ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY (NOTES) BUTCHER  LIFEIME PREVALENCE – proportion of living

persons in a population who have ever had a disorder

CHAPTER 1: An Overview up to the time of epidemiologic assessment
 INCIDENCE – occurrence (onset) rate of a given
Abnormal psychology is concerned with understanding the disorder in a given population
nature, causes, and treatment of mental disorders.  COMORBIDITY – occurrence of two or more
identified disorders in the same psychologically
Family aggregation --- whether a disorder runs in the family. disordered individual

ELEMENTS OF ABNORMALITY COMMON forms of treatment

1. Suffering 1. Psychotherapy
2. Maladaptiveness 2. Medication
3.Statistical deviancy APPROACHES USED TO GATHER INFORMATION
4. Violation of the Standard of Society ABOUT MENTAL DISORDER
5. Social Discomfort  Case study : an in-depth examination of an
6. Irrationality and Unpredictabilty individual or family that draws from number of data
7. Dangerousness sources including interviews and psychological
assessment/testing
Classifying mental disorders/classification systems provide ---- can be subject to BIAS because the writer selects
us with a NOMENCLATURE (naming system) and enable us what information to include and what information to
to structure information in a more helpful manner. omit/exclude
Advantages and Disadvantages of classifying mental ---- means that the conclusion have low
disorders: DSM as classification tool generalizability – they cannot be used to draw
 Descriptive and concrete conclusions about other cases
 Provides a common language  Self-report data : data collected directly from
 Allows us to structure information in an efficient participants, typically by means of interviews /
manner questionnaires
 Defines the domain of what is considered as  Direct observation (observational approached) :
pathological method of collecting research data that involves
Disadvantages directly observing behavior in a given situation.
 Lose detailed personal information about the person
with the disorder FORMING AND TESTING HYPOTHESIS
 Can facilitate stigma, stereotyping and labeling  Hypotheses : an effort to explain, predict, or explore
 Fear of being discriminated against may lead some something
people to avoid treatment. Sampling and Generalization
 Sampling : representative sample of people or an
CULTURAL DIFFERENCES in what is abnormal organization
 Societal norms and expectations in reference to  Samples of Convenience : they study groups of
which abnormality is defined people who are easily accessible to them and who
 Ways individual presented the disorders are readily available.
 Variation in the way different cultures describes
distress (now word for depress in native American INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL VALIDITY
culture)  External Validity : The extent to which we can
 Certain form of culture – specific psychopathology generalize our findings beyond the study itself
 Internal Validity : reflects how confident we can be
PREVALENCE in mental disorders – mental health in the results of a particular given study
epidemiology
 EPIDEMIOLOGY – study of distribution of (Note)
diseases, disorders, or health related behavior in a  Research in abnormal can be correlational or
given population experimental
 PREVALENCE – number of active cases in a  Correlational : examines factors as they currently
population during any given period of time are
(typically expressed in percentage)  Experimental : involves manipulating variables
 POINT PREVALENCE – estimated proportion of (independent variable) and observing the effect this
actual, active cases of a disorder in a given manipulation produces with regard to another
population variables (dependent variable)
 1 YEAR PREVALENCE – total number of cases of
a health-related state or a condition in a population Research Designs Studying the World as It Is: Correlational
for a given year Research Designs
 CRITERION AND COMPARISON GROUPS PLATO : studied individuals with mental disturbances who
 To test their hypotheses, researchers use a had committed criminal acts and how to deal with them
comparison group (sometimes called a control  Emphasized the importance of individual
group). This may be defined as a group of people differences in intellectual and other abilities and
who do not exhibit the disorder being studied but took into account sociocultural influences in
who are comparable in all other major respects to the shaping, thinking, and behavior
criterion group.
ARISTOTLE : Held the view that “thinking” as directed
MEASURING CORRELATION would eliminate pain and help attain pleasure.
 Positive correlation : measures vary together in a
direct, corresponding manner  Rejected that mental disorders could be caused by
 Negative correlation : conversely, is there an inverse psychological factors (such as frustrations &
correlation conflict)
 The strength of a correlation is measured by a
correlation coefficient GALEN : original findings concerning the anatomy of the
 Just because two variables are correlated does not nervous system
mean that there is a causal relationship between  Most influential Greek physician
them. Always remember that correlation does not
equal causation. EARLY CHINA : earliest developed civilization
 Analogue studies (e.g., animal research) are studies  Chinese medicine was based on a belief in natural
that provide an approximation to the human rather that supernatural causes of illnesses
disorders of interest.  The body is like YIN & YANG, if two forces are
balanced, the result is physical & mental health
CHAPTER 2: HISTOICAL & CONTEMPORARY  This, treatments focused on restoring balance
VIEWS OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIORS
EUROPEAN MIDDLE AGES : Influenced by medieval
 How abnormal behavior has been viewed through Christianity
out history : include both humor and tragedy  2 causes of human nature
 A progression of beliefs from what we now consider 1. God-given soul
superstition to those based on scientific awareness— 2. Devil-given soul
from a focus on supernatural explanations to ISLAMIC MIDDLE AGES : Greek medicine
knowledge of natural causes.  1st mental hospital in Baghdad – human treatment
 Followed by DAMASCUS & ALEPPO
The Edwin Smith papyrus (named after its nineteenth-century  AVICENNA “prince of physicians”
discoverer) – the brain is described as the site of mental
functions DURING MIDDLE AGES IN EUROPE
 The behavioral problem were not dealt through  Scientific inquiry into abnormal psychology was
medicine but through religious rites/incantations limited
that were made by people who sought exorcism  Treatments of individuals who where
from antisocial traits and behaviors by psychologically disturbed was characterized more
REPEATING explicit phrases. by RITUAL/ SUPERSTITION than by attempts to
KEY PEOPLE, DEFINITIONS, CLASSIFICATIONS, understand an individual conditions
GREEK AND ROMANS  MASS MADNESS : the widespread occurrence of
group behavior disorders that were apparently cases
Physical amount (temperament is determined by 4 bodily of hysteria
fluids)  DANCING MANIAS : epidemic of raving,
1. Blood (sanguis) jumping, dancing & convulsions : 1st episode that
2. Phlegm occurred on Italy, early 13th century – TARANTISM
3. Bile
 LYCANTHROPY : condition which people
4. Blackbile (melancholic)
believed themselves to be possessed by wolves and
imitate their behaviors
 HIPPOCRATES : Father of modern medicine
 Denied that deities and demons intervened in the TOWARD HUMANITARIAN APPROACHES
development of illnesses Resurgence of scientific questioning in Europe ‘
 Insisted that mental disorders, like other diseases
had natural causes and appropriate treatment  PARACELSUS : early critic of superstitious beliefs
 Classified mental disorders into 3 categories about possessions
1. Mania  JOHAN MEYER : writer of “Latin nome of Joannus
2. Melancholia Wierus”
3. Phrenitis (brain fever)
 ESTABLISHMENT OF EARLY ASYLUM 19TH CENTURY Views of the Causes and Treatment of
(from 16th century on) Mental Disorders
 ASYLUM : used as a way to remove individuals
from society that is troublesome and could not care  Mental deterioration “shattered nerves” that resulted
for themselves from using up precious nerve force came to be
 Gradually became more like prisons / storage place referred as NEURASTHENIA
 Residents lived and died amid conditions of  Neurasthenia : condition that involved pervasive feeling
incredible filth and cruelty of low mood, lack of energy and physical symptoms that
were thought to be related to “lifestyle” problems
HUMANITARIAN REFORM brought on by the demands of civilization
 FRANCE : Philippe Finel (1972)
 Pinel’s experiment EMERGENCE of CONTEMPORARY views of abnormal
 ENGLAND : William Tuke (English quaker) behavior
 York retreat (1932-1822)
 THE LUNACY INQUIRY ACT (1842) passed down :  generated powerful influences on our contemporary
requirement that asylum and houses inspected in every 4 perspectives in abnormal behavior:
months  (1) biological discoveries,
 THE COUNTRY ASYLUM ACT (1845) required every  (2) the development of a classification system for mental
country to provide asylum to “paupers and lunatics” disorders,
 (3) the emergence of psychological causation views, and
 AMERICA : Dorothea Dix (1800-1900)  (4) experimental psychological research developments.
 Mental hygiene movement
 AMERIICA : Benjamin Rush  General Paresis and Syphilis : SYPHILIS OF THE
 Psychiatry as medical discipline BRAIN
 Encouraged humane treatment  Produced paralysis, insanity & typically caused death
 Moral management in America within 2-5 yrs as a result of brain deterioration
— a wide-ranging method of treatment that  Julius von Wagner-Jauregg (1917) : introduced the
focused on a patient’s social, individual, malarial fever treatment of syphilis and paresis
and occupational needs —became because he knew that the high fever associated with
relatively widespread. malaria killed off the bacteria.
 Brain Pathology as a Causal Factor :
1ST Asylum established in EUROPE  LOBOTOMIES : surgical procedure to the brain to treat
 Later established in other countries mental illness
 Mexico (1566)
 France (1641) DEVELOPMENT OF CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
 Moscow (1764)  EMIL KRAEPLIN (1856–1926), another German
psychiatrist, played a dominant role in the early
 NOTORIOUS lunatics tower in Vienna (constructed development of the biological viewpoint.
in 1784)  emphasized the importance of brain pathology in mental
 Patients were put on exhibit to the public for a small fee disorders
important contribution:
TIMELINE OF KEY HISTORICAL EVENTS related to 1. system of classification of mental disorders
INSTITUTIONALIZATION 2. became known as DSM classification

 1940 : asylum inhumane again DEVELOPMENT of the Psychological Basis

 Snake pit : Mary Jane Ward (1946) of Mental Disorder
 National institute of mental health The first major steps were taken
 1950 : discovery of ANTIPSCYHOTHICS Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
 1960 / 1970 : Deinstitutionalization  Freud developed a comprehensive theory of
 International movement psychopathology that emphasized the inner
 Community of health service act dynamics of unconscious motives (often referred to
 MORAL MANAGEMENT : wide ranging method as psychodynamics) that are at the heart of the
of treatment that focused on a patients social, psychoanalytic perspective. The methods he used to
individual and occupational needs study and treat patients came to be called
psychoanalysis.
 MENTAL HYGIENE MOVEMENT : advocated a
method of treatment focused almost exclusively on  the ancestral roots of psychoanalysis to a somewhat
the physical well-being of hospitalized patients w/ unexpected place—the study of hypnosis, especially
mental illnesses. in its relation to hysteria

Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815), an Austrian

physician who further developed the ideas of Paracelsus
  Mesmerism: about the influence of the planets on Behaviorism
the human body. Mesmer believed that the planets  Watson thus changed the focus of psychology to the
affected a universal magnetic fluid in the body, the study of overt behavior rather than the study of
distribution of which determined health or disease. theoretical mentalistic constructs
Operant Conditioning
Ambrose August Liébeault (1823–1904),  E. L. Thorndike (1874–1949) and subsequently B.
a French physician F. Skinner (1904–1990)
 The NANCY SCHOOL  In Skinner’s view, behavior is “shaped” when
 1940). Their hypothesis was based on two lines of something reinforces a particular activity of an
evidence: organism—which makes it possible “to shape an
(1) The phenomena observed in hysteria—such as animal’s behavior almost as a sculptor shapes a
paralysis of an arm, inability to hear, and anesthetic lump of clay”
areas in which an individual could be stuck with a
pin without feeling pain (all of which occurred when CHAPTER 3: CAUSAL FACTORS AND VIEWPOINTS
there was apparently nothing organically wrong)—
could be produced in normal subjects by means of Etiology – causal pattern of abnormal behavior
hypnosis.
(2) The same symptoms also could be removed by TYPES OF CAUSES
means of hypnosis. Necessary, Sufficient, and Contributory Cause

THE BEGINNING OF PSYCHOANALYSIS  NECESSARY CAUSE : condition that must exist

The first systematic attempt to answer this question was made for the disorder to occur
by Sigmund Freud (1856–1939).  One thing is a necessary cause of another, then that
 CATHARSIS : a powerful emotional release that, means that the outcome can never happen without the
when successful, is accompanied by cognitive source (If disorder Y occurs then X must have preceded
insight and positive change. According it)
to psychoanalytic theory, this emotional release is  SUFFICIENT CAUSE : if a disorder is a condition
linked to a need to relieve unconscious conflicts that guarantees the occurrence of the disorder (If
 this approach that thus led to the discovery of the cause X occurs, then the probability of disorder Y
unconscious—the portion of the mind that contains increases)
experiences of which a person is unaware—and with  CONTRIBUTORY CAUSE : one that increases the
it the belief that processes outside of a person’s probability of a disorder (if X occurs, then the
awareness can play an important role in determining probability of disorder Y increases)
behavior.
Two related methods enabled him to understand patients’ TIMEFRAMES of Causal Factor
conscious and unconscious thought processes.  DISTAL (far away) causal factor : DISTAL RISK
(1) FREE ASSSOCIATION : association, involved FACTOR
having patients talk freely about themselves, thereby  Some causal factors occurring relatively early in life may
providing information about their feelings, motives, not show their effects for many years but may contribute
and so forth. to a predisposition to develop a disorder
(2) DREAM ANALYSIS : involved having patients  PROXIMAL (immediate) causal factor :
record and describe their dreams. PROXIMAL RISK FACTOR
 shortly before the occurrence of the symptoms of a
The Evolution of the Psychological Research Tradition: disorder
Experimental Psychology  REINFORCING causal factor
 The origins of much of the scientific thinking in  Tends to maintain maladaptive behavior that is already
contemporary psychology lie in early rigorous occurring.
efforts to study psychological processes objectively,
as demonstrated by Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) FEEDBACK and BIDIRECTIONALITY in Abnormal
and William James (1842–1910). behavior
THE EARLY PSCYHOLOGICAL LABORATORIES  CAUSE & EFFECT RELATIONSHIP : has focused
In 1879 Wilhelm Wundt established the first experimental on isolating the condition X (cause) that can be
psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig. demonstrated to lead to condition Y (effect)
THE BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE  CAUSAL PATTERN : when more than 1 causal
 perspective is organized around a central theme: the factor is involved
role of learning in human behavior.  the effects of feedback and the existence of mutual, two-
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov) way (bidirectional) influences must be taken into
 a form of learning in which a neutral stimulus is account.
paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus
that naturally elicits an unconditioned behavior. DIATHESIS-STRESS MODELS
  Many mental disorders are believed to develop when VIEWPOINTS for Understanding the Causes of Abnormal
some kind of stressor operates on a person who has Behavior
a diathesis or vulnerability for that disorder.
 DIATHESIS (vulnerability) : a predisposition  BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE/ VIEWPOINT :
toward developing a disorder that can derive from acknowledges that biological, psychological, and
biological, psychological, or sociocultural causal sociocultural factors all interact and play a role in
factors. psychopathology and treatment.
 STRESS : the response or experience of an (1) Genetics
individual to demands that he or she perceives as (2) Neurobiology
taxing or exceeding his or her personal resources (3) Hormonal responses
 Often occurs when an individual experiences CHRONIC (4) Can influence psychopathology
& EPISODIC EVENT  SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE : how social
(Note) and cultural factors can influence the way what we
Important to note that factors contributing to the development think about abnormal behavior
of a diathesis are themselves sometimes highly potent
stressors, as when a child experiences the death of a parent The BIOLOGICAL VIEWPONT and BIOLOGICAL
and may thereby acquire a predisposition or diathesis for CAUSAL FACTOR
becoming depressed later in life.  Mental disorders are thus viewed as disorders of the
central nervous system, the autonomic nervous
A DIATHESIS & STRESS may combine to produce a system, and/or the endocrine system that are either
disorder inherited or caused by some pathological process.
 ADDITIVE MODEL : the diathesis and the stress BIOLOGICAL CAUSAL FACTOR
sum together, and when one is high the other can be (1) • Neurotransmitter and hormonal abnormalities
low, and vice versa (2) • Genetic vulnerabilities
 INTERACTOVE MODEL : some amount of (3) • Temperament
diathesis must be present before stress will have any (4) • Brain dysfunction and neural plasticity
effect.
 PROTECTIVE FACTORS (late 1980s) : factors,
which are influences that modify a person’s
response to environmental stressors, making it less IMBALANCES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS AND
likely that the person will experience the adverse HORMONES
consequences of the stressors Hormones
 One important protective factor in childhood is having a  Axon endings : branches at the end of the axons
family environment in which at least one parent is warm  Synapse : tiny-fluid filled space between the axon
and supportive, allowing the development of a good endings of 1 neuron ( presynaptic neuron) and the
attachment relationship between the child and parent that dendrites or cell body of another neuron
can protect against the harmful effects of an abusive (postsynaptic neuron). neuron). The synapse is the
parent site of communication between the axon of one
 Some stressors paradoxically promote coping. This neuron and the dendrites or cell body of another
“steeling” or “inoculation” effect is more likely to occur (interneural transmission)
with moderate stressors than with mild or extreme  Neurotransmitter: chemical substances that are
stressor released into the synapse by the presynaptic
 Can stimulate the postsynaptic neurons to either initiate
 RESELIENCE : the ability to adapt successfully to / inhibit impulse transmission
even very difficult circumstances.  Sometimes, the neurotransmitters are quickly destroyed
 MULTICAUSAL DEVELOPMENTAL MODELS by an ENZYME such as monoamine oxidase &
: These risk factors also interact, however, with a sometimes they are returned to storage vesicles in the
variety of protective processes, and sometimes with axon ending by REUPTAKE MECHANISM – process
stressors, to determine whether the child develops in of reabsorption
a normal and adaptive way—as opposed to showing
signs of maladaptive behavior and A.IMBALANCES OF NEUROTRANSMITTER
psychopathology—in childhood, adolescence, or  Stress can cause / bring on neurotransmitter
adulthood imbalances
 DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOPATHOLOGY : (1) Noripinephrine : monoamines
focuses on determining what is abnormal at any (2) Dopamine : monoamine
point in development by comparing and contrasting (3) Serotonin : monoamine
it with the normal and expected changes that occur (4) Glutamate
in the course of development (5) Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
 Monoamines mean one amine
 Agonists: medications that facilitates the effects of a
neurotransmitter on the post synaptic neuron
 Antagonist: medications that oppose or inhibit the effects Identical (monozygotic) twins share the
of a neurotransmitter on a postsynaptic neuron same genetic endowment because they develop from
a single zygote, or fertilized egg.
HORMONAL IMBALANCES Nonidentical (dizygotic) twins
 Hormones; are chemical messenger secreted by a set  Concordance rate – percentage of twins sharing the
of endocrine glands in our bodies disorder or trait
 Neuroendocrine system: central nervous system
linked to the endocrine system (c) The adoption method
 Pituitary Gland: master gland of the body, capitalizes on the fact that adoption creates
producing a variety of hormones that regulate or situation in which individuals who do not share a
control the other endocrine system common family environment are nonetheless genetically
 Cortisol: mobilizes the body to deal with stress related
SEPARATING GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL
B.GENETIC VULNERABILITIES INFLUENCES
 Shared environmental influences:
 Genes: genes, which consist of very long molecules that would make children in a family more similar,
of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and are present at whether the influence occurs within the family (e.g.,
various locations on chromosomes. family discord and poverty) or in the environment
 Chromosomes: are the chain-like structures within a (e.g., two high-quality schools, with one twin going
cell nucleus that contain the genes. to each).
 Alleles: Genes are the carriers of genetic  Nonshared environmental influences:
information that we inherit from our parents and are those in which the children in a family differ.
other ancestors, and each gene exists in two or more These would include unique experiences at school
alternate forms and also some unique features of upbringing in the
 Polymorphisms: influenced either by abnormalities home, such as a parent treating one child in a
in some of the genes on the chromosomes or by qualitatively different way from another.
naturally occurring variations of genes LINKAGE ANALYSIS and ASSOCIATION STUDIES
 Polygenic: means they are influenced by multiple  linkage analysis and association studies attempt to
genes or by multiple polymorphisms of genes, with determine the actual location of genes responsible
any one gene having only very small effects for mental disorders.
 Gene-expression: not normally a simple outcome of
C. TEMPARAMENT
information encoded in DNA
 Temperament refers to a child’s reactivity and
THE RELATIONSHIP OF GENOTYPES TO characteristic ways of self-regulation.
PHENOTYPES  Starting about 2-3 months
 The observed structural and functional characteristics 5 dimensions of TEMPARAMENT ‘
that result from an interaction of the genotype and the
environment are referred to as a person’s phenotype. (1) Fearfulness
(2) Irritability / frustration
Genotype-environment correlations (3) Positive effect
(a) The child’s genotype may have what has been (4) Activity level
termed a passive effect on the environment, (5) Attentional persistence
resulting from the genetic similarity of parents and
children. 3 important dimensions of adult personality
(b) The child’s genotype may evoke particular kinds of (1) neuroticism or negative emotionality
reactions from the social and physical (2) extraversion or positive emotionality
environment—a so-called evocative effect. (3) constraint (conscientiousness and agreeableness
(c) The child’s genotype may play a more active role in
shaping the environment—a so-called active effect. D. BRAIN DYSFUNCTION AND NEURAL PLASTICITY
In this case the child seeks out or builds an  NEURAL PLASTICITY—flexibility of the brain in
environment that is congenial—a phenomenon making changes in organization and function in
known as “niche building.” response to pre- and postnatal experiences, stress,
diet, disease, drugs, maturation, and so forth.
METHODS for studying genetic influences  NEUROGENESIS – creation of new brain cells
 Behavior genetics: the field that focuses on studying  DEVELOPMENTAL SYSTEMS APPROACH --
the heritability of mental disorders acknowledges not only that genetic activity
(a) Family history (pedigree) method influences neural activity, which in turn influences
method requires that an investigator observe behavior, which in turn influences the environment,
samples of relatives of each proband or index case but also that these influences are bidirectional.
(b) The twin method
 PSYCHOSEXUAL Stages of development
THE IMPACT OF THE BIOLOGICAL VIEWPOINT 1. Oral stage: During the first 2 years of life, the mouth
Biological discoveries have profoundly affected the way we is the principal erogenous zone: An infant’s greatest
think about human behavior. source of gratification is sucking, a process that is
necessary for feeding.
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL VIEWPOINTS 2. Anal stage: From ages 2 to 3, the anus provides the
• Psychosocial perspectives attempt to understand humans major source of pleasurable stimulation during the time
not just as biological organisms but also as people with when toilet training is often going on and there are urges
motives, desires, and perceptions. both for retention and for elimination.
• There are three major psychosocial perspectives on human 3. Phallic stage: From ages 3 to 5 or 6, self-manipulation
nature and behavior: of the genitals provides the major source of pleasurable
1. Psychodynamic sensation.
2. Behavioral 4. Latency period: From ages 6 to 12, sexual motivations
3. Cognitive-behavioral recede in importance as a child becomes preoccupied
• Also includes two other perspectives: with developing skills and other activities.
1. the humanistic perspective 5. Genital stage: After puberty, the deepest feelings of
2. the existential perspective pleasure come from sexual relations.

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE THE OEDIPUS COMPLEX and the ELECTRA

Fundamentals of FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC COMPLEX
THEORY One of the most important conflicts occurs during the
phallic stage, when the pleasures of self-stimulation and
The structure of personality: ID, EGO, SUPEREGO accompanying fantasies pave the way for the Oedipus
complex. These castration
 The id is the source of instinctual drives and is the anxiety forces the boy to repress his sexual desire for his
first structure to appear in infancy. These drives are mother and his hostility toward his father.
inherited and are considered to be of two opposing mother.
types: Freud also believed that each girl at this stage
(1) life instincts, which are constructive drives experiences penis envy, wishing she could be more like
primarily of a sexual nature and which constitute the her father and brothers. She emerges from the complex
libido, the basic emotional and psychic energy of when she comes to identify with her mother and settles
life; for a promissory note;
(2) death instincts, which are destructive drives that One day she will have a man of her own who can give
tend toward aggression, destruction, and eventual her a baby—which unconsciously serves as a type of
death. penis substitute.
 Pleasure principle, primary process thinking
NEWER PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE
 The ego mediates between the demands of the id and Freud was chiefly concerned with the workings of the id,
the realities of the external world. its nature as a source of energy, and the manner in which
 Secondary process thinking, reality principle this id energy could be channeled or transformed. He also
focused on the superego and the role of conscience but
The superego is the outgrowth of internalizing the paid relatively little attention to the importance of the
taboos and moral values of society concerning what ego.
is right and wrong.
 Conscience, executive branch of personality EGO PSYCHOLOGY

Freud believed that the interplay of id, ego, and superego is

of crucial significance in determining behavior. Often inner
mental conflicts arise because the three subsystems are
striving for different goals. If unresolved, these intrapsychic OBJECT-RELATION THEORY
conflict leads to mental disorder. A second new psychodynamic perspective was object-
relations theory. they share a focus on individuals’
 ANXIETY, DEFENSE MECHANISM AND THE interactions with real and imagined other people
UNCONCIOUS (external and internal objects) and on the relationships
 Anxiety: a warning of impending real or imagined that people experience between their external and
dangers as well as a painful experience, and it forces an internal objects
individual to take corrective action.
 Defense mechanism: where the ego resort  ATTACHMENT THEORY
emphasizes the importance of early experience,
especially early experience with attachment
relationships, as laying the foundation for later
 functioning throughout childhood, adolescence, and COGNITIVE THERAPY
adulthood. IMPACT OF COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL
PERSPECTIVE
THE BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE
 Learning—the modification of behavior as a WHAT THE ADOPTION OF A PERSPECTIVE DOES
consequence of experience—is the central theme of AND DOES NOT DO?
the behavioral approach.  Because different causal perspectives influence
which components of maladaptive behavior the
THE COGNITIVE-BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE observer focuses on, each perspective depends on
 Albert Bandura (b. 1925), a learning theorist who generalizations from limited observations and
developed an early cognitive-behavioral research.
perspective, placed considerable emphasis on  Thus, which perspective we adopt has important
 the cognitive aspects of learning. consequences: It influences our perception of
maladaptive behavior, the types of evidence we look
 Bandura stressed that human beings regulate for, and the way in which we are likely to interpret
behavior by internal symbolic processes—thoughts. data.
That is, we learn by internal reinforcement
PSYCHOLOGICAL CAUSAL FACTORS
 whether they are predictable or controllable
 Today the cognitive or cognitive-behavioral  disorder. Psychological factors are those
perspective on abnormal behavior generally focuses developmental influences—often unpredictable and
on how thoughts and information processing can uncontrollable negative events—that may handicap
become distorted and lead to maladaptive emotions a person psychologically, making him or her less
and behavior. resourceful in coping with events.
 SCHEMA: Underlying representation of knowledge
that guides the current processing of information and 4 CATEGORIES of psychological causal factors
often leads to distortions. (1) early deprivation or trauma
(2) inadequate parenting style – parental
SCHEMAS AND COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS psychopathology
 Our schemas about the world around us and about  parenting styles: warm and control
ourselves (self-schemas) are our guides, one might (3) marital discord and divorce
say, through the complexities of living in the world (4) maladaptive peer relationships
as we understand it.
INSTITUTIONALIZATION
 Accommodation: Accommodation—changing our NEGLECT AND ABUSE IN THE HOME
existing frameworks to make SEPARATION
 it possible to incorporate new information that SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS
doesn’t fit • Low socioeconomic status and unemployment
 Assimilation: • Prejudice and discrimination in race, gender, and ethnicity
Important feature of information processing • Social change and uncertainty
(1) a great deal of information is processed non- • Urban stressors: Violence and homelessness
consciously, or outside of our awareness.
(2) Implicit memory demonstrated when a person’s CHAPTER 4: CLINICAL ASSESSMENT AND
behavior reveals that she or he remembers a DIAGNOSIS
previously learned word or activity even though she
or he cannot consciously remember it. Psychological assessment refers to a procedure by which
ATTRIBUTION, ATTRIBUTIONAL STYLE AND clinicians, using psychological tests, observation, and
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY interviews, develop a summary of the client’s symptoms and
problems.
 ATTRIBUTION: simply the process of assigning
Clinical diagnosis is the process through which a clinician
causes to things that happen.
arrives at a general “summary classification” of the patient’s
 ATTRIBUTION STYLE: characteristic way in
symptoms by following a clearly defined system such as
which an individual tends to assign causes to bad
DSM-5 or ICD-10 (International Classification of Diseases)
events or good events.
 nondepressed people tend to have what is called a
BASIC ELEMENTS IN ASSESSMENT
self-serving bias in which they are more likely to
 presenting problem, or major symptoms and
make internal, stable, and global attributions for
behavior the client is experiencing, must be
positive rather than negative events
identified.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ASSESSMENT AND
DIAGNOSIS PSYCHOLOGICAL TEST
 It is important to have an adequate classification of  Psychological tests are a more indirect means of
the present assessing psychological characteristics.
Scientifically developed psychological tests (as
TAKING A SOCIAL OR BEHAVIORAL HISTORY opposed to the recreational ones sometimes
Personality Factors appearing in magazines or on the Internet) are
 Assessment should include a description of any relevant standardized sets of procedures or tasks for
long-term personality characteristics. Has the person obtaining samples of behavior.
typically responded in deviant ways to particular kinds
of situation Intelligence Tests
Social context  Vocabulary (verbal)
 Some clinicians refer to this picture as a “dynamic  Digit Span (performance)
formulation” because it not only describes the current
situation but also includes hypotheses about what is Projective Personality Tests
driving the person to behave in maladaptive ways. Personality tests into projective and objective measures.
 Projective personality tests are unstructured in that
ENSURING CULTURALLY SENSITIVE ASSESSMENT they rely on various ambiguous stimuli
PROCEDURES
 Cultural Competence THE INTEGRATION OF ASSESMENT DATA
 assessment data are collected, their significance
RELIABILITY, VALIDITY, AND STANDARDIZATION must be interpreted so that they can be integrated
 Reliability: describing the degree to which an into a coherent working model for use in planning.
assessment measure produces the same result each
time it is used to evaluate the same thing. Ethical Issues in Assessment
 Validity: extent to which a measuring instrument keep several factors in mind in evaluating test results:
actually measures what it is supposed to measure.
(1) Potential Cultural Bias of the Instrument or the
 Standardization: a process by which a psychological Clinician:
test is administered, scored, and interpreted in a (2) Theoretical Orientation of the Clinician:
consistent or “standard” manner. (3) Underemphasis on the External Situation:
(4) Insufficient Validation:
ASSESMENT OF THE PHYSICAL ORGANISM (5) Inaccurate Data or Premature Evaluation:
The General Physical Examination
(Note! READ THE WHOLE CHAPTER IN THE BOOK)
The Neurological Examination
 electroencephalogram (EEG) CHAPTER 5: STRESS & PHYSICAL AND MENTAL
 anatomical brain scans (CAT) scan HEALTH

The Neuropsychological Examination The field of health psychology is concerned with the effects
 The Halstead-Reitan battery for adults is made up of of stress and other psychological factors in the development
a group of tests such as the following: and maintenance of physical problems. Health psychology is
(1) Halstead Category Test: a subspecialty within behavioral medicine. A behavioral
(2) Tactual Performance Test: medicine approach to physical illness is concerned with
(3) Rhythm Test: psychological factors that may predispose an individual to
(4) Speech Sounds Perception Test: medical problems.
(5) Finger Oscillation Task:
PTSD: posttraumatic stress disorder
PSYCHOSOCIAL ASSESSMENT
 attempts to provide a realistic picture of an STRESS: When we experience or perceive challenges to our
individual in interaction with his or her social physical or emotional well-being that exceed our coping
environment. resources and abilities, the psychological condition that
Assessment Interviews results is typically referred to as stress.
 structured and unstructured interviews STRESSORS
 by the use of rating scale – check the reliability of STRESS
the assessment COPING STRATEGIES

THE CLINICAL OBSERVATION OF BEHAVIOR Both kinds of stress can tax a person’s resources and coping
skills, although bad stress (distress) typically has the potential
 Analogue situations
to do more damage.
---- Staged role playing
--- Self-monitoring
STRESS AND THE DSM  The front line of defense in the immune system is
The relationship between stress and psychopathology is the
considered so important that the role of stress is recognized  white blood cells. These leukocytes (or
in diagnostic formulations. lymphocytes) are produced in the bone marrow and
then stored in various places throughout the body,
FACTORS PREDISPOSING A PERSON TO STRESS such as the spleen and the lymph nodes.
 Stress tolerance: person’s ability to withstand stress  2 IMPORTANT TYPES OF LEUKOCYTES
without becoming seriously impaired. (1) B-cell – matures in the bone marrow (produces
specific antibodies that are designed to respond
Characteristics of stressors to specific antigens
Key factors involve (2) T-cell – matures in the thymus which an
(1) the severity of the stressor important endocrine gland ( Each T-cell has
(2) its chronicity (i.e., how long it lasts) receptors on its surface that recognize one
(3) its timing specific type of antigen)
(4) how closely it affects our own lives  Important Components of the IMMUNE SYSTM
(5) how expected it is response
(6) how controllable it is (1) CYTOKINESIS: small protein molecules that
serve as chemical messengers and allow
 Stressors that involve the more important aspects of immune cells to communicate with each other.
a person’s life—such as the death of a loved one, a Cytokines are chemical messengers that allow the brain and
divorce, a job loss, a serious illness, or negative the immune system to communicate with each other. Some
social exchanges—tend to be highly stressful for cytokines respond to a challenge to the immune system by
most people causing an inflammatory response. Other cytokines, called
 The experience of crisis / crisis: is used to refer to anti-inflammatory cytokines, dampen the response that the
times when a stressful situation threatens to exceed immune system makes when it is challenged.
or exceeds the adaptive capacities of a person or a
group. How does the body respond to stress?
• When we are stressed, the autonomic nervous system
RESILIENCE: A kind of healthy psychological and responds in a variety of ways. One consequence of stress is
physical functioning after a potentially traumatic event increased production of cortisol. High levels of this stress

STRESS AND THE STRESS RESPONSE What role does our emotional state play in our physical
 The sympathetic-adrenomedullary (SAM) system - health?
is designed to mobilize resources and prepare for a • Negative emotional states, such as being under a lot of stress
fight-or-flight response. or having low social support, can impair the functioning of
 The second system involved in the stress response is the immune system and the cardiovascular system, leaving a
called the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) person more vulnerable to disease, infection, and problems
system such as
 Cortisol is a good hormone to have around in an hypertension and cardiovascular disease.
emergency. • Many physical illnesses seem to be linked to chronic
 It prepares the body for fight or flight. It also inhibits negative emotions such as anger, anxiety, and depression.
the innate immune response. This means that if an Hostility is well-established as an independent risk factor for
injury does occur, the body’s inflammatory response CHD. The same is true of depression.
to it is delayed.
What mental disorders are explicitly recognized as being
BIOLOGICAL COSTS OF STRESS triggered by stress?
• The DSM-5 classifies people’s psychological problems in
 The biological cost of adapting to stress is called the response to stressful situations under two general categories:
allostatic load adjustment disorders and posttraumatic stress disorder.
 When we are stressed and feeling pressured, our • Several relatively common stressors (prolonged
allostatic load will be higher. unemployment, loss of a loved one through death, and marital
separation or divorce) may produce a great deal of stress and
THE MIND-BODY CONNECTION psychological maladjustment, resulting in adjustment
 Psychoneuroimmunology: the study of the disorder.
interaction between the nervous system and the • More intense psychological disorders in response to trauma
immune system. or excessively stressful situations (such as military combat,
 Immunosuppression being held hostage, or torture) may be categorized as
posttraumatic stress disorder.
• A new diagnostic category called “Trauma- and stressor-
UNDERSTANDING THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
related disorders has been added to DSM-5. Several disorders
 The immune system protects the body from such
(including PTSD) that were formally in the Anxiety
things as viruses and bacteria.
Disorders section of the DSM have been moved into this new
category.

What are the clinical features of posttraumatic stress

disorder?
• PTSD can involve a variety of symptoms including intrusive
memories or recurrent and distressing dreams about the event,
avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma, negative
cognitions or impaired memory about aspects of the traumatic
event, and increased arousal or reactivity.
• Many factors influence a person’s response to stressful
situations. The impact of stress depends not only on its
severity but also on the person’s preexisting vulnerabilities.
Resilience is the most common long-term trajectory.
• Although it is very common to experience psychological
symptoms after a traumatic event, these often fade with time.
Most people exposed to traumatic events do not develop
PTSD. The prevalence of PTSD in the general population is
6.8 percent.
• If symptoms begin 6 months or more after the traumatic
event, the diagnosis is delayed posttraumatic stress disorder.

What are the risk factors for PTSD?

• Factors that increase a person’s risk of experiencing
traumatic events include certain occupations (e.g.,
firefighter), being male, not having a college education,
conduct problems in childhood, high levels of extraversion
and neuroticism, as well as a family history of psychiatric
problems.
• Factors that increase the risk of developing PTSD are being
female and having low levels of social support; higher levels
of neuroticism; a family history of depression, anxiety, and
substance abuse; as well as preexisting problems with anxiety
and depression.
• Women with PTSD have higher baseline cortisol levels than
women who do not have PTSD. This is not the case for men
with PTSD. Under conditions of stress, people with PTSD
show an exaggerated cortisol response.
• Having the s/s genotype of the serotonin-transporter gene
may increase vulnerability to PTSD in the face of trauma
exposure. Smaller hippocampal volume is also a biological
vulnerability factor.

What treatment approaches are used for PTSD?

• Medications are sometimes used in the treatment of PTSD.
Psychological treatments include prolonged exposure therapy
and cognitive therapy. A new approach that appears
promising is the use of virtual reality exposure therapy.

Note: READ THE WHOLE CHAPTER

  Consumer of science: enhancing the practice
ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY: BARLOW  Evaluator of science: determining the effectiveness
of the practice
CHAPTER 1: ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR IN  Creator of science: conducting research that leads to
HISTORICAL CONTEXT new procedures useful in practice
3 major categories make up the Study and discussion of
UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOPATHOLOGY Psychological disorders
 Focus: clinical description
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDER  Causation: etiology
a psychological dysfunction within an individual associated  Treatment and outcome
with distress or impairment in functioning and a response that
is not typical or culturally expected. CLINICAL DESCRIPTION
 Presenting problem: Presents is a traditional
Psychological Disorder or problematic abnormal behavior: It shorthand way of indicating why the person came to
is a psychological dysfunction within an individual that is the clinic.
associated with distress or impairment in functioning and a  Clinical description: description, which represents
response that is not typical or culturally expected the unique combination of behaviors, thoughts, and
feelings that make up a specific disorder.
PSYCHOLOGICAL DYSFUNCTION  Prevalence:
: refers to a breakdown in cognitive, emotional, or behavioral  Incidence
functioning.  Course: most disorders follow a somewhat
individual pattern
DISTRESS OR IMPAIRMENT Chronic course: tend to last a long time
: at the behavior must be associated with distress to be Episodic course: likely to recover within a few
classified as a disorder adds an important component and months only to suffer a recurrence of the disorder at a
seems clear: The criterion is satisfied if the individual is later time.
extremely upset. Time-limited course: meaning the disorder will
improve without treatment in a relatively short period
ATYPICAL OR NOT CULTURALLY EXPECTED with little or no risk of recurrence.
: the criterion that the response be atypical or not culturally Acute onset: begin suddenly
expected is important but also insufficient to determine if a Insidious onset: others develop gradually
disorder is present by itself. over an extended period
: something is considered abnormal because it occurs  Prognosis: The anticipated course of a disorder
infrequently; it deviates from the average.
: that your behavior is disordered if you are violating social We call the study of changes in behavior over time
norms, even if a number of people are sympathetic to your developmental psychology, and we refer to the study of
point of view. changes in abnormal behavior as developmental
psychopathology.
(TO DETERMINE A PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDER, IT
MUST CONSISTS ALL THESE 3) The study of abnormal behavior across the entire age span is
referred to as life-span developmental psychopathology.
AN ACCEPTED DEFINITION
: e most widely accepted definition used in the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.; DSM-5; CAUSATION, TREATMENT AND ETIOLOGY
American Psychiatric Association, 2013) describes
behavioral, psychological, or biological dysfunctions that are Etiology
unexpected in their cultural context and associated with  the study of origins, has to do with why a disorder
present distress and impairment in functioning, or increased begins (what causes it) and includes biological,
risk of suffering, death, pain, or impairment. psychological, and social dimensions.

The Science of Psychopathology (The effect does not necessarily imply the cause)

Pathology: is the scientific study of psychological disorders. HISTORICAL CONCEPTION OF ABNORMAL

Psychiatrist: BEHAVIOR
Psychiatric Social Worker 3 major models that have guided us date back to the
Marriage and Family Therapists and Mental Health beginnings of civilization
Counselors: (a) supernatural
(b) biological
THE SCIENTIST PRACTITIONER (c) psychological

Mental health professional

DEMONS AND WITCHES effects of family stress; on some occasions, he
removed patients from their families.
STRESS AND MELANCHOLY  Roman physician Galen (approximately a.d. 129–
: Mental depression and anxiety were recognized as illnesses 198): adopted the ideas of Hippocrates and his
: although symptoms such as despair and lethargy were often associates and developed them further.
identified by the church with the sin of acedia, or sloth.  Hippocratic-Galenic approach is the humoral theory
: Common treatments were rest, sleep, and a healthy and of disorders.
happy environment. Other treatments included baths, 4 BODILY FLUIDS OR HUMORS: Blood, black
ointments, and various potions. bile, yellow bile, phlegm
: During the Middle Ages, individuals with psychological  In addition to rest, good nutrition, and exercise, two
disorders were sometimes thought to be possessed by evil treatments were developed.
spirits and exorcisms were attempted through rituals. --- bleeding or bloodletting (a carefully measured
amount of blood was removed from the body,
 NICHOLAS CRESME (14th century) one of the often with leeches)
chief advisers to the king of France, a bishop and --- induced vomiting
philosopher
- suggested that the disease of melancholy THE 19TH CENTURY
(depression) was the source of some bizarre SYPHILIS
behavior, rather than demons.  syphilis, a sexually transmitted disease caused by a
bacterial microorganism entering the brain, include
TREATMENTS FOR POSSESSIONS believing that everyone is plotting against you
 Snake pits (hanging people over a pit full of (delusion of persecution) or that you are God
poisonous snakes) (delusion of grandeur), as well as other bizarre
 Dunking in ice-cold water behaviors.
MASS HYSTERIA THE DEVELOPMENT OF BIOLOGICAL
 Saint Vitu’s dance TREATMENTS
 Tarantism 
MODERN MASS HYSTERIA CONSEQUENCES OF THE BIOLOGICAL
 may simply demonstrate the phenomenon of TRADITIONS
emotion contagion, in which the experience of an 
emotion seems to spread to those around us. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL TRADITION
 if one person identifies a “cause” of the problem,  a precursor to modern psychosocial treatment
others will probably assume that their own reactions approaches to the causation of psychopathology,
have the same source. which focus not only on psychological factors but
 shared response is sometimes referred to as mob also on social and cultural ones.
psychology THE MORAL THERAPY
THE MOON AND THE STARS  a strong psychosocial approach to mental disorders
 Paracelsus (1943-1541): rejected notions of
possession by the devil, suggesting instead that the
movements of the moon and stars had profound
effects on people’s psychological functioning.
ASYLUM REFORM AND THE DECLINE OF MORAL
THE BIOLOGICAL TRADITION THERAPY
 Important to the biological tradition are a man,  after the mid-19th century, humane treatment
Hippocrates; a disease, syphilis; and the early declined because of a convergence of factors.
consequences of believing that psychological - DOROTHEA DIX (Mental hygiene movement)
disorders are biologically caused.
LATER DEVELOPMENTS IN PSYCHOANALYTIC
HIPPOCRATES AND GALEN THOUGHT
 Greek physician Hippocrates (460–377 b.c.):  ANNA FREUD (1895-1982) Ego Psychology: the
considered to be the father of modern Western defensive reactions of the ego determine our
medicine. behavior.
 Hippocratic Corpus: believed that psychological - the individual slowly accumulates adaptational
disorders might also be caused by brain pathology capacities, skill in reality testing, and defenses.
or head trauma and could be influenced by heredity - Abnormal behavior develops when the ego is
(genetics). deficient in regulating such functions as
 Hippocrates considered the brain to be the seat of delaying and controlling impulses or in
wisdom, consciousness, intelligence, and emotion. marshaling appropriate normal defenses to
 Hippocrates also recognized the importance of strong internal conflicts.
psychological and interpersonal contributions to  HEINZ KOHUT (1913–1981) Self-psychology:
psychopathology, such as the sometimes-negative focused on a theory of the formation of self-concept
 and the crucial attributes of the self that allow an - UNCONDITIONAL positive regard: the
individual to progress toward health, or conversely, complete and almost unqualified acceptance of
to develop neurosis. most of the client’s feelings and actions, is
 Object relations: Object relations is the study of how critical to the humanistic approach.
children incorporate the images, the memories, and - Empathy: the sympathetic understanding of the
sometimes the values of a person who was important individual’s particular view of the world.
to them and to whom they were (or are) emotionally
attached. BEHAVIORAL MODEL
- attached. Object in this sense refers to these known as the cognitive-behavioral model or social learning
important people, and the process of model
incorporation is called introjection. PAVLOV AND CLASICAL CONDITIONING
- Introjected objects can become an integrated  Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1936) Classical
part of the ego or may assume conflicting roles Conditioning:
in determining the identity, or self. - a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus is
 CARL JUNG (1875–1961) ALFRED ADLER paired with a response until it elicits that
(1870–1937) Collective unconscious: response.
- a wisdom accumulated by society and culture - Stimulus generalization: response generalizes
that is stored deep in individual memories and to similar stimuli.
passed down from generation to generation. - Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) identified the process
- Jung also suggested that spiritual and religious of classical conditioning, which is important to
drives are as much a part of human nature as are many emotional disorders.
sexual drives; - EXTINCTION:
- emphasized the importance of enduring - INTROSPECTION: Subjects sim-
personality traits such as introversion (the - ply reported on their inner thoughts and feelings
tendency to be shy and withdrawn) and after experiencing certain stimuli, but the
extroversion (the tendency to be friendly and results of this “armchair” psychology were
outgoing). inconsistent and discouraging to many
 ADLER Feelings of inferiority and striving for experimental psychologists.
superiority: he created the term inferiority complex.
- Adler also believed that the basic quality of WATSON AND THE RISE OF BEHAVIORISM
human nature is positive and that there is a  Mary Cover Jones (1896–1987) was one of the first
strong drive toward self-actualization (realizing psychologists to use behavioral techniques to free a
one’s full potential). patient from phobia.
- Jung and Adle believed that by removing THE BEGINNINGS OF BEHAVIOR THERAPY
barriers to both internal and external growth the  Joseph Wolpe (1915–1997) Systematic
individual would improve and nourish. desensitization:
 KAREN HORNEY (1855-1952) - Individuals were gradually introduced to the
ERICH FROMM (1900-1980) objects or situations they feared so that their
BEST KNOWN THEORIST ERIK ERIKSON fear could extinguish
(1902-1994) - BEHAVIOR THERAPY
- emphasizing development over the life span and BF SKINNER AND OPERANT CONDITIONING
the influence of culture and society on
personality. THE PRESENT: SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND AN
INTEGRATIVE APPROACH
HUMANISTIC THEORY / HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY  With the increasing sophistication of our scientific
Self-Actualizing: was the watchword for this movement. The tools, and new knowledge from cognitive science,
underlying assumption is that all of us could reach our highest behavioral science, and neuroscience, we now
potential, in all areas of functioning, if only we had the realize that no contribution to psychological
freedom to grow. disorders ever occurs in isolation. Our behavior,
 ABRAHAM MASLOW (1908-1970) He postulated both normal and abnormal, is a product of a
a hierarchy of needs: continual interaction of psychological, biological,
- Maslow hypothesized that we cannot progress and social influences.
up the hierarchy until we have satisfied the
needs at lower levels. CHAPTER 2: AN INTEGRATIVE APPROACH TO
 CARL ROGERS (1902-1987) Person-Centered PSCYHOPATHOLOGY
Therapy:
- the therapist takes a passive role, making as few ONE-DIMENSIONAL VS MULTIDIMENSIONAL
interpretations as possible. MODELS
- The point is to give the individual a chance to  A system, or feedback loop, may have independent
develop during the course of therapy, unfettered inputs at many different points, but as each input
by threats to the self.
 becomes part of the whole, it can no longer be NEW DEVELOPMENT IN THE STUDY OF GENES &
considered independent. BEHAVIOR
 The perspective on causality is systemic, which  It has also become clear that adverse life events such
derives from the word system; it implies that any as a “chaotic” childhood can overwhelm the
particular influence contributing to influence of genes.
psychopathology cannot be considered out of THE INTERACTION OF GENES AND THE
context. ENVIRONMENT
 the environment may occasionally turn on certain
BEHAVIORAL INFLUENCES genes. is type of mechanism may lead to changes in
the number of receptors at the end of a neuron,
BIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES which, in turn, would affect biochemical functioning
Physiologically, Judy experienced a vasovagal in the brain.
syncope, which is a common cause of fainting. THE DIATHESIS-STRESS MODEL
Syncope means “sinking feeling” or “swoon”  individuals inherit tendencies to express certain
caused by low blood pressure in the head. traits or behaviors, which may then be activated
EMOTIONAL & COGNITIVE INFLUENCES under conditions of stress
Emotions play a substantial role in the development  Vulnerability
of many disorders.
SOCIAL INFLUENCES THE GENE-ENVIRONMENT CORRELATION
We are all social animals; by our very nature we tend MODEL
to live in groups such as families. Social and cultural  or reciprocal gene–environment model:
factors make direct contributions to biology and  study, psychologists have found the web of
behavior. interrelationships between genes and environment to
DEVELOPMENTAL INFLUENCES be even more complex. Some evidence now
One more influence affects us all—the passage of indicates that genetic endowment may increase the
time. As time passes, many things about ourselves probability that an individual will experience
and our environments change in important ways, stressful life events
causing us to react differently at different ages.
at certain times we may enter a developmental EPIGENETICS and the NONGENOMIC “INHERITANCE”
critical period of Behavior
 Robert Sapolsky, a prominent neuroscientist,
GENETIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO concluded, “genetic influences are often a lot less
PSYCHOPATHOLOGY powerful than is commonly believed.
 Genes are long molecules of deoxyribonucleic acid  independent of genetic influences – rats
(DNA) at various locations on chromosomes, within
 EPIGENETICS – means on or around
 the cell nucleus. - the environment cannot change our DNA, it can
 at least strongly influenced—by our genetic change the gene expression. It seems that genes
endowment. are turned on or o by cellular material that is
THE NATURE OF GENES located just outside of the genome and that
 sex chromosomes: determined individual’s sex stress, nutrition, or other factors can affect this
 double helix; spiral staircase - A double helix is two epigenome, which is then immediately passed
spirals intertwined, turning in opposite directions. down to the next generation and maybe for
Located on this double spiral are simple pairs of several generations
molecules bound together and arranged in different  a complex interaction between genes and the
orders. environment plays an important role in every
 dominant gene: one of a pair of genes that strongly psychological disorder
influences a particular trait, and we need only one of  Our genetic endowment does contribute to our
them to determine, behavior, our emotions, and our cognitive processes
 recessive gene: must be paired with another and constrains the influence of environmental
(recessive) gene to determine a trait. factors, such as upbringing, on our later behavior.
 QUANTITATIVE genetic: basically sums up all the
tiny effects across many genes without necessarily NEUROSCIENCE AND ITS CONTRIBUTION TO
telling us which genes are responsible for which PSYCHOPATHOLOGY
effects.  Brain science and the eld of neuroscience promise
 MOLECULAR genetics: focuses on examining the much as we try to unravel the mysteries of
actual structure of genes with increasingly advanced psychopathology. Within the nervous system, levels
technologies such as DNA microarrays; these of neurotransmitter and neuroendocrine activity
technologies allow scientists to analyze thousands of interact in complex ways to modulate and regulate
genes at once and identify broad networks of genes emotions and behavior and contribute to
that may be contributing to a particular trait. psychological disorders.
  Neurotransmitter currents called brain circuits. Of
the neurotransmitters that may play a key role, we
investigated five: serotonin, gamma-aminobutyric
acid (GABA), glutamate, norepinephrine, and
dopamine.
BEHAVIORAL COGNITIVE SCIENCE
 The relatively new field of cognitive science
provides a valuable perspective on how behavioral
and cognitive influences affect the learning and
adaptation each of us experience throughout life.
Clearly, such influences not only contribute to
psychological disorders but also may directly
modify brain functioning, brain structure, and even
genetic expression.
 helplessness, modeling, prepared learning, and
implicit memory.