Marinduque State College – College of Engineering, Information, & Industrial Technology

Institute of Engineering
Main Campus Boac/Branches: Sta. Cruz· Torrijos· Gasan
Panfilo M. Manguera Sr. Rd., Tanza, Boac, Marinduque 4900
Tel.No. (042) 754-0178 Email Address: [email protected]
Website: www.mscmarinduque.edu.ph

WORKBOOK

IN

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS I

Prepared by:

MA. IRENE C. MITANTE, REE, MSEE

Instructor I

Vision: An advanced and adaptive university pursuing quality education, lifelong, gender-sensitive learning environment, responsive
research-based community programs, and transparent governance with sustainable resource generation by 2025. iv
Mission: To provide excellence in instruction, research, extension and production that magnifies W.I.S.D.O.M. in leadership through a
total quality management system responsive to the challenges of 21st century education.
Educating People, Enriching Lives and Expanding Opportunities with WISDOM!
 PREFACE

This workbook is intended to help the BS Electrical Engineering

students understand the fundamental concepts of electrical circuits. It
includes summarized discussions of eight topics: dc components,
electrical quantities, basic circuit connections, dc circuit analysis,
theorems, techniques and principles, and introduction to ac circuits.
At the end of each topic is a worksheet provided for students to assess
their understanding. This workbook does not include sample problems
as reference – theories, terminologies, concepts, principles, equations
and circuit analysis were provided instead, making this workbook
suitable to challenge the student’s learning capacity. The problems
provided in every worksheet require students’ theoretical analysis and
application of engineering practice.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content Page
Cover Page i
PREFACE ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS iii
1. ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES 1
Electrical Charge 1
Electric Current 1
Voltage 1
Power 1
Energy 2
Resistance 2
Variation of Resistance with Temperature 3
Ohm’s Law 4
Summary 4
Worksheet No. 1 6

2. DC RESISTIVE CIRCUIT 8
Series Circuit Characteristics 8
Parallel Circuit Characteristics 8
Voltage Divider Theorem 9
Current Divider Theorem 9
Wye-Delta Transformation 10
Worksheet No.2 12

3. DC CIRCUIT LAWS, ANALYSIS, THEOREMS, AND

14
EQUIVALENTS
Definition of Terms 14
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) 15
Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL) 15
Nodal Analysis 16
Mesh Analysis 16
Superposition Theorem 16
Source Transformation 17

iii
 Thevenin Equivalent Circuit 17
Norton Equivalent Circuit 17
Maximum Power Transfer 18
Worksheet No. 3 19

4. METERS AND INSTRUMENTS 21

Precision 21
Accuracy 21
The Galvanometer 21
The Permanent Magnet-moving Coil Instrument 23
The Ammeter 23
The Voltmeter 24
The Ohmmeter 24
Worksheet No. 4 25

5. ENERGY-STORAGE DEVICES 27
Capacitor 27
Capacitance 28
Series Capacitors 28
Voltage Division for Series Capacitors 29
Parallel Capacitors 29
Charge Division for Parallel Capacitors 30
Inductors 30
Series Inductors 31
Parallel Inductors 31
Self-Inductance 32
Mutual Inductance 33
Series Coils Having Mutual Inductance 33
Worksheet No. 5.1 35
Worksheet No. 5.2 36

6. ELECTRICAL TRANSIENTS 38
Time Constant 38
Series RL Circuit 39
Series RC Circuit 41
RLC Circuit (Double Energy Transient) 44

iv
 Natural Response for Series RLC Circuit 45
Worksheet No. 6 47

7. COMPLEX NUMBERS AND PHASORS 48

Forms of Complex 48
Conversion of Complex Numbers 48
Complex Operations 49
Worksheet No. 7 53

8. SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE CIRCUIT ANALYSIS 54

Sine Waves and Values 54
Reactance, Impedance and Admittance 55
Sum of Two Alternating Waves 61
Sum of More than Two Out-of-phase Alternating Waves 62
Worksheet No. 8.1 63
Worksheet No. 8.2 65

BIBLIOGRAPHY 66

v
 1. ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES

1.1 Electrical Charge

Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which matter
consists that is measured in coulombs (C)
The following points should be noted about electric charge:

 Coulomb is a large unit for charge. In one (1) C of charge, there are
= 6.24 × 10 electrons (1.1)
. ×
 According to experimental observations of ancient experts, the only
charges that occur in nature are integral multiples of the electronic
charge, e
𝒆 = 1.602 × 10 C (1.2)
 The law of conservation of charge states that charge can neither be created
nor destroyed, only transferred. Thus, the algebraic sum of the electric
charges in a system does not change.

1.2 Electric Current

Current is the time rate of change of charge that is measured in
ampere/s (A). Mathematically, the relationship between current I or i,
charge Q or q and time t is
𝑖≜ (1.3)

where 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/second

 Direct Current (DC) is a current that remains constant with time and is
unidirectional.
 Alternating Current (AC) is a current that varies sinusoidally with time
and wave form is bidirectional.

1.3 Voltage (Potential Difference)

Voltage, also known as potential difference is the energy required to
move a unit charge through an element, measured in volts (V).
1 volt = 1 Joule/coulomb (1.4)
= 1 N-m/coulomb
1.4 Power
Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in
watts (W). We write this relationship as
𝑝≜ (1.5)

where p is power, w is energy or work in joule/s (J), and t is time in

seconds (s) or simply

𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 (1.6)

1
  P = +vi when the current enters through the positive terminal of an element.
 P = -vi if the current enters through the negative terminal of an element.

1.5 Energy
Generally, energy is defined as the capacity to do work, measured in joule/s
(J). The electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-hours (Wh),
where one (1) Wh = 3,600 Joules

According to Joule’s Law of Electric Heating, the amount work required

to maintain a current I amperes thru a resistance R for t seconds is given
by:
𝑊 =𝐼 𝑅×𝑡 (1.7)
= 𝑉𝐼 × 𝑡
𝑉
= ×𝑡
𝑅
= 𝑃×𝑡

The amount of heat produced electrically is given by:

𝐻 = 4.186 (1.8)
= 778.16 ft-lb/BTU
1 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 = 10 𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑠 (1.9)
= 0.24 𝑔𝑚 − 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑒

where H is measured in calories/s or British Thermal Unit (BTU) and joule

J is the mechanical equivalent of heat.

1.6 Resistance
Resistance is the physical property or ability of a material to resist current
measured in ohms (Ω). We can represent resistance (as measured in the
laboratory), in mathematical form:

𝑅= = = (1.10)

where resistance R is for constant temperature only, l is the length of

conductor in m or ft, A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor in m2
or circular mils (CM), 𝜌 is the resistivity of the material in ohm-meters (Ω-
m) or Ω-CM/ft, and V is the volume of the conductor in m3 or ft3. Note
that:
1 inch = 1000 mils (1.11)

 Mil (Spanish Prefix) is a unit of length equal to 1/1000 of an inch

2
  MCM (Mil Circular Mil) is used to express size of large conductors in the
American Wire Gauge (AWG) System, that is

1 MCM = 103 CM (1.12)

 Square Mil (SM) – area of a square whose sides are equal to one mil
ASM = S2 (1.13)

Table 1.1: Resistivity of common materials

1.7 Variation of resistance with Temperature

Resistance may vary not only due to length, resistivity and cross-sectional
area of a material. It also varies with temperature T.
𝑅 = 𝑅 [1 + 𝛼 (𝑡 − 𝑡 )] (1.14)
𝑅 = 𝑅 [1 + 𝛼 (𝑡 − 𝑡 ) ] (1.15)
where 𝑅 is the resistance at 𝑡 = 0°𝐶 , 𝑅 is the resistance at , and 𝑅 is
𝑡
the resistance at 𝑡 .

 𝛼 is the temperature coefficient of resistance at 0°𝐶 in °𝐶 -1

𝛼 = =| | (1.16)

 T is the inferred absolute zero resistance temperature in °𝐶 . For

copper, T = -234.5 °𝐶 .
 𝛼 is the temperature coefficient of resistance at 𝑡 in °𝐶 -1

𝛼 = = | | (1.17)

 𝛼 is the temperature coefficient of resistance at 𝑡 in °𝐶 -1

3
 𝛼 = = | | (1.18)

 ∆𝑇 = is a change in temperature or temperature rise in °𝐶 , that is

∆𝑇 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 (𝑡 − 𝑡 ) (1.19)

1.8 Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law states that the voltage V across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current I flowing through the resistor provided that the
physical condition such temperature of the conductor does not change.

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 (volts) (1.20)

𝐼= 𝑉 𝑅 (amperes) (1.21)

𝑅= 𝑉 𝐼 (ohms) (1.22)

Figure 1.1: Ohm’s Law Triangle

1.9 Summary
Am electrical quantity may be related and can be obtained another quantity as
presented in Table 1.2. Units of measurements can also be expressed using the
common SI prefixes shown in Table 1.3.

Table 1.2: Derived Units in SI

Quantity Unit Name (Symbol) Formula

Frequency Hertz (Hz) s-1
Force Newton (N) Kg-m/s2
Energy Joule (J) N-m
Power Watt (W) J/s
Electric Charge Coulomb (C) A-s
Electric Potential Volt (V) J/C
Electric Resistance Ohm (Ω) V/A
Electric Conductance Siemens (S) A/V
Electric Capacitance Farad (F) C/V
Magnetic Flux Weber (Wb) V-s
Inductance Henry (H) Wb/A

4
Table 1.3: The SI Prefixes

Prefix Symbol Power

atto- a 10-18
femto- f 10-15
pico- p 10-12
nano- n 10-9
micro- μ 10-6
milli- m 10-3
centi- c 10-2
deci- d 10-1
deka- da 10
hecto- h 102
kilo- k 103
Mega- M 106
Giga- G 109
Tera- T 1012

5
 WORK SHEET NO. 1

Name: Score:
Course/Yr./Sec.: Date: Instructor:
DIRECTIONS: Answer the following problems regarding electrical quantities. Write
your solutions on a separate sheet of paper and provide final answer using two
decimal places on the space provided after each problem. Each item is equivalent
to five (5) points.
1. Find I when V = 320 V and R = 40 Ω.

2. Suppose a resistor has a value of 140 Ω, and the measured current is 10 mA,
what is the voltage?

3 . What is the resistance of a 35-m tungsten (ρ=5.5x10⁻⁸ Ω-m) wire having a

diameter of 0.60 mm?

4. An electric light bulb draws 2 A when operating at 240- V circuit. What is the
resistance of the bulb?

5. If the voltage across a 25-KΩ resistor is 320 V, what is the power (HP) dissipated
in the resistor?

6. Find the shortest time that 155-C can flow through a 11-A circuit breaker without
tripping it?

7. How much chemical energy must a 1.5 V flashlight battery expend in producing
a current flow of 230 mA for 8 minutes?

8. Find the charge in coulombs of (a) 6.24 x 1020 electrons and (b) 12.48 x 1021
protons.

9. Find the average input power to a radio that consumes 4800 J in 3 min.

10. How much power does an electric clock require if it draws 25.3 mA from a 110-V
line?
6
11. Find the work done by a 10-V battery in moving 6 x 1024 electrons from its positive
terminal to its negative terminal.

12.The resistance of a copper wire at 20°C is 60 ohms. If the temperature coefficient

of the copper at 0°C is 0.00467, what is the resistance at 100°C?

7
 2. DC RESISTIVE CIRCUIT

2.1 Series Circuit Characteristics

(a) (b)
Figure 2.1: Series Circuit (a) Resistors connected in series;
(b) simplified/equivalent circuit

 Equivalent Resistance or total resistance in series is simply the summation

of the individual resistances. That is

𝑅 = 𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 + ⋯+ 𝑅 (2.1)

 Total voltage in series is the summation of individual voltage drops .

𝑉 = 𝑉 +𝑉 +𝑉 +⋯+𝑉 (2.2)

 Total current is equal to the individual currents that passes through each
resistor. Thus, it is constant.
𝐼 =𝐼 =𝐼 =𝐼 =⋯=𝐼 (2.3)
 Total power in series resistors can be computed as

𝑃 = 𝑃 +𝑃 +𝑃 +⋯+𝑃 (2.4)

 Conductance G is the reciprocal of resistance.

G = 1/R (2.5)

Hence, when resistors are connected in series, total conductance is:

𝐺 = + + +⋯+ (2.6)

2.2 Parallel Circuit Characteristics

(a) (b)
Figure 2.2: Parallel Circuit (a) Resistors connected in parallel;

(b) simplified/equivalent circuit

8
  Equivalent Resistance or total resistance in parallel is given as

= + + + ⋯+ (2.7)

 Total voltage in parallel is also the voltage drop across each resistor.
Therefore, voltage is constant.

𝑉 =𝑉 =𝑉 =𝑉 =⋯=𝑉 (2.8)

 Total current is equal to the summation of individual currents that passes

through each resistor.
𝐼 = 𝐼 +𝐼 +𝐼 +⋯+𝐼 (2.9)
 Total power in parallel resistors can be computed as

𝑃 = 𝑃 +𝑃 +𝑃 +⋯+𝑃 (2.10)

2.3 Voltage Divider Theorem

If, in two resistors, R1 and R2 are in series and Vt is the total voltage, then the
individual voltage drops are:

𝑉 =𝑉 × (2.11)

𝑉 =𝑉 × (2.12)

Figure 2.3: Two resistors connected in series

2.4 Current Divider

If, in a two-branched parallel circuit, R1 and R2 are the branch resistances,
and It is the total current, then the branch currents are:

𝐼 =𝐼 × (2.13)

𝐼 =𝐼 × (2.14)

Figure 2.4: Two resistors connected in parallel

9
 Using equation 2.7, the equivalent resistance of two resistors connected
in parallel is:
×
𝑅 = (2.15)

2.5 Wye-Delta Transformation

Resistors in wye or delta configuration are usually used in three-phase
networks, electrical Þlters, and matching networks wye (Y) or tee (T)
network and the delta (∆) or pi (Π) network.

Figure 2.5: The Delta-Wye Transformation

2.5.1 Delta to Wye Transformation

Each resistor in the Y network is the product of the resistors in the two
adjacent ∆ branches, divided by the sum of the three ∆ resistors.
×
𝑅 = (2.16)

×
𝑅 = (2.17)

×
𝑅 = (2.18)

2.5.2 Delta to Wye Transformation

Each resistor in the ∆ network is the sum of all possible products of Y
resistors taken two at a time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.
( ) ( ) ( )
𝑅 = (2.19)

( ) ( ) ( )
𝑅 = (2.20)

( ) ( ) ( )
𝑅 = (2.21)

10
The Y and ∆ networks are said to be balanced when:

𝑅 =𝑅 =𝑅 =𝑅 (2.22)

and 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝑅 = 𝑅 (2.23)

Under these conditions, transformation formulas become:

𝑅 = ; 𝑅 = 3𝑅 (2.24)

11
 WORK SHEET NO. 2

Name: Score:
Course/Yr/Sec.: Date: Instructor:

DIRECTIONS: Analyze, solve and simplify the following problems. Show your
solutions on a separate sheet of paper and provide final answer using two
decimal places on the space provided after each problem. Each item is
equivalent to 10 points.

1. Calculate the total current and power delivered when the terminals of
the circuit below is connected across a 220-V dc source.

Figure 2.6

2. Determine the currents I1, I2, I3, I4, and I5.

Figure 2.7

3. Determine the total resistance, Rt.

Figure 2.8

4. Determine the equivalent resistance of the circuit below.

Figure 2.9
12
5. Determine the total current It and the voltage supply E in the given circuit below.

Figure 2.10

6. Three identical resistors are connected in delta. Inside this delta, another three
identical resistors are connected in wyes which are connected in the three
corners of the delta. If the value of all resistors is 7 ohms, determine the
equivalent resistance between any two terminals.

13
 3. DC CIRCUIT LAWS, ANALYSIS, THEOREMS,
AND EQUIVALENTS

3.1 Definition of Terms

• Electric circuit is when the network contains at least one closed path
Note: Every circuit is a network, but not all networks are circuits!
• Network is the interconnection of two or more simple circuit element.
• Parameters are various elements of an electric circuit that may be lumped
or distributed.
• Linear Circuit is a circuit in which the parameters are constant or do not
change with current or voltage.
• Non-linear Circuit is a circuit in which the parameters change with
current or voltage.
• Independent Sources are defined as energy-delivering devices whose
voltage or current values are fixed at a given value, independent of the rest
of the circuit. Two types of independent sources are used in circuit analysis:
voltage and current sources.
• Dependent Sources are also energy-delivering devices where, unlike
independent sources, the voltage or current provided depends on another
voltage or current in the circuit.
• Voltage-controlled Voltage Source (VCVS) is a voltage source whose
voltage depends on another voltage in the circuit.
• Voltage-controlled Current Source (VCCS) is a current source whose
current depends on a voltage in the circuit.
• Current-controlled Voltage Source (CCVS) is a voltage source whose
voltage depends on a current in the circuit.
• Current-controlled Current Source (CCCS) is a current source whose
current depends on another current in the circuit.
• A short circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching zero.
• An open circuit is a circuit element with resistance approaching inÞnity.
• A branch b represents a single element such as a voltage source or a
resistor.
• A node n is the point of connection between two or more branches.
• A loop l is any closed path in a circuit.
b=l+n–1 (3.1)

14
3.2 Circuit Laws
3.2.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of all the
currents at any node in a circuit equals zero.

Sign conventions for current flow:

 positive (+) when current enters a node

 negative (-) when current leaves a node

At node a, I1 is entering, and I2 and I3 are both leaving. It can be written as

I1 – I2 – I3 = 0 (3.2)

Figure 3.1: Current’s direction with respect to a particular node

3.2.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of
all the voltages around any closed path in a circuit equals zero.
Sign conventions used for IR (Voltage) Drop:

 positive (+) if tracing is against the direction of current

 negative (-) if tracing is in the same direction as the current emf
(battery or generator)
 positive (+) if tracing inside the battery or generator is from – to +
 negative (-) if tracing inside the battery or generator is from + to –

Taking clockwise as positive,

V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 = 0 (3.3)

Figure 3.2: Voltage drops in a given closed path

15
3.3 Nodal Analysis
The nodal analysis is also known as the node-voltage method which provides
a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages as the circuit
variables.
Steps to determine node voltages:
1. Select a node as reference. Assign voltages v1, v2, …, vn-1 to the remaining n-
1 nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to the reference nodes.

2. Apply KCL to each of the n-1 reference nodes. Use Ohm’s law in expressing
each branch currents to node voltages.

3. Determine the resulting simultaneous equations to solve for the unknown

node voltages.

Note: Current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in a resistor.

3.4 Mesh Analysis

Mesh analysis is also known as loop analysis or the mesh-current method
which provides another general procedure for analyzing circuits, using mesh
currents as the circuit variables.
Steps to determine mesh currents:
1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, …, in to the n meshes in the circuit.

2. Apply KVL to each of the meshes and use the Ohms’ law to express the
voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
3. Determine the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents.

3 . 5 Superposition
This principle states that the voltage across (or current through) an
element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or
currents through) that element due to each independent source acting alone.
Steps to apply superposition principle:
1. Set all independent sources to zero except one. Determine the output (voltage
or current) due to that active source using any techniques/ analysis (nodal
or mesh).

2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent sources in the circuit.
3. Find the total contribution by algebraically adding all the contributions
due to the independent sources.
Note: Superposition applies the one source at a time technique.

16
3.6 Source Transformation
This theorem is another tool for simplifying circuits. Basic to these tools is
the concept of equivalence; is the process of replacing a voltage source vs in
series with a resistor R by a current source is in parallel with a resistor R, or
vice versa.

𝑉 =𝐼 𝑅 (3.4)

𝐼 = (3.5)

Figure 3.3: Voltage source to current source transformation and vice versa

3.7 Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

This circuit equivalent states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series with
a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTh is
the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent
sources are turned off.

Figure 3.4: Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

Steps in determining the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit:
1. Open the terminals to be thevenized.
2. Solve for the current using any technique/analysis.
3. Determine VTH and RTH.

3 . 8 Norton’s theorem
This states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in parallel with a resistor RN,
where IN is the short-circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input
or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are
turned off.

17
 Figure 3.5: Norton’s equivalent circuit

3.9 Maximum power

Maximum power is the amount of power transferred to the load when the
load resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from the load RL = RTH
.

𝑃 = (3.6)

18
 WORK SHEET NO. 3

Name: Score:
Course/Yr/Sec.: Date: Instructor:

DIRECTIONS: Analyze, solve and simplify the following problems. Show your solutions
on a separate sheet of paper and provide final answer using two decimal places on the
space provided after each problem. Each item has its corresponding points.
1. Determine the loop currents I1, I2, and I3 using the mesh analysis. (15 points)

Figure 3.6

2. Determine the current i using the node-voltage analysis. (10 points)

Figure 3.7

3. Determine the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuit and find the current in 6Ω.
(20 points)

Figure 3.8

4. Reduce the circuit below into a single voltage source and a single current
source. (10 points)

19
 Figure 3.9

5. Using the principle of superposition, find the current through the 10-ohm
resistor in the circuit in Fig. 3.10. (15 points)

Figure 3.10

6. Solve for v such that maximum power is transferred to it. What is the maximum
power transferred to RL? (10 points)

Figure 3.11

20
 4. METERS AND INSTRUMENTS

4.1 Precision
This is a measure of the spread of repeated determination of a particular
quantity. It depends on the resolution of the methods or processed used, variations
in ambient conditions in which could affect both the quantity being measured and
the reference standards, and the instability of some elements of the measuring
system. A precision of 1 to 2% is usually acceptable when using precision
instruments in laboratory calibration of other instruments.

4.2 Accuracy
It gives maximum difference between the measured value and the true value.
It indicates the imprecision of the measurement, together with all the accumulated
errors in the measurement chain. Errors in meter reading indication and in
interpolating the measured value are major sources of inaccuracies. Typical
current sensitivities range from 0.01µA to 0.001µA. For a definite line current, the
current in the galvanometer can be reduced by connecting a resistor, known as a
shunt, across it.

4.3 The Galvanometer

A galvanometer is a deflecting instrument used in the detection and
measurement of very small currents and voltages. The maximum current it can
handle may be in the order of less than one microampere and is usually used as
a null detector for bridge circuits and for comparing circuit quantities.

Figure 4.1: The D’ Arsonval Galvanometer: (a) side view; (b) top view

21
 An Ayron shunt is shown connected across a galvanometer in the above
figure. Connection to this parallel combination is made through terminal a and
one of the other terminals. Each time we shift the other terminal one step to the left
(e.g. from terminal e to d), the resistance in parallel is reduced ten times and the
other nineteenths is added in series to other branch. The galvanometer sensitivity
is reduced ten times every time we do this. Referring to Fig. 4.2 and Fig. 4.3
below, when used between terminals a and e, the galvanometer current is
(𝐼 𝑅 )
𝐼 = (𝑅 + 𝑅 ) (4.1)

When used between terminals a and d, the galvanometer current becomes

0.11𝑅
𝐼 = (𝑅 + 𝑅 ) (4.2)

Figure 4.2: Galvanometer with Ayron Shunt

(a) (b)
Figure 4.3: D’ Arsonval Galvanometer used across terminals: (a) a and d;

(b) a and e

22
4.4 The Permanent Magnet-Moving Coil Instrument
The permanent magnet- moving coil instrument is less sensitive than the D’
Arsonval galvanometer due to the friction between the pivots and jewels. The
current sensitivities range from 20 mA to 1µA. It is less accurate than the D’
Arsonval galvanometer though its performance is acceptable for most applications.
This instrument is also the most commonly used instrument for direct-current
measurements. It is rugged and easily portable. It can be mounted in any position.
Its range can easily be extended by using shunts and multipliers. With shunts,
multipliers and other devices included, it becomes another instrument – an
ammeter, a voltmeter or a VOM (volt – mill ammeter – ohmmeter).

Figure 4.4: Permanent Magnet-moving Coil Instrument

4.5 The Ammeter

The accuracy of the ammeter is dependent on the stability of the resistance
values. The moving coil is usually wound with copper wires which has a rather high
temperature coefficient of resistance. To minimize the effects of temperature, a
swamping resistor RSW is connected in series with the meter element. We can
therefore write:
𝑅 𝐼 =𝑅 𝐼 (4.3)

Figure 4.5: (a) The ammeter; (b) Connection of swamping resistor

23
4.6 The Voltmeter
For two elements in series, the voltage across each element is directly
proportional to its resistance. If a resistor is connected in series with the meter
element, the reading of the instrument will be fixed percentage of the voltage across
the combination provided the resistances remain constant. Commercial voltmeters
are available with series resistors internally wired. To extend the range, external
resistors can be added in series. These resistors are known as multipliers or
extension coils.

Figure 4.6: The Voltmeter

4.7 The Ohmmeter

An ohmmeter can be used to make a quick measurement of the resistance. With
a constant voltage source, the resistance is inversely proportional to the current. If
the terminals a and b in Fig. 4.7 are short-circuited, there will be a maximum
deflection of the meter. If they are open, there will be no deflection. These responses
from the meter will now indicate short circuit and open circuit conditions,
respectively.

Figure 4.7: The Ohmmeter

24
 WORK SHEET NO. 4

Name: Score:
Course/Yr/Sec.: Date: Instructor:

DIRECTIONS: Analyze and solve the following problems. Show your solutions on a
separate sheet of paper and provide final answer using two decimal places on the
space provided after each problem. Each item corresponds to 10 points.
1. Determine the value of the shunt resistor needed to convert a 2-mA, 50-Ω,
galvanometer into an ammeter with the range of 4 A.

Figure 4.8

2. A 5-mA, 80-Ω permanent magnet-moving coil instrument is to be converted into

a multi-range ammeter. Determine the resistance in the ring shunt circuit.

Figure 4.9

3. Determine the series resistance required to convert a 1-mA, 50-Ω galvanometer

into a 3-V voltmeter.

Figure 4.10

4. A 200-Ω resistor is connected across a 1-mA, 50-Ω galvanometer. Determine the

resistance to be connected in series with this combination to convert the meter
into a voltmeter with range of 6 V.

25
Figure 4.11

5. A 10-V, 2000-Ω voltmeter and a 100-mA, 50-Ω ammeter are used to measure the
resistance of R by the voltmeter-ammeter method as shown below. If the
voltmeter and the ammeter indicate 6 V and 65 mA, respectively, what is the
resistance?

Figure 4.12

26
 5. ENERGY-STORAGE DEVICES

Changes in resistor networks happen instantaneously. No energy is stored in a

resistor. Hence, it only dissipates power and energy. Energy-storage devices or
elements will force us to think about how currents and voltages change with time.

5.1 Capacitor
Capacitor is a passive element or device that stores charges or energy in its
electric field. Excess charges generate static fields which are associated with
energy. Capacitors generate a well-defined electro-static field.

A capacitor consists of two conducting plates separated by an insulator (or

dielectric) typically constructed as depicted in Fig. 5.1.

Figure 5.1: A typical capacitor

If you take any closed surface surrounding an isolated charge, the electric field
multiplied by the area of the surface is proportional to the value of the charge Q
that is

𝑄 = 𝜀 𝐸𝐴 (5.1)

For this geometry shown in Fig. 5.1, we assume that E is constant over the
entire area of the plates.

𝐸= (5.2)

Thus, 𝑄= (5.3)

or 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 (5.4)

where 𝐶= (coulomb per volt) (5.5)

𝜀 is the absolute permittivity, d is the distance between the plates and A

is the surface area of each plate.

27
 Figure 5.2: Schematic diagram of a parallel-plate capacitor

5.1.1 Capacitance
Capacitance, C is the amount of charge stored per plate for a unit
voltage difference in a capacitor. Capacitance is the ratio of the charge on
one plate of a capacitor to the voltage difference between the two plates,
measured in farads (F).
To obtain the current-voltage relationship of the capacitor,

𝑖=𝐶 (5.6)

The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is

𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝐶𝑣 (5.7)

And considering that the capacitor is uncharged at 𝑡 = −∞, then the

energy in the capacitor becomes:

𝑊 = 𝐶𝑣 (5.8)

5.1.2 Series Capacitors

(a) (b)
Figure 5.3: (a) Series-connected N capacitors; (b) Equivalent circuit for
the series capacitors

 The equivalent capacitance of series-connected capacitors is the reciprocal of

the sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitances.

= + + + ⋯+ (5.9)

28
 or if for two capacitors in series, Ceq is:

𝐶 = (5.10)

 Total charge Qt and voltage Vt is given by:

𝑄 =𝑄 =𝑄 =𝑄 =⋯=𝑄 (5.11)
𝑉 = 𝑉 +𝑉 +𝑉 +⋯+𝑉 (5.12)

5.1.3 Voltage Division for Series Capacitors

The voltage divider theorem can also be applied to capacitors connected
in series since the accumulated charge is proportional to the current that
passes through each capacitor.

𝐸 =𝑉 =𝑉 × (5.13)

𝐸 =𝑉 =𝑉 × (5.14)

Figure 5.4: Two capacitors in series

5.1.4 Parallel Capacitors

(a) (b)
Figure 5.5: (a) Parallel-N capacitors; (b) Equivalent circuit for the parallel
capacitors

 The equivalent capacitance for parallel-connected capacitors is the sum of

the individual capacitances.

𝐶 = 𝐶 +𝐶 +𝐶 +⋯+𝐶 (5.15)

 Total charge Qt and voltage Vt is given by:

𝑄 = 𝑄 +𝑄 + 𝑄 + ⋯+ 𝑄 (5.16)
𝑉 =𝑉 =𝑉 =𝑉 =⋯=𝑉 (5.17)

29
 5.1.5 Charge Division for Parallel Capacitors
Similar to two parallel-connected resistors, a division theorem called
Charge Division can also be applied to two parallel-connected capacitors.

𝑄 =𝑄 × (5.18)

𝑄 =𝑄 × (5.19)

Figure 5.6: Two-parallel capacitors

5.2 Inductors
An inductor is a passive element designed to store energy in its magnetic
field. Any conductor of electric current has inductive properties and may be
regarded as an inductor. But in order to enhance the inductive effect, a
practical inductor is usually formed into a cylindrical coil with many turns of
conducting wire, as shown in Fig. 5.7.

Figure 5.7: Typical form of an inductor

Right-hand rule: current with

thumb, field with fingers

Figure 5.8: Electric currents creating magnetic fields

Flowing electric currents create magnetic fields. The magnetic field
describes the magnetic force on moving charges by the symbol in equations, B
with the unit, Tesla (T).

𝐵(𝑟) = (5.20)

where 𝜇 is the permeability of free space, a fundamental constant that

relates magnetism to force and energy that is:

30
 𝜇 = 4𝜋 × 10 𝑇𝐴 m (5.21)

An inductor consists of a coil of conducting wire. If current is allowed to

pass through an inductor, it is found that the voltage across the inductor is
directly proportional to the time rate of change of the current. Using the
passive sign convention,

𝑣=𝐿 (5.22)

where L is the constant of proportionality called the inductance. The unit of

inductance is the henry (H). The energy stored is

𝑊 = 𝐿𝑖 (5.23)

5.2.1 Series Inductors

(a) (b)
Figure 5.9: (a) Series-N inductors; (b) Equivalent circuit for the series inductors

 The equivalent inductance of series-connected inductors is the sum of the

individual inductances. Inductors in series are combined in exactly the same
way as resistors in series. That is

𝐿 = 𝐿 +𝐿 +𝐿 +⋯+ 𝐿 (5.24)

5.2.2 Parallel Inductors

(a) (b)
Figure 5.10: (a) Parallel-N inductors; (b) equivalent circuit for the parallel

 The equivalent inductance of parallel inductors is the reciprocal of the sum of

the reciprocals of the individual inductances. Note that the inductors in
parallel are combined in the same way as resistors in parallel. Thus,

= + + +⋯+ (5.25)

31
 or if for two inductors in parallel, Leq is:

𝐿 = (5.26)

 As long as all the elements are of the same type, the wye-delta
transformations for resistors can be extended to capacitors and inductors.

Summarizing the most important characteristics of the three basic circuit

elements: resistor, capacitor and inductor, Table 5.1 is hereby provided,

Table 5.1: Important characteristics of the basic elements

5.2.3 Self-inductance
The measure of how much counter emf is produced in a given circuit or
component for a change in current through it.

(a) (b)
Figure 5.11: (a) Coiled wire in a common core; (b) Coiled wire in a circular core

32
 ∅
𝐿= = (5.27)

𝐿= (5.28)
ℜ

𝐿= (5.29)
ℓ

where L is inductance in henry, 𝜇 is permeability of free space, 𝜇 is the

relative permeability of the core used, A is the cross-sectional area of the
magnetic path in square meters, N is the number of turns, ∅ if the flux in
weber, I is the current, ℓ is the mean length of the magnetic path (meter),
ℜ is the reluctance (reciprocal henry), and N∅ or 𝜆 is the flux linkage in
weber.

5.2.4 Mutual Inductance

This is the amount or degree of mutual induction that exists between two
coils or windings. Two coils have a mutual inductance of 1 Henry when a
current change of 1 A/s in one coil induces 1 volt in the other coil.

Figure 5.12: Two coiled wires in a common core producing mutual

inductance

 Mutual inductance can be computed by:

𝑀=𝑘 𝐿 𝐿 (5.30)

𝑀= (5.31)
ℜ

𝑀= (5.32)
ℓ

where 𝑘 = (5.33)

5.2.5 Series Coils having Mutual Inductance

 Series Aiding is when the common current produces the same direction
of magnetic fields as shown in Fig. 5.13(a).
𝐿 = 𝐿 + 𝐿 + 2𝑀 (5.34)

33
 (a) (b)
Figure 5.13: Two coils in series configuration: (a) aiding; (b) opposing

 Series Opposing is when the connection results in opposite fields

shown in Fig.5.13(b).

𝐿 = 𝐿 + 𝐿 − 2𝑀 (5.35)

 Parallel Aiding equivalent inductance can be computed as:

𝐿 = (5.36)

 Parallel Opposing equivalent inductance is given as:

𝐿 = (5.37)

34
 WORK SHEET NO. 5.1

Name: Score:
Course/Yr/Sec.: Date: Instructor:

DIRECTIONS: Analyze and solve the following problems. Show your solutions on a
separate sheet of paper and provide final answer using two decimal places on the
space provided after each problem. Each item corresponds to 10 points.
1. Two metallic plates separated by 0.4 cm are connected across a 12-V battery. A
certain plastic material is inserted completely filling the space between the plates
and the charge on each plate observed to double. What is the dielectric constant
of the plastic material?

2. A parallel-plate capacitor has an equivalent capacitance of 980 pF. The area of

each plate is 8 cm2 and the thickness of the dielectric is 0.04 cm. If the material
used as the dielectric has a constant of 6, how many sections are there in
parallel?

3. Four capacitors A, B, C, and D are connected across a 150-V dc source. The

charges accumulated in A, B, and C are equal to 1100, 500 and 1250 µC,
respectively. If the total capacitance of the combination is known to be 65 µF,
how much charge is accumulated in capacitor D?

4. A magnetic circuit consists of silicon steel of 8000 permeability and an air gap.
The length of the steel core is 10 cm and the air gap is 10 mm. Both have the
same cross-section of 1.8 cm2. A current of 2 A flows through the windings to
produce 2450 maxwells of flux. How many turns are there in the coil?

5. Two coils having 260 and 320 turns, respectively are wound side-by-side on a
common closed core whose cross section 110 cm2 and mean length of 250 cm.
What will be the voltage induced in the second coil if the current in the first coil
changes from 0 to 5 A in 0.03 seconds. Assume the relative permittivity of the
core to be 1400 and the coefficient of coupling as 1.

35
 WORK SHEET NO. 5.2

Name: Score:
Course/Yr/Sec.: Date: Instructor:

DIRECTIONS: Analyze and solve the following problems. Show your solutions on a
separate sheet of paper and provide final answer using two decimal places on the
space provided after each problem. Each item has its corresponding points.
1. The current through a 0.5-H inductor is i(t) = 10 te−5t A. Find the voltage across the
inductor and the energy stored in it. (10 points)

2. For the circuit in Fig. 5.14, i(t) = 4 (2 − e−10t) mA. If i2(0) = −1mA, find: (a) i1(0); (b)
v(t), v1(t), and v2(t); (c) i1(t) and i2(t). (30 points)

Figure 5.14:

3. Find the equivalent inductance for the network below with L1 = 2H, L2 = L3 = 3H,
L4 = L5 = L6 = 5 H.

Figure 5.15:

4. An iron core is 0.5 m long and has a cross-sectional area of 3 cm 2. It is wound

with 350 turns. When a current of 0.7 A flows through the coil, how much will be
the inductance given the core has a permeability of 2600.

5. Two coils having self and mutual inductance of 5 H, 4 H and 2 H, respectively are
connected in series. If a 5-A current passes through the coil, evaluate the ratio of
the energy stored in the magnetic field when the fluxes (both self and mutual) are
in the same direction to the energy stored when the said fluxes are against each
other.

36
6. The energy stored in a coil is dependent in the amount of inductance L of the coil
and the current passing through it. If the inductance were doubled with the same
current flowing, what would be the resulting stored energy of the coil?

37
 6. ELECTRICAL TRANSIENTS

Electrical Transients is the study of characteristics of current, potential

drop, power charged, energy dissipation and energy stored across different
load parameters as energized by DC or AC source by means of the
activation of a switch.

When a circuit is to be switched-on, it will not directly attain its

steady- state response. Instead, it passes through a transition period
where the current or voltage adjusts themselves to their steady-state
condition. This transition period is known as the transient period.

Figure 8.1: Graph of a current growth in a given RL dc circuit

6.1 Time Constant, TC

Time constant of any equation dealing with transient is the value of
time t in sec which makes the magnitude or absolute value of the exponent
of the numbers e equivalent to unity or 1 in both the current growth and
current decay curves, the current tends to approach their steady-state
values after 5 TC. Thus, the transition interval is: 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 5 TC

For RL Circuit: TC = (6.1)

For RC Circuit: TC = RC (6.2)

 Time Constant for RL Circuits at initiation is the time for the current to
reach 63.2% of its final value.
 Time Constant for RL Circuits at subsidence is the time elapsed for the
current to reach 36.8% of its initial value.

38
 Transient disturbances are produced when:
1. An apparatus or circuit is suddenly connected/disconnected from
the supply.
2. A circuit is shorted.
3. There is sudden change in the applied voltage from one finite value
to another.

Transient disturbances are classified as follows:

1. Initiation Transients are produced when a circuit, which is originally
off is being energized.
2. Subsidence Transients are produced when an energized circuit is
rapidly de-energized and reaches an eventual steady-state of zero
current or voltage.
3. Transition Transients are due to sudden but energetic changes from
one steady state to another
4. Complex Transients are produced in a circuit which is
simultaneously subjected to two transients due to two independent
disturbances.
5. Relaxation Transients occur cyclically towards state, which when reached,
become unstable themselves.

6.2 Series RL Circuit

6.2.1 Initiation Transient (given initial condition at 𝑡 = 0, 𝑖 = 0)

when the switch is closed, then by KVL

𝐸 =𝑉 +𝑉 (6.3)
𝐸 = 𝑖𝑅 + 𝐿 (6.4)
(LDE of the 1st order)

Figure 6.2: Initiation Transient equivalent circuit

 General Equation: 𝑖 = + 𝑘𝑒 (6.5)
where k is the constant of integration

 Particular Equation: 𝑖 = (1 − 𝑒 ) (6.6)

Current growth equation from 𝑖 = 0 to 𝑖 = 𝐼 = 𝐸/𝑅
open at 𝑡 = 0; 𝑖 = 0 and shorted at 𝑡 = ∞; 𝑖 = 𝐼

39
  Voltage across R, VR: 𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅 = 𝐸(1 − 𝑒 ) (6.7)

 Voltage across L, VL: 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑒 (6.8)

 Power across R, PR: 𝑃 = 𝑖 𝑉 = (1 − 𝑒 ) ∙ 𝐸(1 − 𝑒 )

𝑃 = (1 − 𝑒 ) (6.9)

when 𝑡 = 0, 𝑃 = 0 and when 𝑡 = ∞ (steady-state), 𝑃 =

 Power across L, VL: 𝑃 = 𝑖 𝑉 = (1 − 𝑒 ) ∙ 𝐸𝑒

𝑃 = (𝑒 −𝑒 ) (6.10)

when 𝑡 = 0, 𝑃 = 0 and when 𝑡 = ∞, 𝑃 = 0

 Total power, PT: 𝑃 = 𝑃 + 𝑃 = 𝐸 ∙ 𝑖 = 𝐸 ∙ (1 − 𝑒 )

𝑃 = (1 − 𝑒 ) (6.11)

 Energy Stored in the magnetic field, WL:

𝑊 = 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑉 ∙ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 ∙ 𝑖𝑑𝑖 (6.12)

at 𝑡 = 0, 𝑖 = 0, then 𝑊 = 0
at 𝑡 = 𝑡, 𝑖 = 𝐼, then 𝑊 = 𝑊

Hence, 𝑊 = 𝐿𝑖 (6.13)

at maximum condition 𝑡 = ∞, 𝑖 = 𝐼

𝑊 = 𝐿𝐼 (6.14)

6.2.2 Subsidence Transient (given initial condition at 𝑡 = 0, 𝑖 = 𝐼 )

when the switch is in position 1,

𝑖 = (1 − 𝑒 ) (6.15)

when the switch is in position 2,

𝑉 +𝑉 =0 (6.16)

40
 (a) (b)
Figure 6.3: Subsidence Transient: (a) equivalent circuit; (b) right side circuit

𝑖𝑅 + 𝐿 =0 ; = − 𝑑𝑡 (6.17)

at 𝑡 = 0, 𝑖 = 𝐼 , then 𝑡 = 𝑡, 𝑖 = 𝐼

Hence, 𝑖=𝐼 𝑒 (6.18)

at 𝑡 = ∞, 𝑖 = 𝐼 , that is the current decay equation

𝑖=𝐼 𝑒 =𝐼 𝑒 (6.19)

at 1 time constant (TC), 𝑖 = 0.368 (6.20)

6.3 Series RC Circuit

Figure 6.4: Transient condition of a series RC circuit

When the switch is closed, 𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅 + (6.21)

 General Equation: 𝑞 = 𝐶𝐸 + 𝑘𝑒 (6.22)

To find i,

𝑖= = 𝐶𝐸 0 − 𝑒 − = 𝑒 (6.23)

41
 But =𝐼 , therefore, 𝑖 = 𝐼 𝑒 (6.24)

 At 1 TC = t, 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑒 = 𝑒 = 0.368 (6.25)

 At t = 5 TC, 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑒 = 𝑒 = 0.0067 (6.26)

 Voltage across R, VR:
𝑉 = 𝑖𝑅 = 𝑒 ∙𝑅 =𝐸∙𝑒 (6.27)

 Voltage across C, VC: 𝑉 = =

𝑉 = 𝐸 1−𝑒 (6.28)

 In addition, 𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑒 =𝐸 1−𝑒 (6.29)

6.3.1 Case 1: Charging Process (given initial condition at 𝑡 = 0, 𝑞 = 0, C is

uncharged)

𝑖=𝐼 𝑒 = 𝑒 (6.30)
Note that is the capacitor is initially uncharged, it is shorted at 𝑡 = 0,
𝐼 = and open at 𝑡 = ∞, 𝐼 = 0.

 Power across R, PR:

𝑃 =𝑖𝑉 =𝑖 𝑅= = 𝐸(𝑒 )∙ 𝑒

𝑃 = 𝑒 (6.31)

when 𝑡 = 0, 𝑃 = and when 𝑡 = ∞ (steady-state), 𝑃 = 0

 Power across C, VC:

𝑃 =𝑖𝑉 = 𝑒 ∙𝐸 1−𝑒 (6.32)

when 𝑡 = 0, 𝑃 = 0 and at 𝑡 = ∞, 𝑃 = 0

6.3.2 Case 2: Charging with Q0 (if at 𝑡 = 0, 𝑞 = 𝑄 )

𝑞 = 𝐶𝐸 + (𝑄 − 𝐶𝐸) 𝑒 (6.33)

42
 /
𝑖=𝐼 𝑒 =( )𝑒
/
𝐼 = (6.34)

Hence, 𝐸 = 𝑄 /𝐶 (initial value)

𝑉 (𝑡) = 𝐸 + −𝐸 𝑒

𝑉 (𝑡) = 𝑖(𝑡)𝑅 = (𝐸 − 𝐸 )𝑒 = 𝐸− 𝑒 (6.35)

6.3.3 Case 3: Discharging with Q0

From 𝑞 = 𝐶𝐸 + 𝑘𝑒 where 𝑘 = −(𝑄 + 𝐶𝐸),

/
𝑖=𝐼 𝑒 = 𝑒

𝐸 = 𝑅𝐼 + , then

𝐼 = (6.36)

6.3.4 Case 4: Discharging Initially Charged Capacitor

𝑡
𝑞 = 𝑄0 𝑒−𝑅𝐶 (6.37)

𝑖=𝐼 𝑒 = 𝑒 ; 𝑖= 𝑒 (6.38)

Figure 6.5: Discharging initially charged capacitor circuit

6.3.5 Case 5: Discharging a Fully-charged Capacitor

𝑖=𝐼 𝑒 = 𝑒 (6.39)

43
 𝐶𝐶
where 𝐶 = 𝐶 +𝐶
𝑡
𝑄0 𝐶𝑇 𝐶1 −𝑅𝐶
(6.40)
𝑞= 𝐶𝑇 − 1𝑒
𝑇
𝐶1

Figure 6.6: Discharging a fully charged capacitor equivalent circuit

6.4 RLC Circuit (Double Transient)

6.4.1 Series RLC Circuit (DC)
By KVL, 𝐸 =𝑉 +𝑉 +𝑉

𝐸 = 𝑖𝑅 + 𝐿 + ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 (6.41)

Figure 6.7: Double Energy Transient for Series RLC

Differentiating i with respect to time t, results to the LDE 2nd order with
three possible solutions:

𝑑 𝑖 𝑅𝑑𝑖 𝑖
+ + =0
𝑑𝑖 𝐿𝑑𝑡 𝐿𝐶

𝐷 + 𝐷+ 𝑖=0 (6.42)

44
  Auxiliary Equation using the quadratic formula,
±
𝑚 + 𝐷+ =0 ; 𝑚= (6.43)
( )

Let 𝛼= (6.44)

and 𝛽= − →(discriminant) (6.45)

Therefore, roots are given as: 𝑚 =𝛼±𝛽

or 𝑚 =𝛼+𝛽 and 𝑚 =𝛼−𝛽 (6.46)

6.5 Natural Response of Series RLC Circuit

6.5.1 Case 1: Overdamped Case is when the roots are real and unequal and
satisfies the following:

− > 0 or (𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐) > 0 or > (6.47)

where 𝛽 is a real number, and 𝑚 ≠ 𝑚

 Current i is 𝑖=𝑘 𝑒 +𝑘 𝑒 (6.48)

𝑖 = 𝑒 (𝑘 𝑒 +𝑘 𝑒 ) A (6.49)

6.5.2 Case 2: Critically Damped Case is when the roots are both real and
equal; repeated and satisfies the condition:

− = 0 or (𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐) = 0 or = (6.50)

where 𝛽 = 0, and 𝑚 = 𝑚 = 𝛼

 Current i is 𝑖 = (𝑘 𝑒𝑡 + 𝑘 𝑒𝑡 )
𝑖 = 𝑒 (𝑘 + 𝑘 𝑡) A (6.51)

6.5.3 Case 3: Underdamped Case, also known as Oscillatory Case, is when the
roots contain a real and imaginary part. Further, it satisfies the condition:

− < 0 or (𝑏 − 4𝑎𝑐) < 0 or < (6.52)

where 𝛽 = 𝑗𝜔 and is an imaginary number; 𝑚 = 𝛼 ± 𝑗𝜔

45
 𝑚 = 𝛼 + 𝑗𝜔 and 𝑚 = 𝛼 − 𝑗𝜔 (6.53)

𝑚=− ±𝑗 − (6.54)

𝑅 2 1
Let 𝛼= and 𝜔 =
2𝐿
− 𝐿𝐶

𝑖 = 𝑒 (𝑘 𝑒 +𝑘 𝑒 )A (6.55)

From Euler’s Formula:

𝑒 ±𝑗𝜔𝑡 = cos 𝜔𝑡 ± 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 (6.56)

𝑖 = 𝑒 [𝑘 (cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡) + 𝑘 (cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡)]

= 𝑒 [(𝑘 + 𝑘 ) cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗(𝑘 + 𝑘 ) sin 𝜔𝑡]

𝑖 = 𝑒 (𝑘 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡) (6.57)

where 𝜔 is the angular velocity of oscillation measured in rad/s

= 2𝜋𝑓 = −

where f is the frequency of oscillation in cps or Hertz (Hz)

Table 6.1: Summary of Equations for Transient Series RLC

Case Series RLC Parallel RLC

Overdamped 𝑅 1 1 1
> >
2𝐿 𝐿𝐶 2𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶
Critically Damped 𝑅 1 1 1
= =
2𝐿 𝐿𝐶 2𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶
Underdamped 𝑅 1 1 1
< <
2𝐿 𝐿𝐶 2𝑅𝐶 𝐿𝐶

46
 WORK SHEET NO. 6

Name: Score:
Course/Yr/Sec.: Date: Instructor:
DIRECTIONS: Analyze and solve the following problems. Show your solutions on a
separate sheet of paper and provide final answer using two decimal places on the
space provided after each problem. Each item has its corresponding points.
1. A coil with inductance 5.4 H and resistance 10 ohms is series-connected with a
22-oh resistor to a 140 V battery and switch. The switch is closed at t = 0. Determine
the TC of the circuit. (5 points)

2. If a coil with resistance of 15 ohms and a TC of 1 second is connected across a

steady potential of 26 V, how much is the current after 24 milliseconds? (5 points)

3. A series RLC dc circuit with R = 2 kΩ, L = 1.2 H, and C = 6.24 µF is suddenly

connected across a 30-V dc source. At t = 0, i = 0, and q = 0. Determine the current
after 0.02 second. (15 points)

4. If a 110-V dc source is connected across the end terminals of the series RLC
circuit with R = 45 ohms, L = 150 mH, and C = 54 µF, t = 0 through a switch.
Determine the current 0.01 second after the switch is closed. Assume all initial
conditions to be zero. (15 points)

5. A circuit has R = 210 Ω, L = 0.5 H and a capacitor C = 10 µF connected in series.

If a 120-V dc source is connected across the end terminals of the series circuit at t
= 0, determine the current after 1.1 millisecond. Assume zero value for all initial
values. (15 points)

47
 7. COMPLEX NUMBERS AND PHASORS

Algebraic equations such as 𝑥 = −5 could not be satisfied by any real

number and can only be solved through the introduction of imaginary unit or
imaginary operator designated by the symbol j. Thus,

𝑗 = √−1 (7.1)

𝑗 = −1 (7.2)

𝑗 = −𝑗 (7.3)

𝑗 =1 (7.4)

The product of a real number and the imaginary operator is called an

imaginary number, and the sum of a real number and an imaginary number is
called a complex number. The form 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 is a complex number where both a and
b are real numbers – a as the real part or imaginary component and b as the
imaginary part.

7.1.1 Forms of Complex Numbers

 Rectangular Form or cartesian Form is when the complex number is

expressed as sum of the real and the imaginary. Hence, 𝐴 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 is a
rectangular form.

 Polar Form is the concise representation of the exponential form. The

form 𝐵 = 𝑐∠𝜃 suggests a representation of a point in a plane through the
use of polar coordinates.

 Exponential Form is represented by 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑒 where c is the magnitude

or amplitude and θ which is the exponent is the argument or the angle.

 Complex Conjugate Form of a complex number 𝐴 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 is 𝑎 − 𝑗𝑏

represented as A*. This is merely obtained by changing the sign of the
imaginary part of the complex number.

7.1.2 Complex Conversion

 Rectangular to Polar Form

𝐴 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏 → 𝐴 = 𝑐∠𝜃

𝑐 = √𝑎 + 𝑏 (7.5)
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 (7.6)

48
  Polar to Rectangular Form
𝐴 = 𝑐∠𝜃 → 𝐴 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏

𝑎 = 𝑐 cos 𝜃 ; 𝑏 = 𝑗𝑐 cos 𝜃 (7.7)

𝐴 = 𝑐 cos 𝜃 ± 𝑗𝑏 sin 𝜃 (7.8)

7.1.3 Complex Operations

 Addition and Subtraction of Rectangular Form

Adding and subtracting complex number the operation is done real
number to real number and imaginary to imaginary number. Both
operations follow the rules of algebra.

𝐴 = 𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏
𝐵 = 𝑐 + 𝑗𝑑
𝑨 + 𝑩 = (𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏) + (𝑐 + 𝑗𝑑) (7.9)
𝑨 + 𝑩 = (𝑎 + 𝑐) + 𝑗(𝑏 + 𝑑) (7.10)

𝑨 − 𝑩 = (𝑎 + 𝑗𝑏) − (𝑐 + 𝑗𝑑) (7.11)

𝑨 − 𝑩 = (𝑎 − 𝑐) + 𝑗(𝑏 − 𝑑) (7.12)

 Multiplication and Division of Polar Form

Both multiplication and division are conventionally performed when
the complex numbers are in polar form.

𝐴 = 𝑐∠𝜃
𝐵 = 𝑑∠𝜃
𝑨 × 𝑩 = (𝑐)(𝑑) ∠𝜃 + 𝜃 (7.13)
𝑨
= ∠𝜃 − 𝜃 (7.14)
𝑩

 Working with Powers/Exponents

𝐴 = (𝑐∠𝜃)
𝐴 = (𝑐) ∠(𝑚)(𝜃) (7.15)

 Logarithms (ln)
𝐴 = 𝑐∠𝜃

ln 𝐴 = ln 𝑐 + 𝑗𝜃 (7.16)
where 𝜃 is in radian

Note: 𝜃 (in degree) × = equivalent radian value

49
 Table 7.1: Sinusoid-phasor Transformation

The differences between v(t) and V should be emphasized:

1. v(t) is the instantaneous or time domain representation, while V is the
frequency or phasor domain representation.
2. v(t) is time dependent, while V is not. (This fact is often forgotten by
students.)
3. v(t) is always real with no complex term, while V is generally complex.

Recall the trigonometric identities:

50
 WORK SHEET NO. 6

Name: Score:
Course/Yr/Sec.: Date: Instructor:

DIRECTIONS: Analyze and solve the following problems. Show your solutions on a
separate sheet of paper and provide final answer using two decimal places on the
space provided after each problem. Each item corresponds to 5 points.

I. Transform these sinusoids to phasors:

a.) i = 5 cos (30t - 80°) A

b.) v = -6 sin (10t + 45°) V

II. Find the sinusoids represented by these phasors:

a.) I = -4 + j7 A

b.) V = j 6e-j 24 V

III. Perform the indicated phasor operation:

a.) Given i1(t) = 4 cos (𝜔t + 50°) A and i2(t) = 8 sin (𝜔t - 70°) A, find their sum in
sinusoid form.

b.) If v1 = -15 sin (𝜔t - 20°) V and v2 = 28 cos (𝜔t + 65°) V, find v = v2 – v1.

IV. Evaluate the following:

a) (40∠55° + 25∠ − 35°)

∠ ° ( )
b)
( )( . )∗

c) [(7 + 𝑗3)(−2 + 𝑗5) − 4∠60°]∗

∠ °
d) + 15∠33° + 𝑗6

51
 8. SINUSOIDAL STEADY-STATE CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

8.1 Sine Wave and Values

 Sine wave is the most common type of alternating current and voltage.

Figure 8.1: Typical sine wave form

Considering the sinusoidal waveform of a voltage below,

b0 2 = !Q sin0™ 2 (8.1)
For current 0 2= Q sin0™ 2 (8.2)

(a) (b)
Figure 8.2: !Q sin0™ 2 as (a) function of ™ ; and (b) function of function of t

 Frequency is the number of cycles that a sine wave completes in one

second.
¤=5 (8.3)
m
where 9 = ¥
is the period of the sinusoid in seconds.

54
  Instantaneous value is the value at any point in time on the sine wave.

Figure 8.3: Instantaneous values of voltage at any point of the sinusoid

 Peak-to-peak value is the voltage or current from maximum peak to the

minimum peak.

 Peak Value is the value of voltage at the positive or negative maximum

with respect to zero.

!‚‚ = 2 !‚
‚‚ = 2 ‚
(8.4)

 RMS value or effective value is that which when a voltage or current is

applied to a given circuit for a given time, produces the same amount of
heat as DC is applied to the same interval of time.
1
!nQ> = !‚ = 0.707!‚
√2
(8.5)
nQ> = 0.707 ‚

 Average value is the mean of all the instantaneous values of one-half

cycle.
2
!I`: = !‚ = 0.637!‚
E (8.6)

‚ = 0.637 ‚

 Form Factor is the ratio rms value to the average value, (Vrms/Vave) of an
alternating quantity.

 Peak Factor is the ratio of the peak value (maximum) to the rms value,
(Vp/Vrms) of an alternating quantity.

8.2 Reactance and Impedance

 Reactance, X is an inductor or capacitor’s property to oppose flowing

current in a given circuit.
¦V = ™r = 2E¤r (8.7)

55
 ¦c = ¥c = m~c
(8.8)

where: XL = inductive reactance (ohms)

XC = capacitive reactance (ohms)
C = capacitance (farad)
L = inductance (henry)

Ω = angular velocity (rad/sec)

f = operating frequency (Hertz)

 Impedance, Z is known as the joint effect of combining resistance, R and

reactance, X in an AC circuit. It can be expressed using complex number
as § = ¨ ± ©ª. Reactance is positive when it is an inductive reactance and
negative when capacitive reactance.

Table 8.1: Summarized Impedance in Complex Numbers

Circuit Element Impedance Equivalent in Impedance Equivalent in

Rectangular Form Polar Form
Pure R « = . †0 ¬ « = | |∠0° ¬
Pure L « = 0 . †¦V ¬ « = | |∠90° ¬
Pure C « = 0 . †¦c ¬ « = | |∠ 1 90° ¬
Series RL «= . †¦V ¬ « = | |∠ . ‹° ¬
Series RC «= . †¦c ¬ « = | |∠ 1 ‹° ¬
Series RLC «= . †0¦V -¦c 2 ¬ « = | |∠ ± ‹° ¬
Note: Equivalent Impedance connected in series and parallel connection can be
determined just like the way you analyze series-parallel resistors.

 Purely Inductive

0 θ = 90° V

I I lags V by 90º

(a) (b)
Figure 8.4: (a) Pure inductor (b) Phasor diagram

56
 !Q = Q ¦V
(8.9)

 Purely Capacitive

I I leads V by 90º

0 θ = 90º V
(a) (b)
Figure 8.5: (a) Pure capacitor (b) Phasor diagram

For pure L and C, since θ = 90°

- = ®¯ °±² ³´° = ´ (8.10)

µ = ®¯ ²¶· ³´° = ®¯ (8.11)

¸ = ®¯; ¸ = µ (8.12)

 RL Series Circuit
The current I is constant.

VL = IXL V = IZ

θ = 90º VR = IR
(a) (b)
Figure 8.6: (a) Series RL circuit (b) Equivalent Phasor diagram

! = }!$ . !V (8.13)

!= ¹ . ¦V (8.14)

º
2
2 !
C = ! cos ‹ = = (8.15)
!$»
Y = ! sin ‹ = ¦V = ¦V (8.16)

57
 ¼=! = « = ! º« (8.17)
also ¼ = }C . Y
§ (8.18)
ª
‹

¨
Figure 8.7: Series RL equivalent impedance

triangle  RL Parallel Circuit

! is constant.
" "
$ =$ and V =½ (8.19)
¾

0 IR
θ = 90º

IL
IT

(a) (b)
Figure 8.8: (a) Parallel RL Circuit (b) Equivalent Phasor diagram

¹$ # 7½¾#
5 = } $ . V =V $½¾
= !/« (8.20)

l
¤ = •ÀÁ‹ = l = «/ (8.21)
S

l
j¤ = Á •‹ = l¾ = «/¦V (8.22)
S

l
ˆ•‹ = l ¾ = «/¦V (8.23)
Â

!$ º
C = ! cos ‹ = $ = (8.24)
!$»
Y = ! sin ‹ = V ¦V = ¦V (8.25)

¼=! 5 = 5 « = }C . Y (8.26)

58
  RC Series Circuit
0 VR = IR
θ = 90º

VL = IXL V = IZ
(a) (b)
Figure 8.9: (a) Series RC circuit (b) Equivalent Phasor diagram

¨
º¦
2
2 !
Y = ! sin ‹ = ¦ = (8.27)
‹
ªÄ Note: The real and apparent power in
§
series RC is determined using
equations 8.15, 8.17, and 8.18
Figure 8.10: Series RC equivalent
. impedance triangle

 Parallel RC Circuit

IC IT

θ = 90º IR
(a) (b)
Figure 8.11: (a) Parallel RC circuit (b) Equivalent Phasor diagram

¹$ # 7½Ã#
5 = ¹ $. c =V $½¾
= !/« (8.28)

l
¤ = •ÀÁ‹ = l = «/ (8.29)
S

l
j¤ = Á •‹ = là = «/¦c (8.30)
S

l
ˆ•‹ = là = «/¦c (8.31)
Â

!$»
Y = ! sin ‹ = c ¦c = ¦c (8.32)

Note: The real and apparent power in parallel RC is determined using equations
8.24, and 8.26, respectively.

59
  Series RLC Circuit
The current I is constant. Angular velocity, ™ = 2E¤.

(a) (b)

Figure 8.12: (a) Series RLC Circuit (b) Equivalent Phasor diagram

! = }!$ . 0!V 1 !c 2 (8.33)

!= } . 0¦V 1 ¦c 2 (8.34)

!$ º
C = ! cos ‹ = = (8.35)
Y = ! sin ‹ = 0¦V 1 ¦c 2 = 0!V /¦V 2 1 0!c /¦c 2 (8.36)

¼=! = « = ! º« = }C . Y (8.37)

«=} . 0¦V 1 ¦c 2 (8.38)

"Â $
¤ = •ÀÁ‹ = "
=Å (8.39)
0"¾ "à 2 0½¾ ½Ã 2
j¤ = Á •‹ = = (8.40)
" Å

0"¾ "à 2 0½¾ ½Ã 2

ˆ•‹ = "Â
= $
(8.41)

Note: transpose ¦V ˆ•^ ¦c if ¦c Æ ¦V

 Parallel RLC Circuit

Figure 8.13: A Parallel RLC Circuit

60
 " " " "
$ = $; V =½ ; c =½ ; 5 =Å (8.42)
¾ Ã

¹½¾# ½Ã# $ # 0½¾ ½Ã 2#

5 =} .0 V1 c2 =! $½¾ ½Ã 2
(8.43)

lÂ
¤ = •ÀÁ‹ = = «/ (8.44)
lS

0l¾ là 2
j¤ = Á •‹ = lS
= «0¦c 1 ¦V 2/¦V ¦c (8.45)

0là l¾ 2 $0½Ã ½¾ 2
ˆ•‹ = lÂ
= ½¾ ½Ã
(8.46)

8.3 Sum of Two Alternating Waves

 In-phase,

5 = . (8.47)

Figure 7.14: Phasor diagram of two waveforms in phase

 Out-of-phase by 90°

I1 IT

5 =¹ . (8.48)

θ = 90º I2
Figure 8.15: Phasor diagram of two waveforms out-of-phase by 90°

 Out-of-phase by and acute angle, θ

I1 IT 5 =¹ . 12 cos0180 1 ‹2 (8.49)

θ = less than 90º

I2
Figure 8.16: Phasor diagram of two waveforms out-of-phase by an
angle less than 90°

61
8.4 Sum of More than Two Out-of-phase Alternating Waves
∑ É = cos ‹ . cos ‹ . ; cos ‹; (8.50)
∑ ` = sin ‹ 1 sin ‹ . ; sin ‹; (8.51)

5 = }0∑ É 2 . 0∑ "2 (8.52)

∑ lÊ
‹ = ˆ• ∑ lË
(8.53)

(a) (b)

Figure 8.17: Phasor Diagram of (a) Individual wave components;

(b) resultant phasor
Note: Vectors directed to the right and upward are positive signed vectors.
Vectors directed to the left and downward are negative signed vectors.

62
 WORK SHEET NO. 8.1

Name: Score:
Course/Yr/Sec.: Date: Instructor:

DIRECTIONS: Analyze and solve the following problems. Show your solutions on
a separate sheet of paper and provide final answer using two decimal places on
the space provided after each problem. Each item has its corresponding points.

1. Find the inductive reactance of a 10-mH inductive coil at: (a) 60 cycles per sec
circuit; (b) 50 Hz; and (c) 30 Hz. (9 points)
(a) (b) (c)

2. Find the capacitive reactance of a 15-µf capacitor in: (a) 25 cycle per sec circuit;
(b) 60 Hz; and (c) 30 Hz. (9 points)
(a) (b) (c)

3. Given the circuit below at 60 Hz, determine the total impedance, current and
voltage drops. (12 points)

Figure 8.13

4. Solve for the following: (a) ZT; (b) IT; (c) IAB; and (d) PAB. (12 points)

Figure 8.14

63
(a) (b)
(c) (d)

5. Three loads A, B and C are connected in parallel connection taking currents

are 10, 15, and 18 A, respectively. Assume IA to be the reference phasor and IB
leads IA by 40° and IC lags behind IA by 55°. Calculate the total current. (8 points)

64
 WORK SHEET NO. 8.2

Name: Score:
Course/Yr/Sec.: Date: Instructor:

DIRECTIONS: Analyze and solve the following problems. Show your solutions on
a separate sheet of paper and provide final answer using two decimal places on
the space provided after each problem. Each item is equivalent to 10 points.

1. An impedance coil absorbs 260 watts when connected across a 230-V, 60 Hz

mains. It is then connected across 120-V, 50 Hz mains and absorbs 260 watts
also. Determine the inductance of the coil.

2. A single-phase load takes 50 kW at 0.8 lagging power factor from a 230-V, 50-
Hz supply. If the supply is made 60-Hz with the voltage being constant, what will
be the kW load at 60 Hz?

3. A 60 and 120-µF capacitors are connected in series and across a 110 sin (ωt +
38°) V. What will be the sinusoid equation of the current?

4. A resistance of 3 ohms is connected in series with a capacitor of 445 µF. The

combination is then connected in parallel with an inductor with 22 mH. Solve for
the resultant current if the circuit is connected across a 130-V, 60 Hz AC source.

5. An unknown resistor R and a capacitor C are connected in parallel. This

parallel connected devices is then in series with an inductive reactance of 30
ohms. The circuit is energized by 120-V, 60 Hz supply. If the capacitance is varied
until the voltage across the resistor and that across the inductor are equal to the
supply voltage, determine the real power supplied by the source.

65
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

• Allan R. Hambley (2011), Electrical Engineering Principles and Applications, 5th

Edition
• Charles K. Alexander & Matthew N. O. Sadiku (2013), Fundamentals of
Electric Circuits, 5th Edition, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
• Dorf, RC & Svoboda, JA (2004), Intro to Electric Circuits 6th Ed., John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
• Electrical Engineering Solved Problems
• Hayt, Kimmerly, Durbin (2014), Engineering Circuit Analysis, 8th Edition, The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
• Irwin, JD & Wu, C (1999), Basic Engineering Circuit Analysis 6th Ed., John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• James W. Nilsson & Susan A. Riedel (2015), Electric Circuits, 10th Edition,
Pearson Education Limited
• Ko, C., & Chen, B. (1997), Basic Circuit Analysis for Electrical Engineering,
Prentice Hall
• Kraus, JD & Fleisch, D. (1999), Electromagnetics with Applications 5th Ed.,
McGraw-Hill, Inc.
• Nahvi, M. & Edminister, J. (2018), Schaum’s Outlines: Electric Circuits, 5th
Edition, McGraw-Hill Education
• Özgür Ergül (2017), Introduction to Electrical Circuit Analysis, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
• Paul Nahin (2019), Transients for Electrical Engineers: Elementary Switched-
Circuit Analysis in the Time and Laplace Transform Domains, Springer
International Publishing AG

66