Sensors 22 04610 v2
Sensors 22 04610 v2
Sensors 22 04610 v2
Review
LiDAR-Based Structural Health Monitoring: Applications in
Civil Infrastructure Systems
Elise Kaartinen, Kyle Dunphy and Ayan Sadhu *
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Western University, London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada;
[email protected] (E.K.); [email protected] (K.D.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract: As innovative technologies emerge, extensive research has been undertaken to develop new
structural health monitoring procedures. The current methods, involving on-site visual inspections,
have proven to be costly, time-consuming, labor-intensive, and highly subjective for assessing the
safety and integrity of civil infrastructures. Mobile and stationary LiDAR (Light Detection and
Ranging) devices have significant potential for damage detection, as the scans provide detailed
geometric information about the structures being evaluated. This paper reviews the recent develop-
ments for LiDAR-based structural health monitoring, in particular, for detecting cracks, deformation,
defects, or changes to structures over time. In this regard, mobile laser scanning (MLS) and terrestrial
laser scanning (TLS), specific to structural health monitoring, were reviewed for a wide range of
civil infrastructure systems, including bridges, roads and pavements, tunnels and arch structures,
post-disaster reconnaissance, historical and heritage structures, roofs, and retaining walls. Finally,
the existing limitations and future research directions of LiDAR technology for structural health
monitoring are discussed in detail.
Keywords: terrestrial laser scanning; mobile laser scanning; structural assessment; automation;
Citation: Kaartinen, E.; Dunphy, K.;
damage detection; quality control
Sadhu, A. LiDAR-Based Structural
Health Monitoring: Applications in
Civil Infrastructure Systems. Sensors
2022, 22, 4610. https://doi.org/
10.3390/s22124610 1. Introduction
bands and frequencies of light and sound which are directed at the structure. The device
then measures the Doppler shifting of the returning sound wave or reflected light to
ascertain the nature of anomalies in the object under investigation. They address the
limitations of human-based inspections as they allow for inspections to be conducted
without physical intervention, and their generally efficient setup allows for inspections to
be conducted quickly.
The growing popularity of non-contact sensors with SHM has resulted in cameras,
smartphones, unmanned aerial vehicles, satellites, ultrasonic devices, and various other
sensors being used to conduct structural inspections [1]. Optical-based sensors, such as
cameras, smartphones, unmanned aerial vehicles, and satellites, capture an image or video-
based data, which can be used to assess the overall stability of a structure. The data is
often directly stored on the device that captures the image-based information or can be
transmitted back to a base station for further analysis in the case of mobile optical sensors.
The quality of data extracted from these devices is highly susceptible to environmental
factors, such as lighting, wind, and mechanical vibrations due to moving machine parts [1,2].
Moreover, markers must often be affixed to the structure to quantify any physical change in
the structure during monitoring, including displacement or strain. Alternatively, acoustic-
based sensors, such as ultrasonic devices, detect damages in structural elements, such as
cracks and delamination, through the variation of ultrasonic waves as they propagate
through the structural mass. However, non-contact ultrasonic devices are limited to
analyzing the surface of the structure, which only provides details on surficial damages.
Moreover, these types of devices have numerous variants which have limited applications
to a specific type of monitoring, making it difficult to implement in a generalized setting [2].
Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) devices and methods have received significant
consideration in the past decade by the SHM research community as a tool for 3D point
cloud generation and analysis of structures. Recently, many studies have proposed method-
ologies to optimize the collection and processing of data to create more time-efficient, and
computationally inexpensive, SHM systems. An unmanned aerial vehicle-based LiDAR
with an optimized flight path decision-making paradigm was implemented by [3] for the
inspection of surface defects for bridges. Furthermore, state-of-the-art algorithms have
been proposed for the detection of structural elements and damages within millimeters of
precision, while minimizing error [4,5]. Over the past decade, several literature reviews
have been conducted by researchers pertaining to the implementation of LiDAR devices for
structural health monitoring. However, the majority of published literature review papers
broadly assess non-contact sensing techniques for damage detection, rather than focus-
ing on LiDAR devices, specifically [6–12]. Furthermore, current LiDAR-based literature
review papers focus on very limited domains within SHM, including deformation monitor-
ing of buildings [13], bridge inspection [14,15], and moisture detection in structures [16].
Therefore, the objectives of the proposed review summarized in this paper are as follows:
1. Provide a comprehensive review of LiDAR-based SHM assessment for various aging
civil infrastructure systems, including bridges, tunnels, roads, roofs, walls, buildings,
and historical structures.
2. Summarize the existing limitations and gap areas for LiDAR-based SHM technology.
3. Articulate the future research direction of the LiDAR-based monitoring and inspection
techniques for SHM.
2. Background of LiDAR
Applications of LiDAR for SHM typically involve analyzing 3D objects, structural ge-
ometries, deformations, crack information, and visualization using a dense 3D dataset with
finer resolution and precision [6–16]. In general, the applications are of two types: (a) phase-
based (rapid but limited to short distances) and (b) time-of-flight-based (able to measure
large distances, but slow and less accurate). Various laser scanners are currently available
with a range of speeds, typically 2000–120,000 points per second, maximum resolutions
typically 1–100 mm at 50 m, and accuracies typically 3–50 mm at 100 m [10–13,17–19].
phase-based (rapid but limited to short distances) and (b) time-of-flight-based (able to
measure large distances, but slow and less accurate). Various laser scanners are currently
Sensors 2022, 22, 4610 available with a range of speeds, typically 2000–120,000 points per second, maximum 3 of 32
2.2.1.
2.2.1. TLS
TLS
Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) is a stationary instrument (as shown in Figure 1) that
can acquire
acquire dense
densepoint
pointclouds,
clouds,often
oftentaken
taken from
from various
various locations
locations close
close to the
to the ground.
ground. For
For
SHM, SHM,
TLSTLS
scansscans are captured
are captured and and
mergedmerged to create
to create larger
larger pointpoint clouds.
clouds. The The
size size of
of this
this
pointpoint cloud
cloud depends
depends on whether
on whether the scanner
the scanner is short-range,
is short-range, medium-range,
medium-range, or long-
or long-range.
range. Although
Although usingoften
using TLS TLS requires
often requires
more more
manual manual
laborlabor and time,
and time, thesethese point
point clouds
clouds are
are generally
generally moremore detailed
detailed andand precise
precise thanthan mobile
mobile laserlaser scanning
scanning (MLS).
(MLS).
Figure
Figure 1.
1. A
A typical
typical TLS:
TLS: (a)
(a) FARO Focus 130
FARO Focus 130 3D
3D laser
laser scanner;
scanner; (b)
(b) Leica
Leica TC2002
TC2002 total
total station
station [20].
[20].
2.2.2. ALS
Mobile Laser Scanning (MLS) refers to a broad category of devices/instruments that
are mounted on mobile equipment, such as drones, airplanes, cars, or helicopters, as shown
without this manual operation. ALS is like TLS in the sense that the device/instrument
also emits laser signals and calculates the distance, based on the time delay of the returned
signals.
The difference is that the mobile LiDAR device can travel up to 100 km/h and is free
to rotate, which requires the need for a GPS receiver and an inertial measurement unit
Sensors 2022, 22, 4610 (IMU). The GPS allows the airborne device/instrument to record the exact location of 4 ofthe
32
system to estimate where the device/instrument reflections are located on the scanned
surfaces. The distance recorded by each returned laser pulse is subtracted from the
recorded
in Figure 2.altitude of the
Airborne system
Laser to yield
Scanning theiselevation
(ALS) of the
particularly scanned
useful surface. point
for acquiring To account
cloud
for the
data of tilt
largeof areas
the system,
of landwhen
(e.g.,the distance
towns, of the returned
neighborhoods, pulse is
or cities), calculated,
surfaces the hard
that are IMU
records
to accessthe roll,skyscrapers
(e.g., yaw, and pitch of the system
or bridges), and atforeach location. Most situations
time-constrained pulses are (e.g.,
emitted at
post-
differentsituations).
disaster angles, soTLSthe surveys
system typically
also accounts
comprisefor the pulsescans
multiple anglefrom
when calculating
multiple the
positions;
elevation ALS
however, of each point.capture
surveys This information
point clouds onatthe speed,heights
different angle, and
and rotation
distancesofwithout
the mobile
this
manual
system operation. ALS is like
are all important forTLS in the sense
accurate that the
elevation device/instrument
calculations also emits
and, therefore, forlaser
the
signals and calculates
acquirement the distance,
of an accurate based on the time delay of the returned signals.
point cloud.
The
Table difference
1 shows is that the mobile
a detailed LiDARofdevice
comparison TLS andcanALS
travelin up to 100
light km/h
of their and is free to
applications in
rotate, which requires the need for a GPS receiver and an inertial measurement unit (IMU).
SHM [13–19].
The GPS allows the airborne device/instrument to record the exact location of the system
to estimate
Table where the
1. Comparison device/instrument
of advantages reflections
and disadvantages are and
of TLS located
ALS.on the scanned surfaces.
The distance recorded by each returned laser pulse is subtracted from the recorded altitude
TLS of the scanned surface. To account
of the system to yield the elevation ALS for the tilt of the
• More detailed and precise •
system, when the distance of the returned pulse is calculated, the IMUautomated
ALS is highly records the androll,
point cloud. requires less manual movement
yaw, and pitch of the system at each location. Most pulses are emitted at different angles, of
Advantages • Better control over the the instrument.
so the system also accounts for the pulse angle when calculating the elevation of each
point. This informationcaptured
on thepoint
speed,cloud; and• rotation
angle, less It requires
of theless emphasis
mobile systemonare each
all
redundant data to filter out scan’s angle and target,
important for accurate elevation calculations and, therefore, for the acquirement of an as it can be
accurate point cloud.
Table 1 shows a detailed comparison of TLS and ALS in light of their applications in
SHM [13–19].
TLS ALS
3.3.Literature
Literature Review
Review of LiDAR-Based
of LiDAR-Based SHM SHM
Figure
Figure 3 summarizes
3 summarizes various
various applications
applications of ALS
of ALS and TLS and TLS in
in a broad a broad
range range of S
of SHM
applications in aging civil infrastructure.
applications in aging civil infrastructure.
Figure3. 3.
Figure Applications
Applications of LiDAR
of LiDAR for SHM.
for SHM.
3.1.2. Bridges
LiDAR-based SHM assessment of bridges has predominately involved characterizing
the geometric properties of various components (girders, deck, etc.). This information
is often used to assess the vertical clearance underneath bridges to ensure that large
trucks can safely pass beneath the structure. Various studies using LiDAR data have been
conducted to ascertain the correlation between environmental properties, such as loading,
temperature, and precipitation, on bridge deformation. A few studies have implemented
LiDAR for the quantification of various structural damages, including spalling and crack
detection. For example, ref. [27] proposed an automated method to recognize the mass
loss of concrete bridges using TLS. The damage recognition was performed in three steps:
(1) the point clouds were subdivided into sub-areas with a defined size, (2) a preliminary
Gaussian filtering and parabolic fitting was performed for each point in each sub-area, and
(3) each sub-area was classified as damaged or undamaged based on the corresponding
curvature distribution.
A LiDAR-based bridge evaluation for material mass loss quantification was explored
by [28]. In a bridge-monitoring study, a phase-based laser system was used to compare both
the distance and gradient-based damage quantification methods to detect the defected area.
The results showed that combining the two approaches improves the identification and
quantification capability of the LiDAR. In another study, ref. [29] developed an automatic
and high-precision bridge clearance measurement technique based on TLS. The relevant
part of the bridge was selected from the planar scan image to calculate the clearance,
showing millimeter-level accuracy. In a similar direction, ref. [30] evaluated the impact
of various parameters (i.e., elastic shortening, creep, shrinkage, relaxation, and thermal
expansion) on bridge clearance measurements in a full-scale structure using periodic TLS
scans. The applications, reliability, and evaluation methodologies of LiDAR technology
for bridge health monitoring were assessed by [31]. Three sensitivity analyses (i.e., linear
dimensional analysis, surface area analysis, and volumetric analysis) were performed on a
full-scale bridge to test the system adjusting parameters, the range measurement ability,
and accuracy of the scanner, as well as the automatic bridge inspection algorithms.
A novel procedure was presented [32] to measure the minimum vertical under clear-
ance of bridges and to obtain the profile of prestressed concrete beams using photogram-
metry and TLS surveys. To estimate the vertical under clearance and prestressed concrete
beam cambers, a 3D curve-fitting algorithm was developed. After implementation on a
Sensors 2022, 22, 4610 7 of 32
full-scale bridge, high statistical correlation coefficients were achieved. Three case studies
presented by [14] were used to validate the use of TLS scans for identifying various damage
characteristics, such as loss of concrete, reinforcement corrosion, and surface erosion, on
full-scale bridges. Under various truck loadings, the geometrical information (i.e., bridge
elevation, span length, girder spacing, bottom flange width, and web height) was recorded
by a LiDAR in [33]. The girder deflections were calculated by comparing the girder eleva-
tion coordinates of the scans with and without the weight of the trucks. In comparison to
contact methods, the proposed approach proved to be superior in accuracy and accessibility,
even in estimating the bridge’s natural frequencies. A fully automated TLS point cloud
segmentation procedure was developed by [34] for the SHM of masonry arch bridges. A
voxelization process first filtered out the redundant data from the point cloud, from which
segmentation was performed by combining a heuristic method with image processing. To
identify the individual structural elements, topological constraints were used to establish
the spatial relation and order of the elements. Five data sets were used to test the proposed
algorithm, showing coherent results with minor problems due to poorer point cloud quality.
Terrestrial photogrammetry was used by [35] to detect cracks in masonry arch bridges,
while ground-penetrating radar was used to detect the hidden bridge elements. In combin-
ing this data, continuum damage and discrete models were constructed to determine the
behavior of each arch under various loading situations. Two loading tests conducted on
bridges by [36] were used to determine their vertical deformations using TLS. Rather than
through individual points, the deformation analysis was conducted by one modeled surface
serving as the reference surface. After the surface meshes were created, the zero-load epoch
mesh was subtracted from each load epoch mesh. A new method called MCrack-TLS
was established by [37], which combined image-processing procedures and TLS to assess
3D crack characteristics (i.e., width, length, orientation, and location) in concrete bridges.
The TLS was used to identify and record reference target coordinates, removing the need
for real coordinates of at least four reference targets required for traditional methods. A
homography matrix, along with the acquired reference targets, was used to compute the
image orthorectification. Testing on a concrete viaduct showed that the proposed method
increased productivity and the quality of data compared to traditional methods.
An automated processing method of laser scanning data for the SHM of piers in
masonry arch bridges was proposed by [38]. A full-scale bridge was first segmented, based
on its structural elements (cutwaters, piers, spandrel walls, roadway, and vaults), so that
the data size was reduced and each pier’s face could be analyzed individually. Structural
faults were identified from the geometric parameters of the pier faces and their respective
topological relation to the other bridge elements. SHM technology for a masonry bridge,
using TLS data and Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR), was presented by [39]. Comparing
the TLS measurements with the historical drawings and plans of the bridge, the anomalies
identified in the hyperbolic reflections provided information on the configuration of the
bridge fillings. A structural deformation analysis framework was presented by [40] using
TLS for applications on composite footbridges. Two mesh models were generated using
the Fast Marching algorithm to check if a change occurred after a load was applied to the
bridge. A crack identification and quantification approach for concrete structures were
investigated by [41] using unmanned aerial vehicles. To establish an inspection map, a point
cloud-based background model of the structure was first generated through a preliminary
flight. From high-resolution images, regions with convolutional neutral networks for deep
learning were applied for crack detection. A combination of 384 crack images and a model
pre-trained through transfer learning were used for classification and localization for a
full-scale bridge.
A deflection and deformation measurement application for bridges was proposed
by [42]. The shape information model was first constructed using the improved octree
data structure and the TLS data. This process reduced the size of the scan data for efficient
memory usage and then estimated the deflection, based on the octree space division, which
was then validated using LVDT. A new bridge inspection technique using UAV (Unmanned
Sensors 2022, 22, 4610 8 of 32
Aerial Vehicle) imagery point clouds was developed by [43]. To reduce errors in data
(i.e., incomplete data, nonuniform distribution, outlier, surface deviation, and geometric
accuracy), a triangular mesh and density map were constructed. The iterative closest
point algorithm was applied with TLS data, and thickness, point distribution, and point-
to-point distances were measured for a full-scale bridge. A reflector-based framework
by [44] was applied for measuring long-term bridge displacement using LiDAR. The
framework consisted of a reflector positioning strategy, measuring the reflector coordinates,
and calculating the displacement. Having the reflectors as reference points allowed higher
measurement accuracy, reduced scanning time, and there was no requirement to keep the
same positioning of the LiDAR at different epochs. A prestressed concrete bridge was used
to validate the accuracy of the proposed method. A TLS was used to construct a Digital
Surface Model and identify the potential damage area in [45]. Ground-based microwave
interferometry was applied to confirm where the bridge had damage, and an interferometry
synthetic aperture radar technique was applied to analyze the causes of the damage of a
full-scale bridge.
A three-dimensional path planning method for LiDAR-equipped UAVs was intro-
duced by [3] for inspecting bridges. The proposed method consists of three steps, (1)
assigning low, medium, and high Important Values, based on moment and shear force
values obtained from structural analysis, (2) selecting View Points of Interest for perpen-
dicular and overlapping views, and (3) calculating the optimal collision-free path using
Genetic Algorithm and A* algorithm. After being implemented on a full-scale bridge, it
was concluded that the proposed path planning method decreased flight time, processing
time, and workload while increasing visibility, reliability, and accuracy. A deformation
monitoring process, based on TLS and ground-based radar interferometry data, was es-
tablished and the process tested on a full-scale bridge by [46]. Using the TLS data from
three epochs, the bridge’s vertical displacements were determined using a geometry-based
approach, while another deformation was computed-based on deviation from the reference
points. Comparison between the ground-based radar interferometry and the TLS showed
close compliance with the results from both methods. In another recent study, ref. [47]
proposed a method to obtain a displacement estimation of bridge structures using four
laser scanning-based techniques. The vertical displacement was estimated by relocating
the point cloud data in a 3D space and then dividing it in detail to search for the change in
position of the leaf nodes. This study rearranged the points in a three-dimensional space,
and nodes were created to calculate the displacement. Comparing the Grid, Tri, and LSP
approaches of using distance estimation between points, the proposed method showed
a decrease in the time required for displacement estimation, but an increase in the data
processing time.
To date, the use of TLS for quality inspection has been focused on identifying surface
defects and the presence of water in structural members through utilizing differential
geometry, RGB values, image segmenting, and gradient-based methods, as well as combin-
ing different image-based technologies, as summarized by [15]. For assessing structural
performance, the common methods have been to construct geometric models as the ba-
sis for measuring deformations. The use of TLS and photogrammetric techniques for
measuring the point-wise aspects (distances and lengths) was implemented by [20] for a
historic suspension bridge. It was concluded that the distance from the bridge, as well as
the complexity of the bridge, both highly influenced the accuracy of the measurements.
Moreover, the hybrid surveying method acquired millimeter-level accuracy measurements,
but the TLS performed better than the photogrammetric device. The B-spline surface
method for the approximation, deformation analysis, and noise filtering of point clouds
using TLS was quantified by [48]. After testing on a bridge under load, it was concluded
that the mathematical approximation of the noisy point cloud was necessary for accurate
computation, and the correlated noise impacted the distance computation for both the
raw and approximated observations. A plane fitting approach was used in [5] to classify
the points into six sub-plane categories (e.g., the bottom of bottom flange, edge of bottom
Sensors 2022, 22, 4610 9 of 32
flange, front edge effect plane, side of the web, bottom of top flange, and back edge effect
plane) and fitted the points to the corresponding dataset using a linear least square method.
Finally, Table 2 summarizes the devices used, type of assessment, and post-processing
method for the LiDAR-based structural assessment of bridges.
3.1.3. Tunnels
For underground tunnels, excessive-profile deformations are a significant concern as
they often result in the collapse of the structure. Therefore, the majority of LiDAR or TLS-
based inspections of these tunnels focus on ongoing data acquisition, which can be used to
measure the change in profile deflection with respect to time. An approach for monitoring
tunnel profile deformations with the use of multi-epoch LiDAR was established by [49].
The method was based on establishing point correspondences between the point clouds
from different epochs and applying a minimum-distance projection algorithm to identify
deformations. An autonomous technique for extracting tunnel cross-sections and removing
non-lining points, based on TLS point clouds, was proposed by [50]. The first step was
to estimate the tunnel boundary points using an angle threshold and 2D projection onto
the X-Y plane. The direction of the cross-sectional plane was adjusted twice with the total
least-squares method and Rodrigues’ rotation formula. Finally, an angle-based filtering
algorithm removed non-lining points, based on morphological erosion. Validation on a real
railway tunnel indicated that the proposed method was superior in accuracy compared
to other methods, due to the consideration of the tunnel grade and the application of
the filtering algorithm. A method to calculate the clearance of tunnels, based on mobile
laser scanning, was developed by [51]. For the pre-processing step, the point cloud was
segmented in the direction of the rail line, and the straight rail sections were identified.
Based on the tunnel cross-section baseline and the individual cross-sections, the clearance
inspection was carried out by calculating the distance between the cross-section and the
testing rack.
A method for the automatic extraction of tunnel cross-sections was investigated by [52]
based on mobile laser scanning to monitor deformations of a full-scale tunnel. First, the 3D
point clouds were converted to a 2D surface, where the buffer of each cross-section was
calculated by the K-Nearest neighbor algorithm. The iterative ellipse fitting was applied by
combining the fitting of the sectional curve line with the denoising of the sectional point
set. To reduce errors, the initial cross-sectional planes were rotated around their respective
intercept points, and the optimal cross-sections were extracted. In [53], a processing method
based on TLS for the change detection of the cross-sectional area of an underground gate
road was explored. Three reference points were first established to reduce errors when data
were compared from different scanner positions. A visualization software package was
developed to visualize and analyze the deformations from different epochs. In another
study, ref. [54] investigated the feature extraction of tunnel structures using TLS technology.
The method comprised of segmenting the tunnel’s point cloud data into thin sections to
acquire the projection plane for each section profile. Millimeter-level accuracy was achieved
when the deflection of a subway tunnel was estimated.
A new method was established by [55] that considered and corrected the effect of
surface roughness on TLS intensity data for water leakage detection in underground tunnels.
After the mean intensity values of each homogeneous region were computed, the distance
and incident angle effects were corrected to improve the accuracy of the intensity data.
The intensity image of the studied tunnel was generated, and the water leakage regions
were detected based on an intensity threshold. Crack identification in tunnels by using TLS
data was further explored in a study by [56]. After the point cloud was projected onto an
image, an index method was used to indicate the position of each crack. To extract each
crack, the standard deviation of the Gaussian template was used as a parameter, and a
signal-to-noise ratio further extracted the smaller cracks. A crack detection method for
tunnels was presented by [57], combining dilation and the Canny algorithm based on
TLS point cloud data. The grayscale dilation process was employed to eliminate distinct
textures in each image by using a disk-shaped structuring element. The Canny detector was
adopted for crack edge detection, where the vertical crack widths were measured, based on
the space of the two sharp peaks. The proposed method did not require determining Canny
detector parameters, thereby being free of any major user intervention. Table 3 summarizes
Sensors 2022, 22, 4610 11 of 32
the devices used, type of assessment, and post-processing method for the LiDAR-based
structural assessment of bridges.
structural domain from the TLS. The validation of the strategy was performed on a historic
fortress, which demonstrated increased level of automation and decreased computational
time, compared to CAD-based modeling procedures.
Mobile LiDAR Systems were evaluated by [72] for the analysis of cultural heritage
sites, based on a two-fold approach. A clustering phase consisted of computing the local
curvature, defining the number of clusters, according to similar curvature values, and
conducting a component analysis to reduce errors. Lastly, a weighted sampling was
applied to each point inside a cluster, based on the extreme curvature values of the cluster
and the associated feature (e.g., cylinder, plane, etc.). Testing on a medieval wall and an
accuracy comparison using TLS showed reduced data acquisition time, but also reduced
spatial resolution of the mobile LiDAR point cloud. A method to detect and localize
deformation, specific to historic and heritage buildings, was proposed by [73], which used
a generalized Procrustes analysis (GPA) and TLS data. The acquired data set was divided
into subsets, and the GPA was applied by forming a matrix containing three-dimensional
coordinates of each point of the point cloud. The deformation vectors and probability were
computed, based on six transformation parameters. Various testing methods in historic
sites showed the ability of the proposed method to reduce noise and improve the reliability
and accuracy of the results. In another study, ref. [74] investigated the use of TLS for the
post-fire inspection of a historic building. TLS scans were taken of the building before
and immediately after the fire, and cloud-to-cloud registration techniques were used to
identify the changes in the common features. The progressive decay and erosion of earthen
heritage sites were assessed by [75] by combining multi-temporal TLS data and GIS. Using
the Multiscale approach to the Model Cloud Comparison method, the surface change
among different instances of the same feature was computed. Full-scale heritage walls
were evaluated, and the deterioration values were imported into the GIS to express the
occurrence of the variation.
The use of multi-temporal TLS data comparisons was explored in [76], based on the
Multiscale Model to Model Cloud Comparison (M3C2) technique to detect material loss
in ancient walls and buildings. Each instance of a compared feature was aligned to its
reference point cloud, and the point normals were computed to detect change. The M3C2
method compared a sub-set of points based on a cylindrical projection from user-defined
maximum depth and radius. Analysis of various damage assessment methods by [77]
for heritage building elements was conducted, based on TLS. For the inner and outer
walls, three different methods were tested: (1) approximating the point cloud centered on a
point, (2) considering the plane as vertical and moving the origin point of that plane, and
(3) considering a set of points within a certain distance to calculate the vertical plane. An
automated deep learning model was developed by [78] for the surface damage detection of
heritage sites using 2D images and 3D point clouds. After the data acquisition, Semantic
Segmentation was applied to the images to remove the sources of noise and to generate
a per-pixel classification of each image. The proposed method was validated after being
tested on an unseen heritage site, proving accurate damage detection of complex heritage
structures. Through a voxelating process, the point-to-point spacing was made uniform,
such that the damaged areas of the point cloud showed a different point distribution [79].
Based on the eigenvalues, neighboring points covariance matrix, normal vector variation,
and mean curvature to its closest neighboring points of each point, the damage was detected
and re-evaluated. From the damaged areas of the point cloud, a density-based clustering
algorithm was applied, which identified clustering structures for the categorization of the
damage. Table 5 summarizes the devices used, type of assessment, and post-processing
method for the laser-based inspection of historic structures.
Sensors 2022, 22, 4610 14 of 32
the filtered image, and the pixel coordinates were transformed into global 3D coordinates.
For mapping the crack, the results from the experiment showed an accuracy of 10–38 mm,
compared to the total station survey.
Comparisons were made by [83] between surface-based TLS measurements and the
FEM model simulation of the displacement and loading of concrete cylinders. An error
of less than 5% proved the feasibility of using TLS for the evaluation of FEM models. A
novel approach developed by [84] integrated TLS with Building Information Modelling
(BIM) to assess the flatness of concrete surfaces. The data processing was significantly
automated by using the Scan-vs-BIM method, which matched the point cloud to the BIM
model components. The Straightedge and F-Numbers methods were applied to control
the compliance of the surfaces. The proposed method was successfully applied, as per the
current standards for flatness specification and control in concrete slabs. An unexplored
and novel technique to simultaneously localize and quantify spalling defects on concrete
surfaces using a terrestrial laser scanner was conceived by [85]. Two defect-sensitive
features (i.e., angle and distance deviation) were combined to identify defects, while a
defect classifier was developed to diagnose the severity, location, and size of defects. A
suite of scan parameters (e.g., scan distance, angular resolution, incidental angle) was
investigated in the parametric study and numerical stimulations. The results showed
that the proposed technique improves the autonomy, simultaneousness, and accuracy of
detecting concrete defects.
A two-stage research project on reinforced concrete structures was proposed by [86]
using laser scanning technology for crack identification and monitoring. Although the
TLS data provided information on the swelling and surface height change of the concrete
blocks, it was not possible to measure the cracks, due to the low scanning resolution and
small crack widths. A surface normal-based damage detection method, as developed
by [87], was implemented to detect and quantify damage types, such as cracks, spalling,
corrosion, delamination, and rupture, using camera-integrated TLS. The defective areas
were located using the model properties and grouped into individual damage clusters
using a silhouette-based method. The quantitative information of the damage clusters was
recorded using the presented damage area and volume computation strategies. The results
from testing on a full-scale concrete test frame and a bridge showed that the proposed
method automatically quantified and documented information, thus eliminating the need
for human and computer interaction. TLS data was explored by [88] to identify and quantify
areas of concrete loss in structures. The proposed approach was validated using accelerated
laboratory testing to determine the feasibility of TLS for identifying crack initiation and
subsequent crack growth, followed by crack monitoring in a forty-year-old reinforced
concrete seawall.
A novel concrete crack detection method proposed by [89] applied an adaptive wavelet
neutral network for the analysis of TLS data. A low-resolution fit of the entire 3D point
cloud data was created, and further high-resolution analysis was performed only on regions
with damage. Such an approach resulted in a compact representation of the TLS data,
thus reducing memory usage and computational time. The detection of cracks on concrete
structures by using image processing algorithms from the octree structure of TLS data
was explored by [90]. Testing on a concrete dam showed that the proposed technique
minimized the false recognition of cracks against stains, sediment, and structural joints. A
concrete surface crack detection method by [91] combined the use of 2D images and 3D
point clouds. The depth information from the laser scanners and gray information were
merged at the pixel level. The improved Otsu algorithm yielded rough crack detection;
therefore, denoising and connection of the cracks were required to refine the results. After
several types of cracked concrete specimens were tested, the approach showed significantly
better results than the single image or standalone point cloud methods. Integrating UAV-
equipped LiDAR data and RGB images, ref. [92] identified and quantified cracks in concrete.
The points within the point cloud were first associated with their corresponding structural
element using the heuristic-based method. Once the crack patches were identified through
Sensors 2022, 22, 4610 16 of 32
3.2.5. Roofs
Applications for laser-based inspection of roofs have been limited within the SHM
field, in comparison to other analyses involving the entire 3D structure or various elements
of the structures. As unmanned aerial vehicles with a sufficient payload capable of carrying
a laser-based scanning device are required to conduct the survey, the relative accessibility
of rooftop inspections becomes restricted. A segmentation method using laser data for
Sensors 2022, 22, 4610 18 of 32
damaged roofs was proposed by [101]. The individual points were grouped into planar
regions, based on the assumption that undamaged roofs appeared as planar segments and
collapsed roofs comprised of many small segments. The roofs were identified as intact or
damaged based on the extracted features and a classifier trained from manually labeled
segments. The automatic extraction of roofs through a data-driven approach by [102]
integrated LiDAR data and multispectral ortho-imagery for improved city modeling and
building inspection. The LiDAR data was divided into ground and non-ground points,
where the non-ground points were further segmented to extract the roof planes. Using
the ground mask, color, and textural information, the structural image lines were put into
various classes (i.e., ground, tree, roof edge, and roof ridge). Various algorithms were
applied to obtain a roof plane and remove planes constructed on trees. The proposed
method was tested on two data sets and successfully extracted small planes and removed
vegetation. An automated roof covering damage assessment method by [103], based
on ground LiDAR, collected data in the aftermath of extreme winds. Experiments were
conducted in a controlled laboratory where the k-means clustering algorithm was tested
with different combinations of clustering evaluation criteria.
The structural damage of roofs was detected in [104], based on their 3D features
extracted from only the post-event airborne LiDAR data. During the data pre-processing,
the Digital Surface Model (DSM) for each building was created using post-earthquake
LiDAR data, 2D GIS vector data, and the digital elevation model. For each building,
damaged roofs were detected based on the 3D shape descriptor derived from the contour
clusters of the DSM. The proposed method was validated using post-earthquake data,
proving the better performance of the 3D shape descriptor compared to using geometric
features for damage detection. A robust methodology to evaluate tornado fragility models
with roof damage was conducted by [105] using post-tornado LiDAR data. The extracted
geometric information (i.e., height, slope, pressure zones, and distance to tornado path)
for each roof was used to produce fragility curves for roof sheathing failures. Based on the
LiDAR data, the tornado wind speeds and building damage were calculated and compared
with the values estimated by the fragility curves.
the differences between the extracted building objects from the multiple-temporal data
sets. On a hierarchical basis, the damage was estimated based on the damage indicators.
Compared to other methods, the proposed approach effectively-recognized building objects
extracted damage features, and characterized the extent of damage all at the individual
building level. A comprehensive framework by [119] detected various damage types
(i.e., multilayer collapse, outspread multilayer, pancake collapse, upper stories collapse,
heaps of debris, collapse of all floors, inclined plane buildings, and inclined to overturn
collapse) based on post-event LiDAR data. One conventional and two novel texture
extraction strategies were used to generate the textural features. An improved Vosselman
filtering method identified pancaked buildings, and the inclination angles were estimated
from LiDAR data. From ambient vibration results analyzed in [120], modal parameters
were extracted, and an FE model was subsequently created and updated. The LiDAR
data was used to quantify the defects and to compare with the estimated damage from
the vibration measurements, which showed good agreement with the developed model.
Table 8 summarizes the devices used, type of assessment, and post-processing method for
laser-based post-disaster reconnaissance.
technique improved the data acquisition efficiency for the quality inspection of PCEs.
An automated framework for the extraction of structural components (i.e., column, slab,
and rebar) from point cloud data for progress monitoring and compliance control during
construction was proposed by [140]. From the registered point clouds, the planar and linear
features were extracted and semantically labelled into various categories. In comparing
the as-built and the planned BIM, deviations were identified and visualized. Five sets of
TLS point clouds from a construction site were used to test the proposed method, which
showed success in component extraction and removal of redundant surfaces.
The performance of different non-contact sensors (e.g., 3D laser scanners, photogram-
metry, and 2D cameras) and algorithms (e.g., feature extraction algorithms, Alpha-shape
algorithm, and local entropy-based thresholding algorithm) was reviewed by [9] for the
quality assessment (i.e., dimensional, surface, deflection, and deformation quality assess-
ments) of buildings and civil structures. To enhance the accuracy and applicability of
quality assessments, data fusion-based approaches (e.g., laser scanning data with vision
data, 2D images with depth data, and image data with GPR sensors), as well as more robust
and generic techniques, were suggested. Novel methodologies were developed by [141]
for both the object and damage detection of common structural members from 3D point
cloud data. New skeleton and graph-based object detection approaches were applied to
the segmented point clusters, which involved taking the connectivity information to find
the surfaces apart from one another of the same object. By comparing the fitted objects
from test specimens and test-bed bridges with the acquired point clouds, defects were
located and quantified. An algorithm presented by [142] used TLS for measuring struc-
tural deflection and damage. The TLS data was acquired for the loading and unloading
scenarios, and the plane was fitted for the point cloud using a robust genetic algorithm.
The scanner coordinates were transformed into structural coordinates to be curve fitted for
the loading case. The deflection was estimated and compared between LVDTs. The strain
and deformation of a steel plate under lateral pressure using LiDAR data were evaluated
by [143]. Through a specific interpolation procedure, the point cloud was converted into a
3D mesh model, and the displacements from the initial shape were computed, followed
by the strain calculations. Table 9 summarizes the devices used, type of assessment, and
post-processing method for the laser-based inspection of structural elements.
Table 9. A comprehensive summary of laser-based assessment techniques for other structural elements.
Table 9. Cont.
acquired over time makes it even more difficult for damage and change detection using
LiDAR to provide accurate results.
The quality and completeness of point cloud data are also heavily correlated to the
relative positioning of the scanning device. TLS point clouds can be particularly difficult
to obtain due to overlapping or targetless scans if the field of view or incident angle
of the sensor is not positioned strategically. The proposed method was not suitable for
curvature-based analysis if the noise exceeded a certain threshold in [27]. Similarly, ref. [31]
observed that a larger scan angle increased the error of selecting the same interest point
on surfaces from different scan images, thus also increasing the error for target dimension
measurement. Moreover, the distance from the intended targets also impacts the accuracy
of damage detection methods implementing raw point cloud data. For damage or change
detection, ALS is often subject to larger scanner distances and unfavorable scanning angles.
Airborne sensors were used for post-disaster assessment but found that the scanner could
only acquire information on the roofs and lateral walls of buildings from its position above
in [6]. An unmanned aircraft system was implemented for the structural assessment of
a bridge and used a planned flight path to ensure that the positioning and orientation
uncertainties did not affect the data characteristics in [144].
Scanner specifications, such as the device’s range, the mobility of the device, and
the general settings, are important limitations to be considered for LiDAR-based SHM.
For surface damage detection, it is a common issue that the scanning precision of the
LiDAR device does not allow the identification of smaller defects in the range of several
millimeters [27,81]. When comparing the scanning specifications of TLS and ALS, there are
limitations to using each type of scanner based on the scanner’s requirements. ALS requires
the integration of a GPS, thus rendering GPS-denied areas an issue for acquiring point cloud
data, as described by [145]. However, ref. [40] found that using TLS for change detection
had some disadvantages as well, such as the sensitivity to scanner positioning, fluctuations
in point cloud density, and complex data processing. Additionally, ref. [43] employed both
TLS and MLS in their research and underlined the high noise levels, difficulty in key point
matching for narrow features, and a longer 3D reconstruction process when using MLS.
Finally, the environment in which the LiDAR scans are taken can create obstacles to
performing structural analysis on a high-quality point cloud. The primary environmental
factors include surface illumination (e.g., sunlight and shadows) and weather conditions
(e.g., temperature, humidity, wind, rain, and visibility). Shadows projected by buildings
or vegetation and sunlight contamination all contribute to increased noise within a point
cloud. LiDAR devices work by bouncing laser beams off surrounding objects, therefore,
rain, snow, fog, or dust do not permit scans with high resolution. ALS is often subject to
poorer scanning angles, non-uniform point clouds, and high exposure to the environment;
therefore, airborne LiDAR data can have reduced quality. While using mobile LiDAR, poor
surface illumination or windy environments both highly affected the quality of the point
cloud data and the ability of the proposed algorithms to detect cracks in [145].
be developed to ensure the completeness of the scanned data and improve the efficiency of
the scanning process.
Though extracting 3D point cloud from structures is relatively accessible using LiDAR
devices, the complexity and size of the extracted data make the post-collection processing
a complicated and time-extensive endeavor. Most datasets can be reduced based on the
localization of the analysis that is to be conducted; however, current processes require
the manual manipulation of the point cloud to extract relevant information to construct
a 3D model. Methods for the automatic conversion of raw point cloud data into a 3D
model should be explored to maximize the efficiency of post-collection data processing.
Furthermore, the robustness of these data processing techniques must be explored to
ensure accurate 3D models are extracted from the existing point cloud data. Domain-
specific knowledge extracted from objects scanned by LiDAR can be incorporated in the
data post-processing stage to enhance the accuracy of the 3D point cloud conversion.
Therefore, future methods should focus on robust methods that include geometric and
physical parameters of structures for point cloud processing.
Following the processing of point cloud data, the 3D models are used to extract
quantitative and descriptive data about the damaged structure through the use of statistical
models and Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques. The quality of information extracted
from the model is directly correlated to (1) the quality of the data implemented and (2)
the robustness of the analytical technique used for the investigation. Though many AI
techniques and statistical models have been applied for the evaluation of point cloud-based
models, domain adaptability remain a prevalent issue. Domain adaptation is the ability of
an algorithm that is trained on a source domain (i.e., cracked concrete walls) to perform
on a related target domain (cracked concrete columns). Therefore, future research should
improve the domain adaptation of existing classification techniques to improve robustness
for damage detection for complex structures with a variety of damage types. Furthermore,
the accuracy of the quantification of physical parameters of damages, such as cracks, should
be improved for cases where the damage features are small (<1 cm).
6. Conclusions
The increased prevalence of natural disasters in conjunction with global infrastructure
reaching the end of its service life has spurred the SHM community to develop efficient
monitoring and inspection techniques for structures. The diverse and unique challenges
presented by various structural components, such as roads, bridges, retaining walls, build-
ings, and various other structural elements, have instigated an expanded research effort
into sensor technologies for SHM. Non-contact sensing techniques, particularly LiDAR-
based analysis, have received growing attention with the SHM community recently for
their damage detection abilities through the generation of 3D point clouds. This paper
provides a comprehensive review of LiDAR-based SHM techniques and the analysis of
structural damages using laser-based point cloud data. The development of algorithms for
bridges, tunnels and arch structures, post-disaster reconnaissance, historical and heritage
structures, masonry surfaces, roofs, pavement and roads, structural elements, and walls
have been summarized, and the existing limitations have been discussed. For LiDAR-based
SHM, future research should focus on the development of more computationally efficient,
autonomous models that are connected to the physical domain they are derived from.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, E.K., K.D. and A.S.; Literature curation, E.K. and K.D.;
writing—original draft preparation, E.K. and A.S.; writing—review and editing, K.D. and A.S.;
visualization, E.K. and K.D.; supervision, A.S.; funding acquisition, E.K. and A.S. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The authors would like to thank the Undergraduate Student Research Award (USRA)
program of NSERC for providing the financial support to conduct this research through Western
University. The authors also thank the Ontario Ministry of Colleges and Universities for providing
the research funding through the Early Researcher Award to the corresponding author.
Sensors 2022, 22, 4610 27 of 32
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