohabitation which means that the president and PM are from a different
party.
Both have negative and positive points
● Presidential system:
- Strong separation of power and direct accountability of executive +
- The conflict between the executive and legislative may lead to deadlock and
weak presidents may try to make their office stronger
● Parliamentary system:
- A fusion of executive and legislative can create stable and effective
democracies
- Can also produce leaders with considerable power

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The European Union

Class 10
The EU as a new political system

The EU is a unique political system, without any precedent. It’ also still in the making and
hard to grasp because there is a lot of internal diversity (political, cultural, linguistic).
Something unique about the EU is that there is peaceful, voluntary and ceding of
competences. -> Sui generis: without any precedent.
We may be tempted to think that it is unique to see powers shifting and moving from different
levels, however, this has been politics of all time (power has always been fluid). In the eyes
of multilevel politics, the EU is not special. Multilevel politics: If you look at politics as
multi-level then the Eu can be seen as something that isn’t that new. (Feudalist system in the
middle ages). Comparative politics provides many analytical tools to understand the levels of
government in the EU.
There are 2 main ways of looking at the system of the EU

1. Intergovernmental political system: National governments are the main actors in the
EU and the EU is a network of independent political systems seeking cooperation
where they see fit. In this system, citizens are national citizens (Dutch, Belgian, …)
and not so much European.
2. Supranational political system: The EU is an independent political system in itself that
exerts power independently above the member states
There also 2 other contrasting perspectives to look at the EU:

1. The EU as an idealist, ambitious project founded on common values f freedom,
democracy and peace (moral ideals)
2. The EU as a practical, incremental process of market integration and optimization of
governance (no ideals but only benefits)
We can look at the EU from a democratic perspective (4 essential characteristics)

1. Clearly defined set of institutions for decision-making and governance (as a citizen
you can see from where each policy comes from)
2. Citizens seek to achieve their political desires through the political system (directly
and indirectly)
3. Decision impact the distribution of economic and resources and allocation of values.
(direct impact on our lives)
4. There is a continuous interaction between outputs, demands, and decisions
The history of European integration: deepening and enlargement

Background
- In the 19th century, there has been the emergence of democratic nation-states on the
European continent
- 2 violent world wars: WWI, WWII,
- Creation of NATO, US Marshall plan in 1945,

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To make sure that there as actual peace it wouldn’t happen through promises of peace
(NATO), but to have common interests and work together on a practical level. That’s when
there was The Hague conference in 1948 where the council of Europe was created
(concentrated on human rights and peace). However in 1952, there was a breakthrough,
Robert Schuman came up with the idea to introduce one policy: Policy of coal and steel. The
idea was to bring the French and German coal and steel industry together under one
common governance (coal and steel because this is the industry needed for weapons) ->
European coal and steel community (ECSC)
European integration started there, the ECSC was the genesis of the EU. Later on, many
other countries joined (Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Italy). There were 3 institutions:
1. High authority: presided by Jean Monnet
2. Council of ministers
3. Parliamentary Assembly: Consisted of representatives from national parliaments but
they had no legislative power/no much power
In 1955 there was the Messina conference where they proposed to integrate markets
beyond coal and steel and from that conference onwards there was the treaty of Rome
-> European Economic Community (ECC in 1957)
- Creation of a common market
- Freedom of trade
- Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)
This benefited trade and economies in this market
Enlargement
From 1961 there were other candidates to become members of the EU (Ireland, UK,
Denmark, Norway, Austria, and Switzerland) and only the UK, Denmark and Ireland were
able to join because the last one couldn’t since they didn't want to take a stance during the
cold war.
1981: Greece
1986: Spain and Portugal
1995: Sweden, Austria, Finland, (Norway: rejected in a referendum)
2004: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Malta, and
Cyprus -> Post-communist countries
2007: Bulgaria, Romania
2013: Croatia
At the same the EU was also expanding its political powers:

● Treaty of Rome 1957
● Luxembourg, The Hague 1986: Single European Act: EU is not only single markets
working without borders but members together and common external policy/ foreign
affairs that were established together.
● Treaty of Maastricht in 1991 where they announced deeper cooperation in several
policy areas, a common currency (the euro) and the EEG becomes the European
Union.

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● Treaty of Nice in 2000:

● 2002: European convention: brought the idea of a European constitution
● 2007: Treaty of Lisbon
There has been no more treaty change and no more integration.
The institutions and the working of the EU

● The European Council (European leaders coming together, not EU entity, doesn’t
execute)
- This was created in 1961 in Paris
- Heads of states and governments of the member states
- Agenda-setting, guiding and steering (not very transparent and clear who
weighs the most)
- Breaking deadlocks and crises
- Decides by unanimity
- Treaty of Lisbon: one president
● The European Commission (executive power)
- Hasroots from the ECSC high authority
- The executive power: sets priorities, implements policy
- Acts in the common interest of the EU (no politics)
- Takes the initiative for European legislature
- 27 commissioners
- 1 president
- Increasingly held accountable by the European parliament
- Since 2009 spitzenkandidaten procedure
- The full commission needs to be approved by the EP, commissioners are
individually submitted to exams in the EP
● Council of the European Union ≠ European council

- An official entity of the EU
- National ministers; formation for each area of responsibility
- Foreign affairs council (FAC) has a permanent president (High Representative
of the Union for Foreign Affairs
- Economic and Financial Affairs Council (Ecofin)
- They mostly decide by qualified majority (55% of member states, representing
65% of the population) and sometimes unanimity (exceptionally by absolute
majority)
---> Intergovernmental
● The European parliament

- Represents the citizens of the EU
- Before 1979; representatives from the national parliaments
- 1979: the first direct election for the European parliament
- Since 1999 there is a proportional electoral system in all member states
- 751 seats
- Degressive proportional representation per member state; min 6 and max 96
-> Supranational collaborate on a European level

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It has 2 parliaments, one in Brussels and the other in Strasbourg (the move once a month)
- Increasingly more power to control the Commission and to play a role in the
legislative process
- They decide by an absolute majority
- co-decision procedure with c
- Approves the EU budget
However, the power over the EU budget remains restricted and member states take the
upper hand in practice and he debate and political competition in the parliament remains
tedious. Over the last year, there have been many pro-/anti-European integration dynamics
that have disturbed debate. The connection with European citizens is not really strong and
citizens usually use the European Parliament elections as there ‘second-order national
elections’, they vote different than what they usually would in national elections. (also low
turnout)
● The European Court of Justice

The European Union was legally founded on treaties ratified by the member states.
European regulations are implemented by national governments and legislation. The
ECJ controls and clarifies this process. There are different competencies
- Exclusive EU competences: Only the EU will take decisions on these policies

● Single market
● Custom union and external trade
● Monetary policy for the eurozone countries
● Common agriculture policy
● Common fisheries policy
- Shared competences
● Social regulations
● Environmental regulations
● Consumer protection and common public health concerns
● Economic, social and territorial cohesion
● Free movement of persons, incl. Third-country nationals
● Transport
● Energy
- Exclusive member state competences
● All other policies (not defined)
● Process of European integration (Treaties, ceding competences, institutional
review of the EU-> only possible with the agreement of the member states)
The EU and democracy

There are 2 electoral channels
1. Indirect: national leaders elected in the national elections (for the council of ministers
and European council)
2. Direct: The European Parliament elections
Other channels:

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- A vast network of the public and private lobby and interest representation
surrounding EU institutions influencing decision making
- Direct democracy:
● Citizens’ initiative (1 million signatures to make the commission consider a
proposal)
● Citizens’ dialogues, dialogues on the future of Europe
- Referenda in the member state
EU integration is something that was an elite-led project, it didn’t come from the bottom up
but rather from above. There was no support among the public and there was a democratic
deficit. The critique on the lack of democracy in the EU, the negative referenda and the rise
of parties contesting European integration made a shift from permissive consensus to
constraining dissent (beginning of the 90s). There has been a rise of Eurosceptic parties
The EU’s achievements and crises

Crises
- The rise of nationalism and Euroscepticism poses a big problem to the process of
European integration.
- The Brexit
- The 2009 European debt crisis
- 2015 Refugee crisis
- Democratic backsliding in Eastern Europe
Achievements:
- Peace
- Integration (in the broad sense)
- Economic and social progress
- European rights and citizenship
- Freedom, security and justice
- EU defending peace and human rights in the world
The EU as a new political system?

The EU as an intergovernmental political system :
- Institution: European Council, Council of Ministers
- Unanimity
The EU as a supranational political system
- Institutions: European Parliament, Commission
- Qualified by majority or absolute majority

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Multi-level government
Class 12
Multi-level government
What is a multi-level government?
A state = a dominant form of political organization with 3 important characteristics:
- Territory (physical aspect)
- Sovereignty (the highest to make decisions; external and internal)
- Population (a community living there)
But a state also is under pressure:

- From above: due to facts like globalization, terrorist actions, NGOs, EU, UN (these
challenge the power of a state)
- From below: Secessionist movements
However, the state is also under pressure:
- from above -> due to globalization from authorities like the EU, the UN, large
companies,...
- from below -> pressure that comes from the people through referendums, strikes, …
Decisions aren’t specifically made by the state any more but by different layers in a
government.
There are 4 levels of government
1. International/supranational level
2. National/central/federal level
3. Meso-level/regional/(sub-)state/provincial/… level (rather new so many names)
4. Local/municipal level
This results in a growing complexity of political decision-making and a large variety of

systems of territorial organization
Example: CETA agreement in2016 between EU and Canada -> form of multi-level
governance because the EU as a supranational organization can do this. However, in order
to do this, it needs to be ratified by all the member states of the EU which goes through the
central level. The Walloon government didn’t agree with it -> Meso-level which meant that
Belgium couldn’t agree with it and he EU couldn’t agree with it either. (Shows how complex it
can be/become)
Which different forms of territorial organization exist?
There are different forms of territorial organization, based on:

- What is the relationship between central and other levels of government: is one
superior to the other or not?
- Where are power, authority, and sovereignty located?

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In theory, there are 3 forms

1. Unitary states
2. Federal states
3. Confederations
Unitary states
The central government is the only sovereign body. Sub-state units (might) exist but they are
constitutionally and politically inferior to the central government.
Devolution: this is the central level that grants decision-making powers to lower levels while
maintaining its constitutionally superior status.
- Corsica (France)
- Greenland (Denmark)
- Scotland and Wales (UK)
- Catalonia and Basque Country (Spain)
Federal states
Central and sub-state levels both have a constitutionally level of autonomy. The sovereignty
is shared because each level has its own institutions, jurisdictions, …
Federalism is a combination of self-rule and shared rule. Meaning that each level has the
autonomy to make decisions relating to matters relating to its own competences (Self-rule)
and that the two levels share authority to make decisions on certain matters (shared rule).
Decisions need to be chosen at the sub-state level. Every subject has its sub-state and
should be represented at the state level.
Cooperative vs dual federalism:

Cooperative: federal and sub-state governments cooperate closely in cooperative federalism
and in dual federalism, federal and sub-state governments have their own functions and
cooperate less closely.
How is conflict handled?
- A written constitution is important because it determines competencies, powers, and

function of each level
- A constitutional arbiter is needed to interpret the constitution and arbitrate in cases of
disputes between levels (constitutional courts).
- Intergovernmental consultation to solve conflicts of interest between governments
(Diplomatic consultation, …)
- ‘Linking institutions’: Giving sub-state level a voice in federal policy-making (e.g
upper houses like Bundesrat in Germany and senate in Belgium)

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Confederations
This is a union of states in which each state retains its national sovereignty but lends some
power to a central body to a central/higher body that manages affairs of common interest.
Decision-making is therefore based on unanimity/consensus -> that makes this very difficult
type of organization and very impractical and not effective. The absence of an effective
central body makes confederations often powerless and unsustainable. The confederal
principle is often applied in international organizations: UN, NAFTA, African Union, Mercosur,
…
The European Union is a hybrid of confederal and federal features (something in between)
Confederal features:
- No shared sovereignty
- Limited authority for the European parliament
- Member states can leave at any time
Federal features:
- Deep integration of member states
- EP is directly elected by the people
- European Commission acts as a quasi-executive
- Supra-national: there some pooling of sovereignty on certain issues/matters
The EU is an in-between case
Is there a better form of territorial organization?

Certain systems are better, depending on the country-size and society type.

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International politics
Class 13
What are, and shapes, patterns of relations between states?

International relations is the study of relations and interactions between states and how
states cooperate or are in conflict together. These are typically influenced by:
1. The standard of interest: Actions in order to protect its national interest (values,
security, welfare,...)
2. The primary role of power: the ability of one country (a) to make another country (b)
to do something that country b would not have done.
- Hard power: military and economic power (military and economic resources)
- Soft power: Power of attraction, persuasion,...
What is the balance of power between states and how has it evolved?
Balance of power is the distribution of power among states:
Links between states are relatively stable and don’t change overnight. However, balance
does not mean equal powers. Each country’s power in the international arena is different.
Since WWII we moved from 3 balances of power; Bipolar, unipolar, Multipolar

1. Bipolar
This has to do with the cold war where the two poles were the USA and the USSR
and were seen as superpowers.
- they had a large global reach ad every country had to choose between one of
these superpowers
- Both had a dominant economic and strategic role within an ideological bloc
- Large military capacity
2. Unipolarity
After the fall of the berlin wall in the 1990s, there seemed to be a move towards a
system of cooperation rather than conflict: stronger role of UN, Humanitarian
interventions, … However, there was also a rise in ethnic, racial and regional
conflicts. The USA was the only remaining power center dominating world politics.
(unipolar power)
3. Multipolarity?
Since the 20th century, we have moved towards an international system where there
are 3 or more power centers. This has been associated with several trends:
- The decline of the USA
- The rise of other ‘emerging powers’; China, Russia, EU, ...
- Diffusion of power beyond the state: NGO’s, multinationals, terrorism
There is a search for a new balance of power and uncertainty and unpredictability
How do states cooperate?

● Multilateralism
- Groups of countries working together to collectively solve problems and
conflicts
- Often happens through formal international organizations
- In the name of advance the national interest

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- Advancing peace, liberty, justice, and welfare of states

Example: United Nation (UN)
The united nations

In practice it has 7 approaches:
1. Collective security
2. Peaceful settlement (3rd mediator)
3. Disarmament and arms control
4. Preventive diplomacy
5. Grand debate
6. Anti Colonialism
7. Functionalism: special agencies to solve practical problems
What are other forms of behavior in the international arena?
● Neutrality: Not taking a position in a certain conflict of war or international issue

● Isolation: Withdrawing from world affairs and no longer engaging with other states
● Nonalignment: Policy of refusal to participate in a struggle between major powers

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Intro to PS - notes from class

Introduction to Political Science (Vrije Universiteit Brussel)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

1. Politics as the art of government

2. Politics as public affairs

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Origins of political science

Originally seen as part of philosophy, It is a quite new discipline however it is a scientific

The traditional way of thinking and raises questions

Tools with which we think, criticize, argue, explain and analyze

Why do people vote for Trump, why is there war

= Is a systematic explanation of empirical data

Theories are used to describe and explain political phenomena

Theories result from past research data

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What are states?

- States are a form of social life ( a community)

Despite these common points, there are huge variations in :

What are the key features of states?

There are 5 key features that can make a state:

*States can voluntarily give up a part of their sovereignty (when a

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limitation to sovereignty, a state cannot just do its own wishes.(there

3. People: the states need a population that:

*However in political science, there needs to be a distinction between

*legitimate use meaning that it is accepted by people as correct, and in

Why do we have states?

There are 3 theoretical perspectives as to why we have stated:

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How do states originate?

1. Transformation: a state originates as a result of the gradual transformation that

How do states develop?

1. State formation: in this first stage there are 2 crucial elements

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- International organizations(UN, EU, WTO,...)

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What is or makes a democracy?

Some important elements in this definition are:

There are 2 understandings of democracy (p.38)

There are also 2 forms of democracy

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most democracies tend to be liberal and if democracy isn’t liberal it is democratic.

What is not a democracy?

What are the requisites of democracy?

Is there a global spread of democracy?

What are the challenges of democracy?

Democracy is also resilient and constantly reinventing itself:

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What is the nature of ideology?

All ideologies have a common core:

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Free market economics is also a key feature of liberalism:

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Green political thought

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The end of ideology?

Political behavior, pressure groups, and social movements

What is political behavior and what forms does it take?