FOUR TYPES OF SPEECHES

The four basic types of speeches are: to inform, to instruct, to entertain, and to persuade. These are not
mutually exclusive of one another. You may have several purposes in mind when giving your
presentation. For example, you may try to inform in an entertaining style. Another speaker might
inform the audience and try to persuade them to act on the information.

However, the principal purpose of a speech will generally fall into one of four basic types:

1. Informative – This speech serves to provide interesting and useful information to your
audience.

Some examples of informative speeches:

o A teacher telling students about earthquakes

o A student talking about her research
o A travelogue about the Tower of London
o A computer programmer speaking about new software

2. Demonstrative Speeches – This has many similarities with an informative speech. A

demonstrative speech also teaches you something. The main difference lies in including a
demonstration of how to do the thing you’re teaching.

Some examples of demonstrative speeches:

o How to start your own blog

o How to bake a cake
o How to write a speech
o How to… just about anything

3. Persuasive – A persuasive speech works to convince people to change in some way:

they think, the way they do something, or to start doing something that they are not
currently doing.

Some examples of persuasive speeches:

o Become an organ donor

o Improve your health through better eating
o Television violence is negatively influencing our children
o Become a volunteer and change the world

4. Entertaining — The after-dinner speech is a typical example of an entertaining speech. The

speaker provides pleasure and enjoyment that make the audience laugh or identify with
anecdotal information.

Some examples of entertaining speeches:

o Excuses for any occasion

o Explaining cricket to an American
o Things you wouldn’t know without the movies
 LOGICAL FALLACIES

A logical fallacy is an argument that may sound convincing or true but is actually flawed. Logical fallacies
are leaps of logic that lead us to an unsupported conclusion. People may commit a logical fallacy
unintentionally, due to poor reasoning, or intentionally, in order to manipulate others.

1. The correlation/causation fallacy

This fallacy is when people believe that correlation equals causation. Oftentimes, correlations happen by
coincidence or outside forces. They don't necessarily mean that one thing is directly causing the other.
Although this argument may seem easy to notice in theory, it can be challenging to determine in reality.

Example: "Our website got a lot of new traffic last week. We also changed the font on our website last week.
This leads me to believe that our new font is the reason we got more website views."

2. The bandwagon fallacy

This fallacy is based on the idea that if many people agree on the same point, it must be true. The issue with
this kind of argument is that just because an idea is popular, it is not automatically right or true. When
people use this kind of argument, it can lead to major issues for the company. By taking a step back to
observe how things really are, you can make meaningful changes in your workplace. Believing this kind of
fallacy can make you susceptible to peer pressure.

Example: "Everyone is happy with our company's policies. This means that there is no need to get feedback
from our new employees."

3. The anecdotal evidence fallacy

Rather than using hard facts and data, people using the anecdotal evidence fallacy base their arguments on
their own experiences. These kinds of arguments focus on emotions over logic. They do not recognize that
one person's experience may not provide sufficient evidence to make a generalized claim. While something
may be true to this one person, it may not apply to the general population.

Example: "Whenever I use our email system, I always experience glitches. I think we need to replace the
entire system for the company."

• “Self-driving cars are too dangerous to be used on public roads. Just last week, I read about a case
where a self-driving car caused a fatal crash.”
• “Why aren’t we treating cancer with broccoli? My friend told me that there have been a few cases
where a cancer patient was cured after they switched to a broccoli-based diet.”
• “There is plenty of evidence that God exists: I’ve heard from many sources that people have
become religious after God spoke to them personally.”
• “My aunt has been on a low-fat diet for 2 months now, and she has lost several kilograms. She says
it’s definitely the best diet out there.”
• “Many people have experienced something they can only describe as paranormal experience, so it
really must be true.”

4. The straw man fallacy

The straw man fallacy gets its name because it is an argument that is thin and has no substance. It occurs
when your opponent argues against a position you aren't even trying to present. With this tactic, they tend to
misrepresent or alter the points you are making. Rather than debating your actual argument, they are
attacking a weaker or entirely untrue version of what you really meant.

Example:
Person A: "I think that George is a talented copywriter and should be promoted."
Person B: "So what you're saying is that all of our other copywriters are untalented? That kind of attitude is
hurtful to our team."

• A Democrat politician says he wants to spend more money on the social safety net. His Republican
opponents call him a communist.
• A teacher says her class needs to spend more time on math tasks. A parent complains, saying the
teacher doesn’t care about literacy subjects.
 • Starbucks decides to write “Happy Holidays” on their cups instead of “Merry Christmas”. The media
is outraged, accusing Starbucks of waging a war on Christmas.
• The boyfriend tells his girlfriend that he doesn’t want to go out to eat tonight. The girlfriend rolls her
eyes and tells him he never wants to go out anymore.

5. The false dilemma fallacy

This fallacy argues that you can break all arguments into two opposing views. The reality is that most
subjects have a spectrum of views and opinions. Rather than assuming an issue is clear-cut between two
arguments, they typically are more fluid and nuanced. The main drawback of this kind of fallacy is that it
makes the other party look unreasonable. Instead of trying to compromise, those using this kind of argument
try to make their opponent look more extreme.

Example: "If our competitor believes in this cause, then it must be wrong. We should avoid supporting this
cause since their ideals are so different from ours."

• If we leave our house too late, our only options are to skip the event or miss the opening speech.
• The only company that made me an offer is in the logistics industry. I can either accept a job and
pivot to logistics, or I can stay unemployed and continue looking for work.
• A political candidate might claim that your options are to vote for them or to vote for losing certain
rights by voting for their opponent.

6. The slothful induction fallacy

People use the slothful induction fallacy when they ignore substantial evidence and make their claim based
on a coincidence or something entirely irrelevant. With this kind of argument, there is research or evidence
that clearly indicates that something is true. The person making their argument may choose or fail to
acknowledge this.

Example:
Person A: "I was excited to see that our onboarding process increased our employee retention rates. When I
interviewed our employees last week, 98% of them said they are still with the company because of the
support they got when they first started."
Person B: "I think the real reason everyone likes it here is that we allow dogs in the office."

• “Just because I’ve had 12 car accidents in the past six months doesn’t mean I’m a bad driver.”
• “Bill’s client satisfaction rates are very low, and he’s been fired by 17 clients in the last 3 months. I
guess he’s just been really unlucky.”
• “Jane isn’t addicted to alcohol. She just likes to drink a lot and has had a rough past few years.”
• “Even though over 99% of climate scientists say that human-induced global warming is occurring, I
don’t think it’s possible.”

7. The hasty generalization fallacy

When someone comes to a conclusion based on weak evidence, they are using the hasty generalization
fallacy. Those using this argument fail to use well-researched and proven evidence to make their claims.
Instead, they may pick and choose a few key details that happen to fit their position. While one piece of
evidence can prove their argument, they fail to address counterarguments or other types of evidence that
may invalidate their claims.

Example: "Sydney learned a lot from our last company retreat. We need to spend a large portion of our
budget sending our entire company on annual retreats so that we can all learn."

• Jane loves fast food—it’s all she eats. She’s not concerned about her eating habits because she has a
friend that, “only eats fast food and hasn’t had any health problems for months.”
• Sam got the bumper of his car hit by another driver. It turns out that the other driver is a woman. Sam
was in a previous car accident with another woman too.
• Jeff smokes a pack a day because his uncle smoked nearly two packs a day and he lived to be 95.
• Everyone that signed up for the diet program said they lost weight. People will lose weight if they go
on this diet.

8. The middle ground fallacy

Those using this kind of argument believe that finding a compromise between two contrasting points must
be the right solution. What they may not realize is that there may be better solutions that are entirely
unrelated to those two opposing arguments. In reality, these arguments may be completely invalid, which
would mean finding a middle ground wouldn't necessarily be the right decision.
Example: "I think our employer should raise our salaries while Jenny thinks they should stay the same. To
compromise, our employer is giving us a small end-of-the-year bonus."

• Peter and Jenny were playing at Jenny's house when her mother's prize vase was broken. Jenny's
mother thinks that Peter's mother should pay her the full cost of the vase. Peter's mother says that it
wasn't all Peter's fault, and she's not going to pay anything. The only solution is for Peter's mother to
pay for 1/2 of the vase.
• Mrs. Jones has scheduled a math test for tomorrow, but there is also a pep rally tomorrow. The class
says that Mrs. Jones should just cancel the test. The only solution is for Mrs. Jones to move the test
to a different day.
• My friend James says it's never okay to lie. My friend Lisa says it's okay to lie as much as you want.
I guess I believe that it's okay to lie sometimes.
• Sam believes his sister Tina should always wash the dishes and he should always cut the grass. Tina
believes that she should always cut the grass and Sam should always wash the dishes. The only
solution is for them to alternate the two chores.

9. The burden of proof fallacy

The burden of proof fallacy is when you assume something is true simply because there is no evidence
against it. Those using this argument claim that their ideas and opinions are correct because they cannot find
any other sources that oppose what they have to say.

Example: "Everyone loves our marketing campaign because I haven't heard anyone say otherwise."

• A student claims that the school is overcharging students for lunch. The teacher says that she does
not believe that is happening. The student asks the teacher to prove that lunch prices are fair.
• A student tells the principal that the school should spend more money for clubs. The principal tells
the student that there is no money in the budget for that this year. The student asks the principal why
he is against clubs.
• Lisa believes in ghosts. Mark tells her that there is no evidence that ghosts exist. Lisa tells Mark that
there is no evidence that they don't.
• Many religions believe in a higher power, but few back up the argument with evidence of its
existence. Instead, many argue that you can't prove that a higher power doesn't exist.

10. The no true Scotsman fallacy

This fallacy is when one person protects their generalized claim by denying counterexamples. They do this
by changing the initial terms of their generalization to invalidate any counterexamples that might exist.

Example:
Person A: "Every writer loves using the Oxford comma."
Person B: "Well, actually, many writers who follow AP style do not use the Oxford comma."
Person A: "Then writers who use AP style must not be true writers."

11. The Texas sharpshooter fallacy

This fallacy gets its name from a story where a man shoots his gun at a wall and draws a target around the
bullet holes afterward. He then shows people the target to prove that he has excellent aim. Essentially, this
fallacy is when you pick specific evidence or data that fits your claim while ignoring the rest of the
information you have. Researchers often need to be careful about only picking sets of data that support their
hypothesis when they should be looking at everything they collected.
Example: "Jeremy claims he is a successful businessman because he landed five new clients this month.
What he fails
to mention is that his sales are down 50% this year."

12. The tu quoque fallacy

Rather than coming up with a valid counterargument, those using the tu quoque fallacy invalidate their
opponent's criticisms by addressing them with another criticism. With this kind of argument, you find a way
to attack your opponent instead of coming up with a logical reason to argue against their original claim.

Example:
Person A: "I think you need more project management experience before you can qualify for this
promotion."
Person B: "You don't even have any project management experience, so who are you to make this claim?"

• Someone is telling you that you should drive slowly otherwise you’ll get a speeding ticket one of
these days, and you reply “but you used to get them all the time!”
• An attempt to rebut a claim by attacking its proponent on the grounds that they uphold a double
standard or that they don’t practice what they preach.

13. The personal incredulity fallacy

When people find it challenging to understand why or how something is true, they may use this argument to
claim it is false. Even if a large group of people agrees that they find it challenging to believe something is
true, this doesn't automatically mean it is false. It may simply mean that they need more context or
information to fully understand the claim.

Example: "I don't understand how social media engagement is benefiting our brand, so I'm only going to
focus on traditional forms of marketing."

14. The appeal to authority fallacy

When people misuse authority, this kind of fallacy can occur. Those who use this fallacy often put too much
confidence into one person's opinions or thoughts. This is especially evident when this person is arguing
something outside of their expertise. Although asking an authority figure to support your argument can be a
good debate tactic, it can also become misleading if you do it incorrectly. While it can be a feature of your
debate, you should also use researched-based facts and figures to prove your point.

Example: "Our CEO says we don't need to worry about climate change, so I no longer need to find out ways
for our company to be more sustainable."

• Peace is the best strategy because Einstein said so. ...

• You should take those vitamins because Brad Pitt said they are the best.
• God does not exist because Stephen Hawking said so.
• God exists because the Pope and Francis Collins said so.