Chemistry 30

Thermochemistry Notes

A. Energy
30-A1.2k  explain, in a general way, how stored energy in the chemical bonds of hydrocarbons
originated from the sun

 we use hydrocarbons in many areas of our lives

eg) glucose for cellular respiration, gasoline and natural gas for fuel
 the energy stored in the chemical bonds of hydrocarbons originally
comes from the sun
 ancient plants captured the energy of the sun during photosynthesis,
ancient animals ate the plants, then death and trapping in rock
formations as oil, gas, oil sand etc.

Sample Diploma Question

The original source of the energy stored in fossil fuels such as methane was
A. protozoa
B. plants
C. animals
D. the Sun

 there are two fundamental types of energy:

1. kinetic energy (EK): the energy of motion
2. potential energy (EP): energy that is stored

 the First Law of Thermodynamics states that:

o the total energy of the universe is constant
o energy can be converted to other forms however the total
energy of any system is conserved (it cannot be created or
destroyed)

 the Second Law of Thermodynamics states that:

o in the absence of energy input, a system becomes more
disordered
o heat will always transfer from hot objects to cooler objects until
thermal equilibrium is reached

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B. Temperature Change
30-A1.1k  recall the application of Q = mct to the analysis of heat transfer

 temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles

of a substance
 the faster the particles are moving, the higher the temperature
 the amount of energy needed to heat a substance depends on three
factors:
1. the mass of the substance
2. the change in temperature
3. the type of substance (heat capacity)
 heat capacity is heat required to change the temperature of one gram
of a substance by 1C

where: Q = heat energy in J

m = mass in g
Δt = change in temperature in C
c = specific heat capacity in J/gC
***found on pg 3 of data booklet

Example
Find the heat required to change 2.50 g of water from 10.0C to 27.0C.

Sample Diploma Question

Numerical Response
An outdoor mercury thermometer contains 1.02 g of mercury. On a winter
day, the thermometer records a change in temperature from –38.0C to
–13.0C. The mercury absorbed ________________ J of energy. The heat
capacity of mercury is 0.140 J/gC.

Your Assignment: pg 1 “Heat Calculations” #1-6

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C. Energy and Enthalpy
30-A1.3k  define enthalpy and molar enthalpy for chemical reactions

 enthalpy is the sum of all forms of kinetic and potential energy in a

system (EK + EP)
 unfortunately, the enthalpy of individual substances cannot be
measured directly (EK can with a thermometer but how do you
measure EP?)
 changes in enthalpy occur whenever heat is released or absorbed in a
physical, chemical change or nuclear change…fortunately, this can be
measured
 enthalpy change, H, is measured in J or kJ
 subscripts are sometimes used to denote the type of process, for
example “r” for “reaction”
rH = enthalpy of reaction
 the “” symbol is used to denote changes taking place at standard
conditions
rH = standard enthalpy of reaction (at SATP – 100 kPa and
25C)
 molar enthalpy is the enthalpy change per mole of a substance
 molar enthalpy is also designated as H although we will be using just
H for our formulas
 molar enthalpy is measured in J/mol or kJ/mol
***this can be confusing so pay close attention to the context…wording
and units!!!

D. Energy Change in Chemical Reactions

30-A1.10k  classify chemical reactions as endothermic or exothermic, including those for the
processes of photosynthesis, cellular respiration and hydrocarbon combustion
30-A1.9k  identify that liquid water and carbon dioxide gas are reactants in photosynthesis and
products of cellular respiration and that gaseous water and carbon dioxide gas are
the products of hydrocarbon combustion in an open system

 changes in potential energy take place during chemical

reactions when one substance is converted into another substance
 chemical bonds are sources of stored potential energy
 breaking bonds requires energy
 forming bonds releases energy
 if the energy added to break the bonds is greater than the energy
released when the new bonds are formed then the reaction is
endothermic
eg) photosynthesis

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  endothermic changes are designated as positive values since
energy is being added to the system

 if the energy added to break the bonds is less than the energy
released when the new bonds are formed then the reaction is
exothermic
eg) cellular respiration

hydrocarbon combustion

 exothermic changes are designated as negative values since

energy is being lost by the system

 the amount of energy lost or gained is directly proportional to

the amount of substances that react
ie) if 100 g of a substance burning will release twice as much energy
compared to when 50 g of that same substance burns

E. Communicating Enthalpy Changes

30-A1.4k  write balanced equations for chemical reactions that include energy changes
30-A1.5k  use and interpret H notation to communicate and calculate energy changes in
chemical reactions
30-A1.3s  compare energy changes associated with a variety of chemical reactions through the
analysis of data and energy diagrams

Exothermic Reactions
1. rH Notation
 the heat of reaction can be given as a rH value outside of the
equation
 the sign on rH is negative since the enthalpy of the system is
decreasing
eg)

2. Inside the Equation

 in an exothermic reaction enthalpy is included as a product
eg)

3. Potential Energy Diagrams

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  shows the potential energy of the reactants and the products of a
chemical reaction
 reactants have more potential energy than the products in an
exothermic reaction
 the difference between the reactants and products is the rH
Exothermic

Products have less EP than

the reactants  energy has
been lost to the
surroundings

Endothermic Reactions
1. rH Notation
 the sign on rH is positive since the enthalpy of the system is
increasing
eg)

2. Inside the Equation

 in an endothermic reaction enthalpy is included as a reactant
eg)

3. Potential Energy Diagrams

 reactants have less potential energy than the products in an
endothermic reaction
 the difference between the reactants and products is the rH
Endothermic

Products have more EP than

the reactants  energy has
been gained by the system

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Sample Diploma Question

Which of the following statements is true for an endothermic reaction?

A. EP for the reaction is negative.

B. Energy is a product in the chemical equation.
C. The temperature of the surroundings increases.
D. The potential energy of the products is greater than the potential energy of the
reactants.

Your Assignment: pg 1 #1-8 “Communicating Energy Changes”

F. Calculating Enthalpy Changes

30-A1.5k  use and interpret H notation to communicate and calculate energy changes in
chemical reactions

 molar enthalpy, in kJ/mol, and the number of moles of a substance can

be used to calculate the enthalpy change of a chemical change:

where: rH = enthalpy change in J or kJ

n = number of moles in mol
rH = molar enthalpy in J/mol or kJ/mol

 the number of moles can either come from the balancing in the
chemical reaction or from the formula n = m/M
 always have a sign on H or H
o positive for endothermic (energy absorbed)
o negative for exothermic (energy released)

Example 1
Calculate the molar enthalpy of combustion for oxygen given the following
information:

2 C2H6(g) + 7 O2(g)  4 CO2(g) + 6 H2O(g) cH = 2856.8 kJ

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Example 2
Find the enthalpy change when 5.50 g of pentane burns.
cH = 3244.8 kJ/mol of pentane.

Example 3
When methane is burned, oxygen is consumed. Determine the mass of
oxygen consumed if the change in enthalpy is 250 kJ and the molar
enthalpy of reaction for oxygen is 401.3 kJ/mol.

Your Assignment: pg 2 “Enthalpy Changes” #1-7

G. Calorimetry
30-A1.8k  use calorimetry data to determine the enthalpy changes in chemical reactions

 calorimetry is a technological process of measuring energy changes

using an isolated system
 the isolated system used to determine the heat involved in a phase
change or in a chemical reaction is called a calorimeter

Calorimeter
insulation

water
ENERGY
enclosed chemical system

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Steps for Using a Simple Calorimeter
1. Measure the initial temperature of the water in the calorimeter.
2. Add the reactants to the calorimeter.
3. Allow reaction to proceed, stirring the solution to ensure even
temperature.
4. Measure the final temperature of the water in the calorimeter
(maximum temperature for exothermic reactions, minimum
temperature for endothermic reactions)

 calorimetry is based on the First and Second Law of

Thermodynamics…energy is conserved and energy is transferred
from hotter objects to cooler objects until thermal equilibrium is
reached
 it is assumed that no energy is gained or lost by the system except for
the energy required or released by the chemical change
 calculations are based on the Principle of Heat Transfer:

 remember, you must use a sign with you H values (either

enthalpy change or molar enthalpy)
endothermic = positive value
exothermic = negative value

Example 1
A chemical reaction in a calorimeter causes the temperature of 500 g of
water to increase in temperature from 10.0C to 52.0C. Calculate the heat
released by this reaction. Give your answer in kJ.

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Example 2
An 8.40 g sample of N2(g) is reacted with pure oxygen in a bomb calorimeter
containing 1.00 kg of water to produce N2O. The temperature of the water
dropped by 5.82C. What is the molar heat of reaction of N2(g) in kJ/mol?

Example 3
A student built a simple calorimeter with a 25.0 g tin can and 150 mL of
water. Calculate the molar enthalpy of combustion of ethanol in kJ/mol if
0.166 g of this fuel increased the temperature of the calorimeter by 7.00C.
Remember to include not only the heat gained by the water but also by the
calorimeter.

Your Assignment: pg 2 “Calorimetry” #1-5

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Example 4
A student mixes 100.0 mL of 0.500 mol/L HBr(aq) with 100.0 mL of
0.500 mol/L KOH(aq). The initial temperature of both solutions is 21.00C
and the highest temperature reached after mixing is 24.40C. Calculate the
molar enthalpy of neutralization in kJ/mol for the HBr(aq). Assume both
solutions have the density and heat capacity of pure water.

Sample Diploma Question

Use the following information to answer the next two questions

A student designed a calorimetry experiment to determine the molar

enthalpy of reaction of hydrochloric acid when it reacts with sodium
hydroxide. The following results were recorded:
average initial temperature of reactants 25.5C
final temperature of mixture 40.5C
concentration of HCl(aq) 0.250 mol/L
volume of HCl(aq) 100.0 mL
concentration of NaOH(aq) 0.250 mol/L
volume of NaOH(aq) 100.0 mL

Numerical Response
The molar enthalpy of reaction of the hydrochloric acid is

If + record 1
If  record 2 ________ ________ ________kJ/mol
first second third fourth
column column column column

Your Assignment: pg 3 “Calorimetry” #6-7

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  you can also be asked to calculate kJ/g instead of kJ/mol in
calorimetry questions
 you use the formula mH instead on nH to give kJ/g
 you can also convert kJ/mol to kJ/g by dividing by the molar mass of
the substance

Example 5
A 1.50 g sample of methane is completely burned in a calorimeter
containing 2.50 kg of water. The temperature increased from 20.15C to
27.45C. Calculate the molar enthalpy of combustion for methane in
kJ/mol. Convert your answer to kJ/g.

Example 6
When 3.00 g of butter is burned in a bomb calorimeter containing 2200 g of
water, the temperature changes from 19.62C to 31.89C. Calculate the
specific enthalpy of combustion in kJ/g.

Chem 30 Thermochemistry 11 Jill Agnew

Sample Diploma Question
Numerical Response
When 0.150 g of canola oil was burned in a bomb calorimeter, the
temperature of 450 mL of water increased by 55.0C. The enthalpy of
combustion of the canola oil was

If + record 1
If  record 2 ________ ________ ________kJ/g
first second third fourth
column column column column

Your Assignment: pg 3 #8-10 “Calorimetry”

H. Hess’ Law: Predicting Enthalpy (rH) Changes

30-A1.7k  explain and use Hess’ Law to calculate energy changes for a net reaction from a
series of reactions

 because of the law of conservation of energy, the heat of reaction is

the same whether the reactants are converted to the products in a
single reaction or in a series of reactions
 G.H. Hess (1840) suggested that if two or more thermochemical
equations are added to give a final equation then the enthalpies can be
added to give the enthalpy for the final equation
 sometimes the heat of reaction for a chemical change is not easily
measured due to time of reaction, cost, rarity of reactants etc. so we
use Hess’s Law to calculate rH

Steps:
1. Write the net reaction, if it is not given.
2. Manipulate the given equations so they will add to yield the net
equation.
 if you multiply or divide an equation, multiply or divide the H
by the same factor
 if you flip an equation, flip the sign on H
3. Cancel the reactants and products where possible to simplify (you
must end up with your net equation!)
4. Add the component enthalpy changes to get the net enthalpy change.

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Example 1
Find the enthalpy change and draw the EP diagram for C(s, di)  C(s, gr)
using the following reactions:
C(s, gr) + O2(g)  CO2(g) H = 393.5 kJ
C(s, di) + O2(g)  CO2(g) H = 395.4 kJ

Example 2
Find the enthalpy change for H2O2(l)  H2O(l) + ½ O2(g) using the
following reactions:
H2(g) + O2(g)  H2O2(l) H = 187.8 kJ
H2(g) + ½ O2(g)  H2O(l) H = 285.8 kJ

Example 3
Find the heat of reaction for C(s) + 2 H2(g)  CH4(g) using the following
reactions:
C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g) H = 393.5 kJ
H2(g) + ½ O2(g)  H2O(l) H = 285.8 kJ
CH4(s) + 2 O2(g)  CO2(g) + 2 H2O(l) H = 890.5 kJ

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Sample Diploma Question

H2(g) + O2(g)  H2O(g) ΔH = 241.8 kJ

C(s) + O2(g)  CO(g) ΔH = 110.5 kJ

C(s) + O2(g) + 2 H2(g)  CH3OH H = 239.2 kJ

The enthalpy change for CO(g) + 2 H2(g)  CH3OH(l) is

A. 833.3 kJ
B. 612.3 kJ
C. 591.5 kJ
D. 370.5 kJ

Your Assignment: pgs 3-5 “Hess’s Law of Additivity”

I. Standard Heats of Formation fH

30-A1.6k  predict the enthalpy change for chemical equations using standard enthalpies of
formation
30-A2.3s  draw and interpret enthalpy diagrams for chemical reactions

 sometimes it is not easy to measure the heat change for a reaction (too
slow/expensive)
 in this case, H can be determined using heats of formation
 heats of formation (fH) are the changes in EP that occur when
compounds are formed from their elements
 fH for elements cannot be directly measured therefore they are
designated as zero…all other fH values are in reference to this
…see pages 4-5 in data booklet
 the fH is an indirect measure of the stability of a compound
 the more exothermic the formation, the more stable the compound
(this means you have to add that energy to decompose it)
eg) List the following compounds in order from most stable to least
stable.
H2O(l) fH = 285.8 kJ/mol
C2H4(g) fH = +52.4 kJ/mol
N2O4(g) fH = +11.1 kJ/mol
PCl3(l) fH = 319.7 kJ/mol
Al2O3(s) fH = 1675.7 kJ/mol

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  Hess’s Law formula states that the rH is the difference between the
standard heats of formation of the reactants and the products

Example 1:
Calculate the standard heat of combustion for 2 CO(g) + O2(g)  2 CO2(g)
and draw the EP diagram for this reaction.

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Example 2:
Find the heat of combustion of ethane and draw the EP diagram for this
reaction. The products of combustion are gases.

Your Assignment: pg 6 “Heats of Formation” #1

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Example 3
Calculate the molar enthalpy of combustion for ethane. The products of
combustion are gases.

Your Assignment: pg 6 #2-4

Example 4
Calculate the energy released when 25.0 g of methanol is burned. The
products of combustion are gases.

Chem 30 Thermochemistry 17 Jill Agnew

Sample Diploma Question

Numerical Response
The amount of heat released when 2.50 Mg of methane gas is burned is
__________________ GJ. The products of combustion are gases.

Your Assignment: pg 6 #5-7

Example 5
Calculate the molar heat of formation for ethylene glycol given the
following information:

(CH2OH)2() + 5/2 O2(g)  2 CO2(g) + 3 H2O() H = 1178.0 kJ

Your Assignment: pg 6 #8-10

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J. Energy and Efficiency
30-A1.1sts  explain that the goal of technology is to provide solutions to practical problems
30-A1.2sts  explain that technological problems often require multiple solutions that involve
different designs, materials and processes and that have both intended and
unintended consequences

 most of Canada’s energy (electricity) comes from chemical processes

such as the combustion of fossil fuels
 electricity is also generated through nuclear processes
 both methods involve changing water into steam (a phase change)
which turns turbines to generate electrical energy
 how does the energy from physical, chemical and nuclear processes
compare:
 physical changes involve the breaking and forming of
intermolecular forces (1 – 100 kJ/mol)
 chemical changes involve the breaking and forming of
chemical bonds (100 – 10000 kJ/mol)
 nuclear changes involve changes within the nuclei of
atoms (millions to billions of kJ/mol)

 efficiency is the ratio of useful energy produced (energy output)

to energy used in its production (energy input)

 we have developed many technologies that help us to solve practical

problems
 it is important to be as efficient as possible with technologies such as
appliances and vehicles
 saving energy saves you money and it helps to save the environment
(greenhouse effect and acid rain)
 in any process, the more energy conversions that take place, the less
efficient the process because of heat loss in transfer
 gas furnace (natural gas) is about 90% efficient since it
is used to directly supply heat
 natural gas power plant is only about 37% efficient
because there are several energy conversions that take place
before electricity is generated (water to steam to kinetic energy
to mechanical energy to electrical energy)

Chem 30 Thermochemistry 19 Jill Agnew

K. Fuelling Society
30-A1.2sts  explain that technological problems often require multiple solutions that involve
different designs, materials and processes and that have both intended and
unintended consequences
30-A2.2sts  explain that the appropriateness, risks and benefits of technologies need to be
assessed for each potential application from a variety of perspectives, including
sustainability

 we must assess the risks and benefits of relying on any fuel

source
 when selecting an energy source, efficiency is not the only
consideration
 environmental impact must also be considered

Advantages vs. Disadvantages of Fossil Fuels

Advantages Disadvantages

30-A2.3sts  explain that the products of technology are devices, systems and processes that
meet given needs; however, these products cannot solve all problems

 nuclear processes do not produce greenhouse gases but they do produce

radioactive waste which lasts for thousands of years
 wind turbines use a renewable energy source (sun indirectly) but are
not free of problems…they are noisy and dangerous to birds
 hydroelectric power is also renewable but damming rivers affects
ecosystems on both sides of the dams

 the amount of CO2(g) released by a fuel determines how “clean” it is

 fuels that use renewable energy sources (solar, wind, geothermal etc.)
and nuclear power are considered the “cleanest”
 methane is the “cleanest” fossil fuel and coal is the least clean

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  regardless of which source of energy we use, we must think about the
impact that our fuels have on the environment

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 L. Bond Energy and Activation Energy
30-A2.1k  define activation energy as the energy barrier that must be overcome for a chemical
reaction to occur
30-A2.2k  explain the energy changes that occur during chemical reactions, referring to bonds
breaking and forming and changes in potential and kinetic energy

 bond energy is the energy required to break a chemical bond or the

energy released when a bond is formed
 the change in enthalpy of a reaction represents the net effect from
breaking the bonds in the reactant(s) and forming the bonds of the
product(s)
 in exothermic reactions, bond breaking absorbs less energy than the
bond formation gives off, resulting in a H

Exothermic: H2(g) + Cl2(g)  2 HCl(g) + energy

Energy
(kJ)

Reaction Progress

 in endothermic reactions bond breaking absorbs more energy than the

bond formation gives off, resulting in a +H

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 Endothermic: 2 H2O() + energy  2 H2(g) + O2(g)

Energy
(kJ)

Reaction Progress

 the energy barrier that must be overcome for a chemical reaction to

occur is called the activation energy
 the atoms in the reactants have to be “pulled apart” in order for them
to bond in a different configuration and become the products
 the activation energy is always higher than the energy contained in the
reactants and the products, however the amount of activation energy
necessary is dependent on the reaction

30-A2.3k  analyze and label energy diagrams of a chemical reaction, including reactants,
products, enthalpy change and activation energy

Potential Energy Diagram: Exothermic Potential Energy Diagram: Endothermic

(reverse is Endothermic) (reverse is Exothermic)

* *

EP (kJ) EP (kJ)

Reaction Progress Reaction Progress

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 M. Catalysts
30-A2.4k  explain that catalysts increase reaction rates by providing alternate pathways for
changes, without affecting the net amount of energy involved

 a catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction

without being consumed by the reaction
 catalysts provide alternate pathways for chemical reactions
 they lower the activation energy required for a reaction to take place
which results in the production of a greater yield of products in a
given length of time (even at a lower temperature)
 catalyzed reactions can be shown on EP diagrams:

Potential Energy Diagram: Exothermic Potential Energy Diagram: Endothermic

EP (kJ) EP (kJ)

Reaction Progress Reaction Progress

uncatalyzed reaction catalyzed reaction

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Sample Diploma Question

Potential Energy Diagram

1
EP (kJ) 2
3
4

5 6

Reaction Progress

Numerical Response
Match the following statements with the line numbered in the potential
energy diagram above.

Activation energy for forward, uncatalyzed reaction. ___________

Activation energy for reverse, catalyzed reaction. ___________
H for forward reaction. ___________
H for reverse reaction. ___________

Chem 30 Thermochemistry 25 Jill Agnew

activated
complex
N. Catalysts in Industry
30-A2.1sts  explain that the goal of technology is to provide solutions to practical problems
 explain how catalysts, such as catalytic converters on automobiles, reduce air
pollution resulting from the burning of fuels

 catalysts are often used in industry to speed up the reactions and

obtain a reasonable reaction rate under reasonable conditions
 in cars, we have catalytic converters that use Pt(s), Pd(s) and Rh(s) to
speed up the combustion of exhaust gases so that more of the products
are harmless (N2 instead of NOx, CO2 instead of CO)
 the oil and gas industry uses catalysts (Pt(s), HF(aq), H2SO4(aq) etc)
in the cracking and reforming of crude oil and bitumen to make more
marketable fuels like gasoline

O. Enzymes
 compounds that act as catalysts in living systems are called enzymes
 called biological catalysts
 chemical reactions in the body occur at very low temperature (37C)
and without catalysts many would be too slow

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