ARES 2: RESEARCH AND DAILY LIFE 2

(An Introduction to Quantitative Research Methods and Report Writing)

CONCEPT NOTES
CHAPTER 1 – Nature of Inquiry and Research
Lesson 1: Definition, Characteristics, and Types of Quantitative Research

DEFINITION

Research studies are done to discover new information or to answer a question about how we learn, behave and function with
the end goal of benefitting society. Some studies might involve simple tasks like completing a survey, being observed among a group
of people, or participating in a group discussion. Other studies might involve more risky procedures like invasive medical testing,
testing new drugs, or participating in other activities that might make participants feel uncomfortable.

Some studies are also referred to as 'clinical trials' or 'health research. These types of studies test drugs, medical devices, vaccines, or
other types of treatment that might affect an individual’s health or well-being.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research methods include gathering and interpreting non-numerical data. The following are some sources of
qualitative data:

Interviews Focus groups Documents

Personal accounts or papers Cultural records Observation

In the course of a qualitative study, the researcher may conduct interviews or focus groups to collect data that is not available
in existing documents or records. To allow freedom for varied or unexpected answers, interviews, and focus groups may be
unstructured or semi-structured.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative studies, in contrast, require different data collection methods. These methods include compiling numerical data
to test causal relationships among variables. Some forms of data collection for this type of study include:

Experiments Questionnaires Surveys Database reports

The above collection methods yield data that lends itself to numerical analysis. Questionnaires in this case have a multiple-
choice format to generate countable answers, like yes or no, which can be turned into quantifiable data.

Quantitative research Qualitative Research

Focuses on testing theories and hypotheses Focuses on exploring ideas and formulating a theory or hypothesis

Analyzed through math and statistical analysis Analyzed by summarizing, categorizing and interpreting

Mainly expressed in numbers, graphs and ta,bles Mainly expressed in words

 Quantitative research Qualitative Research
Requires many respond,ents Requires few respondents

Closed (multiple choice) questions Open-ended questions

Key terms: testing, measurement, objectivity, replicability Key terms: understanding, context, complexity, subjectivity

The Difference between QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

1. CONTAIN MEASURABLE VARIABLES

Data gathering instruments contain items that solicit measurable characteristics of the population. These measurable characteristics are
referred to as the variables of the study such as age, the number of children, educational status, and economic status.

2. USE STANDARDIZED RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

The data collection instruments include questionnaires, polls, or surveys. Standardized, pre-tested instruments guide data collection
thus ensuring the accuracy, reliability, and validity of data. Pre-testing helps identify areas in the research instruments that need
revisions. It makes sure that respondents provide the expected answers or satisfies the intent of the researcher to meet the research
objectives.

3. ASSUME A NORMAL POPULATION DISTRIBUTION

For more reliable data analysis of quantitative data, a normal population distribution curve is preferred over a non-normal distribution.
This requires a large population, the numbers of which depend on how the characteristics of the population vary. This requires
adherence to the principle of random sampling to avoid researcher’s bias in interpreting the results that defeat the purpose of research.

4. PRESENT DATA IN TABLES, GRAPHS, OR FIGURES

The data obtained using quantitative methods are organized using tables, graphs, or figures that consolidate large numbers of data to
show trends, relationships, or differences among variables. This foster understanding to the readers or clients of the research
investigation.

5. USE REPEATABLE METHOD

Researchers can repeat the quantitative method to verify or confirm the findings in another setting. This reinforces the validity of
groundbreaking discoveries or findings thus eliminating the possibility of spurious or erroneous conclusions.

6. CAN PREDICT OUTCOMES

Quantitative models or formula derived from data analysis can predict outcomes. If-then scenarios can be constructed using complex
mathematical computations with the aid of computers.

7. USE MEASURING DEVICES

Advanced digital or electronic instruments are used to measure or gather quantitative data from the field. The instruments ensure an
objective and accurate collection of data provided that these are calibrated. Calibration means that the instruments used by the
researcher matches the measurements of a reference instrument that is considered a standard.
LESSON 2: Types of Quantitative Research

It is easier to understand the different types of quantitative research designs if you consider how the researcher designs to control the
variables in the investigation.

Survey Research:
Survey Research is the most fundamental tool for all quantitative outcome research methodologies and studies. Surveys used
to ask questions to a sample of respondents, using various types such as online polls, online surveys, paper questionnaires, web-
intercept surveys, etc.
This type of research can be conducted with a specific target audience group and also can be conducted across multiple
groups along with comparative analysis.

There are two types of surveys, either of which can be chosen based on the time in-hand and the kind of data required:
 Cross-sectional surveys: Cross-sectional surveys are observational surveys conducted in situations where the researcher
intends to collect data from a sample of the target population at a given point in time.

Longitudinal surveys: Longitudinal surveys are also observational surveys but, unlike cross-sectional surveys, longitudinal
surveys are conducted across various time durations to observe a change in respondent behavior and thought-processes.

Correlational research:
A comparison between two entities is invariable. Correlation research is conducted to establish a relationship between two
closely-knit entities and how one impacts the other and what are the changes that are eventually observed. This research method is
carried out to give value to naturally occurring relationships, and a minimum of two different groups are required to conduct this
quantitative research method successfully. Without assuming various aspects, a relationship between two groups or entities must be
established.

Researchers use this quantitative research design to correlate two or more variables using mathematical analysis methods.
Patterns, relationships, and trends between variables are concluded as they exist in their original set up.

Example of Correlational Research Questions:

The relationship between stress and depression.

The equation between fame and money.
The relation between activities in a third-grade class and its students.

Causal-comparative research:
This research method mainly depends on the factor of comparison. Also called quasi-experimental research, this quantitative
research method is used by researchers to conclude the cause-effect equation between two or more variables, where one variable is
dependent on the other independent variable.

Example of Causal-Comparative Research Questions:

The impact of drugs on a teenager.

The effect of good education on a freshman.
The effect of substantial food provision in the villages of Africa.

Experimental research:
Also known as true experimentation, this research method is reliant on a theory. Experimental research, as the name suggests,
is usually based on one or more theories. This theory has not been proven in the past and is merely a supposition. In experimental
research, an analysis is done around proving or disproving the statement. This research method is used in natural sciences. Traditional
research methods are more effective than modern techniques.
Lesson 3: Strengths, Weaknesses, and Importance of Qualitative Research Across Fields.

STRENGTHS

1. The data in the Quantitative research is collected and presented in the numbers, so the result obtained from it will be reliable as the
numbers state the truth and do not lie. Wherever the situation of the conflicts arises, the researchers prefer quantitative research as it
gives an honest picture of the research conducted without any discrepancies and is thus extremely accurate.
2. It involves the statistics; it provides a wider scope of the data collection for the researchers.
3. Quantitative research is not based on the thinking or the perception of the individual or group of individuals conducting the research
rather; it is based on the numbers; thus, it removes the risk of personal biases being shown in the result of the research.
4. The data collected in the Quantitative research is less time consuming as the research is conducted on a group of respondents that
represent a population and there is the involvement of the statistics for conducting and presenting results, so it is quite straightforward,
thus less time-consuming.

WEAKNESSES

1. The Survey instruments used for the research are vulnerable to errors like the mistakes in measurement or the flawed sampling
techniques as the numerical data is involved. If the error occurs when the research will not give the correct results for which the
research is conducted.
2. Generally, the Quantitative research method requires the extensive statistical analysis that becomes difficult to perform, especially if
the person conducting the research is from the non – statistical background.

3. In this method, a structured questionnaire is involved, which has close-ended questions. Due to this, limited outcomes can only be
derived from the research, and thus the results cannot represent actual occurring always. Also, the respondents of the research have
limited options for their responses as their responses will be based on the selection of the question and their options as made by the
researcher.

IMPORTANCE
The Importance of Quantitative Research is that it helps tremendously help in studying samples and populations. It discusses
detailed relevant questions like, where the data come from, the gap in the data, how robust is it, and what are the exclusions in the data
research.
What is the importance of quantitative research in the field of education?
Quantitative research in education provides numerical data that can prove or disprove a theory, and administrators can easily
share the number-based results with other schools and districts.
Why quantitative research is important to a doctor?
In quantitative research, the findings will reflect the reliability and validity (psychometric characteristics) of the measured
outcomes or dependent variables (such as changes in knowledge, skills, or attitudes) used to assess the effectiveness of the medical
education intervention (the independent variable of ...
What is the importance or contribution of quantitative research to sports?
It gives coaches and athletes a way to gain solid information and apply it to sport performance. It helps coaches form beliefs
about how to develop programs and coaching techniques.
Is quantitative research applicable to all fields?
Quantitative research is widely used in psychology, economics, demography, sociology, marketing, community health, health
& human development, gender studies, and political science; and less frequently in anthropology and history.

In the natural and social sciences, quantitative research is the systematic, empirical investigation of the observable.
phenomena via statistical, mathematical.

LESSON 4: Different Variables in Quantitative Research and their Uses

Variables are things you measure, manipulate and control in statistics and research. All studies analyze a variable, which can describe
a person, place, thing, or idea. A variable's value can change between groups or over time.

1. Independent variables
An independent variable is a singular characteristic that the other variables in your experiment cannot change. Age is an
example of an independent variable. Where someone lives, what they eat or how much they exercise are not going to change their age.
Independent variables can, however, change other variables. In studies, researchers often try to find out whether an independent
variable causes other variables to change and in what way.

2. Dependent variables
A dependent variable relies on and can be changed by other components. A grade on an exam is an example of a dependent
variable because it depends on factors such as how much sleep you got and how long you studied. Independent variables can influence
dependent variables, but dependent variables cannot influence independent variables. For example, the time you spent studying
(dependent) can affect the grade on your test (independent) but the grade on your test does not affect the time you spent studying.

3. Quantitative variables
Quantitative variables are any data sets that involve numbers or amounts. Examples might include height, distance or number of items.
Researchers can further categorize quantitative variables into two types:

Discrete: Any numerical variables you can realistically count, such as the coins in your wallet or the money in your savings account.
Continuous: Numerical variables that you could never finish counting, such as time.

4. Extraneous variables
Extraneous variables are factors that affect the dependent variable but that the researcher did not originally consider when
designing the experiment. These unwanted variables can unintentionally change a study's results or how a researcher interprets those
results. Take, for example, a study assessing whether private tutoring or online courses are more effective at improving students'
Spanish test scores. Extraneous variables that might unintentionally influence the outcome include parental support, prior knowledge
of a foreign language or socioeconomic status.

CHAPTER 2: Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the Problem

Lesson 1: Identifying the Area of Inquiry

1 Conduct preliminary research in the beginning stages of formulating a thesis, when many issues are unclear and thoughts need to be
solidified. Conducting preliminary research on your area of study and specific topic will help you to formulate a research question or
thesis statement that will lead to more specific and relevant research. Visit your library, the internet and electronic databases to find
preliminary sources, such as books and scholarly journals, for your background study.

2 Read the information and develop a research question or thesis statement that will guide your thesis. You will need to take notes and
keep accurate track of the sources that you used up to this point. Many people use note cards, but with current technology there many
electronic note taking programs available. Use a method of recording source information that you are comfortable with. Be sure to cite
the source of the information on each note so you don't forget where each piece of information came from, should you decide to use it
in your thesis.

3 Write a thesis statement or research question. Think about what you've read and look for issues, problems or solutions that others
have found and determine your own opinion or stance on the issue. Write out your opinion as a authoritative statement on the issue,
problem or solution. At this point, you can do more detailed research and find sources that are more relevant to your thesis or research
question.

4 Complete your research using your thesis statement and research question as your guide. You will find relevant sources that will
provide insight into your specific thesis issue or problem. Make sure that your sources provide details on the history and past research
related to your research question.

5 Create relevant sections as you write the background study. As you evaluate your research and begin to write the background study,
create five separate sections that cover the key issues, major findings, and controversies surrounding your thesis, as well as sections
that provide an evaluation and conclusion.

6 Conclude by identifying any further study that needs to be done in that area, or provide possible solutions to the issue that haven't
been considered before.

7 Revise and edit your background study. Complete several drafts of your work, revising and filling in information as you go. Each
time that you read over your work, try to leave it better than it was before. It's also a great idea to have someone else look it over as
well.

Lesson 2: Research Problems and Questions

Why is a research question essential to the research process?
Research questions help writers focus their research by providing a path through the research and writing process. The specificity of a
well-developed research question helps writers avoid the “all-about” paper and work toward supporting a specific, arguable thesis.

Steps to developing a research question:

1. Choose an interesting general topic. Most professional researchers focus on topics they are genuinely
interested in studying. Writers should choose a broad topic about which they genuinely would like to know
more. An example of a general topic might be “Slavery in the American South” or “Films of the 1930s.”

2. Do some preliminary research on your general topic. Do a few quick searches in current periodicals and
journals on your topic to see what’s already been done and to help you narrow your focus. What issues are
scholars and researchers discussing, when it comes to your topic? What questions occur to you as you read
these articles?

3. Consider your audience. For most college papers, your audience will be academic, but always keep your
audience in mind when narrowing your topic and developing your question. Would that particular audience be
interested in the question you are developing?

4. Start asking questions. Taking into consideration all of the above, start asking yourself open-ended “how” and
“why” questions about your general topic. For example, “Why were slave narratives effective tools in working
toward the abolishment of slavery?” or “How did the films of the 1930s reflect or respond to the conditions of
the Great Depression?”

5. Evaluate your question. After you’ve put a question or even a couple of questions down on paper, evaluate
these questions to determine whether they would be effective research questions or whether they need more
revising and refining.

Lesson 3: Specificity and Feasibility of the Problem Posed

Usually, in social sciences, this research problem is stated in the form of a question. The purpose of a research problem or
statement of a problem is to help the readers understand the significance of the topic being studied. It also establishes the problem into
a detailed context that defines the parameters of what is to be investigated. This is the backbone for reporting the results and indicates
what is probably necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings will present this information (SH University, 2020).

a. Clarity and precision. The research problem must be clearly stated and must be on point to help readers directly know its
purpose.
b. Identification of what would be studied, while avoiding the use of value-laden words and terms.
c. Identification of key factors or variables, and of an overarching question.
d. Identification of key concepts and terms.
e. Articulation of the studies’ delimitation or parameters.
f. Some generalizability in regards to applicability and bringing results into general use.
g. Conveyance of the significance of the study, benefits, and justification.
h. Does not use unnecessary jargons.
i. Conveyance of more than the mere gathering of descriptive data providing only a snapshot of the issue or phenomenon
under investigation.

REFERENCES:
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/qualitative-quantitative-research/
https://www.gcu.edu/blog/doctoral-journey/what-qualitative-vs-quantitative-study#:~:text=Quantitative%20studies%20rely
%20on%20numerical,think%20or%20respond%20within%20society.
https://simplyeducate.me/2015/01/03/quantitative-methods-meaning-and-characteristics/
#7_Characteristics_of_Quantitative_Research_Methods
 https://zipreporting.com/en/quantitative-research/types-of-quantitative-research.html
https://www.gcu.edu/blog/doctoral-journey/quantitative-research-design-methods-writing-dissertations
https://www.wssu.edu/about/offices-and-departments/office-of-sponsored-programs/pre-award/_Files/documents/develop-
quantitative.pdf