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Internet Pornography Use: Perceived

Addiction, Psychological Distress, and
the Validation of a Brief Measure
a b a
Joshua B. Grubbs , Fred Volk , Julie J. Exline & Kenneth I.
c
Pargament
a
Psychological Sciences , Case Western Reserve University ,
Cleveland , Ohio , USA
b
Center for Counseling and Family Studies , Liberty University ,
Lynchburg , Virginia , USA
c
Psychology , Bowling Green State University , Bowling Green ,
Ohio , USA
Accepted author version posted online: 28 Oct 2013.Published
online: 16 Dec 2013.

To cite this article: Joshua B. Grubbs , Fred Volk , Julie J. Exline & Kenneth I. Pargament (2013):
Internet Pornography Use: Perceived Addiction, Psychological Distress, and the Validation of a Brief
Measure, Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, DOI: 10.1080/0092623X.2013.842192

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ISSN: 0092-623X print / 1521-0715 online
DOI: 10.1080/0092623X.2013.842192

Internet Pornography Use: Perceived Addiction,

Psychological Distress, and the Validation
of a Brief Measure
Joshua B. Grubbs
Psychological Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
Downloaded by [University of Tasmania] at 23:05 31 August 2014

Fred Volk
Center for Counseling and Family Studies, Liberty University, Lynchburg, Virginia, USA

Julie J. Exline
Psychological Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA

Kenneth I. Pargament
Psychology, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio, USA

The authors aimed to validate a brief measure of perceived addiction to Internet pornography re-
fined from the 32-item Cyber Pornography Use Inventory, report its psychometric properties, and
examine how the notion of perceived addiction to Internet pornography might be related to other
domains of psychological functioning. To accomplish this, 3 studies were conducted using a sample
of undergraduate psychology students, a web-based adult sample, and a sample of college students
seeking counseling at a university’s counseling center. The authors developed and refined a short
9-item measure of perceived addiction to Internet pornography, confirmed its structure in multiple
samples, examined its relatedness to hypersexuality more broadly, and demonstrated that the notion
of perceived addiction to Internet pornography is very robustly related to various measures of psy-
chological distress. Furthermore, the relation between psychological distress and the new measure
persisted, even when other potential contributors (e.g., neuroticism, self-control, amount of time spent
viewing pornography) were controlled for statistically, indicating the clinical relevance of assessing
perceived addiction to Internet pornography.

Hypersexuality has become an enduring focus of empirical consideration in recent years (e.g.,
Kafka, 2010; Womack, Hook, Ramos, Davis, & Penberthy, 2013). The study of compulsive
Internet pornography use as a subdomain of hypersexuality has also become a prevalent empirical
focus in recent years. Internet pornography use is increasingly common in Western cultures
(Carroll et al., 2008; Doring, 2009; Griffiths, 2012). In tandem with this increase, the mental

Address correspondence to Joshua B. Grubbs, Psychological Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, 10900
Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH 44106, USA. E-mail: [email protected]
 2 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

health community has borne witness to a dramatic rise in problematic Internet pornography use
(Carroll et al., 2008; Manning, 2006; Owens, Behun, Manning, & Reid, 2012). Psychologists,
counselors, and even clergy are increasingly confronted with individuals, couples, and family
members who attest to the negative influence of pornography consumption on their lives (e.g.,
Mitchell, Becker-Blease, & Finkelhor, 2005; Mitchell & Wells, 2007). However, at present there is
no widely accepted means of defining or assessing problematic Internet pornography use (Short,
Black, Smith, Wetterneck, & Wells, 2012), and the notion of Internet pornography addiction is
still highly controversial.
Partly resulting from the lack of established guidelines for defining problematic use of Internet
pornography, there is a relative void of instruments specifically assessing such use (Short et al.,
2012). This void has led to definitional inconsistencies across studies and hampered generalizabil-
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ity (Short et al., 2012). One instrument designed to assess such use was the Cyber Pornography
Use Inventory (CPUI; Grubbs, Sessoms, Wheeler, & Volk, 2010). The CPUI assessed Internet
pornography use in three domains: (a) addictive patterns related to Internet pornography use,
(b) guilt regarding use of Internet pornography, and (c) social online sexual behavior. Although
initial analyses of the inventory were promising, the inventory was long (comprising 32 items)
and had not been tested in conjunction with other measures of psychological functioning. As
such, a primary focus of this work was to refine and shorten the CPUI into a brief measure,
examine the validity of the shortened instrument, and explore the associations between perceived
addiction to Internet pornography and psychological functioning.

Problematic Internet Pornography Use

In tandem with the rise in research focused on hypersexuality in recent years, an increasing
amount of sustained academic and clinical attention has focused on problematic forms of Internet
pornography use (Griffiths, 2012; Ross, Månsson, & Daneback, 2012; Twohig & Crosby, 2010;
Twohig, Crosby, & Cox, 2009). Excessive use of Internet pornography is associated with voca-
tional problems (Shapira et al., 2003; Young, 2007), family dysfunction (Manning, 2006), legal
consequences (de Almeida Neto, Eyland, Ware, Galouzis, & Kevin, 2011; Griffiths, 2001), inter-
personal isolation (Yoder, Thomas, & Kiran, 2005), and psychological distress (Egan & Parmar,
2013; Philaretou, Mahfouz, & Allen, 2005). This does not mean that Internet pornography use
is always associated with negative consequences, as casual use appears to be related to such
things as greater openness to experience and less sexual guilt (Hald & Malamuth, 2008; Paul &
Shim, 2008; Weinberg, Williams, Kleiner, & Irizarry, 2010). However, when use escalates beyond
casual recreational activity to excessive or compulsive levels, problems are a likely consequence.
At present, several definitions of problematic Internet pornography use are in circulation (Short
et al., 2012). Cooper and colleagues (1999) defined problematic use of Internet pornography as
use in excess of 11 hours per week. Such a definition is logical, as high levels of use are very likely
to interfere with personal, vocational, or relational functioning. However, what should be said for
individuals who use pornography less frequently but still find it to be problematic? Some may
consider their use problematic for moral or religious reasons, even if it falls below such a time
threshold (Grubbs et al., 2010; Kwee, Dominguez, & Ferrell, 2007; Nelson, Padilla-Walker, &
Carroll, 2010; Patterson & Price, 2012). Still others may find their use problematic for relational
or vocational reasons (Levin, Lillis, & Hayes, 2012; Stewart & Szymanski, 2012; Twohig et al.,
2009) or because they believe they are addicted to Internet pornography (Philaretou, Mahfouz, &
 CYBER PORNOGRAPHY USE INVENTORY-9 3

Allen, 2005). In such situations, the use may be problematic despite being minimal from a time
perspective. As such, problematic Internet pornography use may be defined as any use of Internet
pornography that creates interpersonal, vocational, or personal difficulties (Twohig et al.,2009).

Hypersexuality and Internet Pornography Addiction

The present conceptualization of problematic Internet pornography use is based on prior research
within the domain of hypersexuality. Prior to the arrival of the DSM-V, compulsvie sexual be-
haviors received a great deal of empirical and theoretical attention (e.g., Halpern, 2011; Kafka,
2010; Kaplan & Kreuger, 2010; Spenhoff, Kruger, Hartman, & Kobs, 2013; Winters, 2010). In
keeping with this focus, addiction to Internet pornography is often viewed as a subset of hyper-
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sexual behavior (Egan & Parmar, 2013; Kafka, 2009; Kaplan & Krueger, 2010). Many mental
health professionals and researchers have made persuasive arguments for the addictive qualities
of Internet pornography use (Bostwick & Bucci, 2008; Cavaglion, 2009; Cooper, Delmonico,
& Burg, 2000; Egan & Parmar, 2013; Gentile, Coyne, & Bricolo, 2012; Griffiths, 2012; Hilton
& Watts, 2011; Levin et al., 2012; Pyle & Bridges, 2012). Consistent with the proposed diag-
nostic criteria for hypersexuality, individuals may feel that they are compulsive in their use of
pornography (Doring, 2009; Pyle & Bridges, 2012), describe a perceived lack of control over
their pornography use (Cavaglion, 2009; Egan & Parmar, 2013), report severe and diverse con-
sequences associated with their pornography use, and still report an inability to regulate their use
(Bhatia, 2008; Young, 2008). In each of these situations, strong parallels between hypersexual
behavior and this perceived addiction are evident. Last, many individuals self-identify as addicted
to Internet pornography, often expressing a great deal of psychological distress associated with
this addiction (Cavaglion, 2009; Dunn, Seaburne-May, & Gatter, 2012; Philaretou et al., 2005).
This propensity for some individuals to self-label as addicted again points to the perceived lack of
control many feel in relation to their use of pornography and illustrates an area in need of further
research.
Perceived addiction to Internet pornography is also a clinically relevant construct because it
is likely to affect various areas of psychological functioning. Internet pornography use (Brand
et al., 2011) and perceived addiction to Internet pornography (Egan & Parmar, 2013; Philaretou
et al., 2005) are associated with various indicators of psychological distress. At the trait level,
neuroticism and obsessive tendencies are associated with perceived compulsivity in Internet
pornography use (Egan & Parmar, 2013). In narrative analyses, signs of psychological distress
(e.g., depression, isolation) and perceived addiction to Internet pornography are often associated
(Cavaglion, 2009; Philaretou et al., 2005). Last, implicit attitudes toward pornography, specifically
those associated with more compulsive tendencies, are positively associated with indicators of
psychological distress (Brand et al., 2011). In sum then, there appears to be a link between
perceived addiction to Internet pornography and indicators of poor mental health, which again
highlights the clinical relevance of assessing this construct. Furthermore, this link between
addiction to Internet pornography and general psychological distress is consistent with previous
research in the domain of hypersexuality (e.g., Reid & Carpenter, 2009; Spenhoff et al., 2013), as
hypersexuality is consistently associated with indicators of poor psychological functioning (e.g.,
Reid, Carpenter, & Lloyd, 2009; Reid, Stein, & Carpenter, 2011). In the present work, we aimed
to further examine this relation and demonstrate the clinical relevance of assessing perceived
addiction to Internet pornography.
 4 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

Measurement of Perceived Internet Pornography Addiction

There are many excellent and well-validated inventories measuring hypersexual tendencies. These
inventories include the Hypersexual Behavior Inventory (Reid, Garos, & Carpenter, 2011), the
Compulsive Sexual Behavior Inventory (Coleman, Miner, Ohlerking, & Raymond, 2001; Miner
et al., 2007), and the Sexual Addiction Screening Test-Revised (SAST-R; Carnes, Green, &
Carnes, 2010; Green et al., 2012). However, despite the well-documented utility of these in-
struments in measuring general hypersexuality, they are much more broadly focused on general
hypersexuality than perceived addiction to Internet pornography specifically. The Internet Sex
Screening Test (Delmonico & Miller, 2003) is an excellent measure evaluating online sexual
behaviors including, but not limited to, Internet pornography. The Inventory of Problematic On-
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line Experiences (Mitchell, Sabina, Finkelhor, & Wells, 2009) screens for potential problems
associated with online sexual behavior, but it does not examine perceived addiction to Inter-
net pornography specifically. Similarly, the Pornography Consumption Inventory (Reid et al.,
2010) assesses motivations for using pornography but does not assess perceived addiction to
pornography. These inventories reveal a pattern: There are numerous valuable instruments mea-
suring hypersexuality, online behaviors, and attitudes toward pornography, but there is still a
relative void of instruments specifically assessing an individual’s perceived addiction to Internet
pornography.
To address this void of instruments, Grubbs and colleagues (2010) developed the Cyber
Pornography Use Inventory (CPUI). The CPUI was designed as a self-report measure of ad-
diction to Internet pornography. Factor analysis on the original structure of the CPUI revealed
an orthogonal three-factor solution. These three factors were made into subscales and labeled
as follows: (a) addictive patterns (17 items), assessing perceived lack of control over use and
compulsive behaviors related to Internet pornography use; (b) guilt regarding use (10 items),
assessing moral-emotional reactions to and general distress regarding pornography use; and (c)
social online sexual behavior (5 items; adapted from the Internet Sex Screening Test; Delmonico
& Miller, 2003), assessing non-pornography-related social sexual behaviors online. Initial devel-
opment provided some evidence of validity, demonstrating that the addictive patterns subscale
was in line with the notion of hypersexuality and behavioral addictions. However, in its original
form, the CPUI was not without complications.
One of the primary concerns raised after the initial development of the CPUI was the length
of the inventory. Although the full CPUI (32 Items) is not exorbitantly long, the length of
the measure is prohibitive for brief use and fast scoring. As such, a primary focus of the
present work was to shorten the measure. Second, the CPUI was initially developed in a
sample of Evangelical Christian college students. Later analyses of that sample revealed that
levels of perceived addiction and guilt were higher among Evangelical Christians than they
were among more general samples of college students, despite no evidence indicating in-
creased use among participants (Sessoms, Grubbs, & Exline, 2011). Thus another focus of
the present project was to test and refine the instrument using a broader range of samples. Last,
more recent work has found that the original structure of the CPUI has demonstrated incon-
sistent psychometric qualities in various samples (Egan & Parmar, 2013). Therefore, a final
focus of this refinement was to establish consistent reliability of the refined measure in diverse
samples.
 CYBER PORNOGRAPHY USE INVENTORY-9 5

Measure Refinement

In refining the full CPUI for the present study, we noted that the items of the addictive patterns
subscale appeared to fall into two broad categories: the degree to which respondents felt as if they
were addicted to pornography and the efforts which they were willing to expend in order to view
pornography. In developing the shortened inventory, we labeled the first category compulsivity.
Compulsivity items directly assess the extent to which respondents believe they can control their
pornography use (e.g., “I feel unable to control my use of Internet pornography”). We labeled the
second category access efforts. These items assessed the lengths to which a respondent would go
to be able to view pornography (e.g., “At times, I try to arrange my schedule so that I am alone to
view pornography”). We predicted that these categories would emerge as components of a brief
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scale and demonstrate strong links to various indicators of distress, relevant personality traits,
and hypersexuality more generally.
The second major component of the full CPUI was the guilt subscale. Although guilt is
somewhat distinct from perceived addiction, the guilt subscale was kept in all analyses, with a goal
of reducing its length. Moral emotions such as guilt can be an important part in the development
and maintenance of addictive behavior patterns (e.g., O’Connor et al., 1994; Schwartz & Brasted,
1985), but they can also predict positive outcomes such as reduced relapse (Gilliland, South,
Carpenter, & Hardy, 2011; Meehan et al., 1996), reduced antisocial behavior, and increased
prosocial behavior (Tangney, 1991). More specifically, guilt is associated with greater motivation
to change among hypersexual individuals attempting to reduce their pornography use (Gilliland
et al., 2011). As such, we felt that the inclusion of the guilt subscale would provide additional and
useful information regarding the nature of perceived Internet pornography addiction. We expected
that, with the inclusion of the guilt subscale and the addictive patterns subscale, three distinct
but notably intercorrelated factors would emerge. We expected that this structure would emerge
clearly in a variety of samples and that the various components would be associated with greater
use of Internet pornography and with hypersexuality more broadly. Last, we also expected that
perceived addiction to Internet pornography would be related to psychological distress indicators.
We omitted the social subscale from our analyses because social online sexual behavior is
distinct from online pornography use (Delmonico & Miller, 2003). Although social online sexual
behavior can be related to Internet pornography consumption (Griffiths, 2012), it goes beyond
the scope of online pornography use alone. Furthermore, numerous inventories of social online
sexual behavior currently exist (e.g., Internet Sex Screening Test social subscale, Delmonico &
Miller, 2003) and are highly recommended as brief measures of such behaviors.

Overview of Studies

In keeping with our stated goals, we conducted several studies. The first study was designed
to provide data for an appropriate scale reduction, initial validity testing, and the examination
of correlates with psychological distress in a population of college students. The second study
extended these goals to a web-based adult sample, allowing for confirmatory analyses of our
abbreviated measure, an examination of the relation between Internet pornography addiction and
hypersexuality, and an exploration of psychological distress correlations. The final study took
 6 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

place in a college counseling center and allowed for the confirmatory analysis of the Cyber-
Pornography Use Inventory-9 (CPUI-9) in a clinical sample and an examination of associations
with hypersexuality.

STUDY 1: SCALE REDUCTION AND PRELIMINARY ANALYSES

In the first study, we aimed to reduce and refine the full length CPUI into a brief but sound inven-
tory. We also aimed to establish the relation between perceived addiction to Internet pornography
(as measured by the new, briefer version of the inventory) and various indicators of psychological
health. We accomplished these goals by examining the inventory in a sample of undergraduate
students.
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METHOD

Participants

Participants were students enrolled in introductory psychology courses at a private, mid-sized

university in the Midwest. Participants received partial course credit for completing a survey
called “Personality, Beliefs, and Behavior.” An initial sample of 532 individuals (301 men, 231
women; Mage = 19.5 years, SD = 2.2 years) completed the survey, but only those who indicated
online pornography use within the past month were included in analyses. This resulted in a final
sample of 269 (227 men, 42 women; Mage = 19.5 years, SD = 1.4 years). Participants were
predominantly white or Caucasian (63%), followed by Asian or Pacific Islander (26%), Black or
African American (5%), Latino or Hispanic (4%), and Middle Eastern (2%).

Measures

Unless otherwise indicated, scores for all measures were calculated by taking averages of indi-
vidual item responses.

Internet Pornography Use

In addition to the full CPUI, items assessing Internet pornography use were also included.
Participants were asked to indicate with what frequency they used pornography online within the
past month. These responses were categorical, with respondents indicating if they had viewed
pornography 0 times, 1–3 times, 4–6 times, 7–9 times, or more than 10 times in the specified
timeframes. Only those endorsing use greater than 0 times in the past month (N = 269) were
included in analyses.

Individual Differences

To account for meaningful individual differences related to self-reported pornography addic-

tion, we used multiple scales, which we subsequently describe.
 CYBER PORNOGRAPHY USE INVENTORY-9 7

Neuroticism

Participants completed the Big Five Inventory-44 (John, Donahue, & Kentle, 1994). Items on
this inventory are scored from 1 (not at all like me) to 5 (very much like me). Responses measuring
neuroticism include items such as “I am easily disturbed.”

Self-control

The brief version of the Self-Control Scale (Tangney & Baumeister, 2004) was included. This
13-item scale measures participants’ agreement with self-descriptive statements such as “I refuse
things that are bad for me.” Participant agreement is assessed from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much).
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Social Desirability

The Marlowe-Crowne Scale of Socially Desirable Responding (Reynolds, 1982) was included.
This scale requires participants to respond to 13 true/false questions (e.g., “It is sometimes hard
for me to go on with my work if I am not encouraged”). More socially desirable responses are
assigned a score of 1; less socially desirable responses are assigned a score of 0. Results are
summed.

Psychological Distress

Measures of distress were also included in the questionnaire, as a means of examining potential
relations between perceived addiction to Internet pornography and other psychological health
constructs.

Depression

The widely used 10-item version of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale
(Andresen, Malmgren, Carter, & Patrick, 1994) was included in all analyses. This measure
consists of 10 items (e.g., “I felt depressed”) that are scored based on frequency within the past
week from 1 (rarely or none of the time) to 4 (most or all of the time).

Anxiety

The short form of the State Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger, Gorsuch, Lucene, Vagg, & Jacobs,
1983) was included as well. This inventory assesses participant agreement with anxiety-related
statements (e.g., “I feel at ease”) on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 4 (very much
so).

Stress

The Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983) was included. This
measure assesses participants’ subjective experience of stress over the past month (e.g., “In the
 8 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

TABLE 1
Descriptive Statistics for Measures of Individual Differences and Psychological Distress

Study 1 (N = 269) Study 2 (N = 214) Study 3 (N = 152)

Range M SD α M SD α M SD α

Individual difference measures

Neuroticism 1–5 2.8 0.6 .82 2.8 0.9 .90 — — —
Self-control brief 1–5 2.9 0.6 .84 3.3 0.8 .89 — — —
Social desirability 0–13 5.7 2.8 .68 6.4 3.2 .77 — — —
Psychological distress measures
Depression 1–4 1.9 0.5 .91 — — — — — —
Perceived stress 1–5 2.9 0.6 .84 — — — — — —
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State anxiety 1–4 2.1 0.5 .86 — — — — — —

Symptom Checklist 10-Revised 1–5 — — — 2.0 0.8 .93 — — —
Pornography use in hours
Per day 0–10 — — — .4 0.5 — — — —
Per week 0–70 — — — 3.4 4.6 — — — —
Kalichman Sexual Compulsivity Scale 1–4 — — — 1.5 0.5 .88 2.0 0.8 .90

last month, how often have you felt difficulties were piling up so high that you could not overcome
them?”) on a 5-point scale ranging from 0 (never) to 4 (very often).

RESULTS

Table 1 reports descriptive statistics for all established measures.

Scale Reduction and Factor Analysis

All items from the original CPUI, minus the social subscale, were entered into an exploratory
factor analysis. On the basis of the three hypothesized underlying variables, maximum likelihood
extraction was used (Costello & Osborne, 2005). Because of the hypothesized intercorrelations
of the factors, an oblique rotation (direct oblimin) was used (Costello & Osborne, 2005). The
analysis was conducted with the results being forced into a three-factor solution, in line with
our conceptualization. Initial observations revealed that the emerging three-factor solution was
consistent with the hypothesized factors of compulsivity, efforts, and guilt. Item statistics and
pattern matrix loadings for retained items are available in Table 2.
Only three items were retained from each factor (see table 2). We retained items both on
the basis of their factor loadings and the extent to which we felt they effectively addressed the
necessary constructs. On the first factor, one item, “I have no problem controlling my use of
Internet pornography,” loaded more highly (.61) than did the item, “Even when I do not want to
use pornography online, I feel drawn to it” (.47). We chose to retain the latter because the former
was highly redundant with a previous item (see Table 2). On the second factor, one item, “I have
gotten up earlier or gone to bed later than my roommates to view pornography,” loaded slightly
higher (.60) than did the next highest loading item, “I have refused to go out with friends or
attend certain social functions to have the opportunity to view pornography” (.59). We decided
 CYBER PORNOGRAPHY USE INVENTORY-9 9

TABLE 2
Pattern Matrix Loadings of Highest Loading Items in Maximum Likelihood Analysis

M SD 1 2 3

Compulsivity (α = .81)
1. I believe I am addicted to Internet 1.8 1.4 .79 .09 −.07
pornography.
2. I feel unable to stop my use of online 1.9 1.4 .84 .01 −.04
pornography.
3. Even when I do not want to view 2.1 1.5 .48 .30 .02
pornography online, I feel drawn to it
Efforts (α = .75)
−.03 .69 −.02
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4. At times, I try to arrange my schedule so 2.1 1.7

that I will be able to be alone in order to
view pornography.
5. I have refused to go out with friends or 1.4 1.0 .05 .59 .21
attend certain social functions to have the
opportunity to view pornography.
6. I have put off important priorities to view 2.3 1.8 .09 .67 −.07
pornography.
Distress (α = .85)
7. I feel ashamed after viewing pornography 2.9 1.9 .18 .00 .69
online.
8. I feel depressed after viewing 2.1 1.5 .04 .31 .78
pornography online.
9. I feel sick after viewing pornography 2.0 1.4 −.07 .36 .82
online.

to retain the latter item because not all respondents in future samples would necessarily live with
another person. One item on the third factor, “I have punished myself when I use the Internet for
pornography,” loaded slightly higher (.70) than did the next highest item, “I feel ashamed after
viewing pornography online” (.69). The latter was retained because self-punishment, although
a potential result of guilt, extends beyond guilt alone (Nelissen & Zeelenberg, 2009) and could
mean a wide variety of things to various respondents.
This pruning of items led to a final scale length of nine items representing three subscales.
The first two emerging subscales, access efforts and compulsivity, had very high face validity
and clearly mapped onto the hypothesized constructs. Furthermore, although retained items
clearly measured similar constructs, there was heterogeneity between items on each subscale,
suggesting that the scales were sufficiently broad in scope for such brief measures. The third
subscale was generally aligned with the hypothesized guilt subscale, but the three retained items
appear to deal most directly with negative affect associated with Internet pornography use rather
than feelings of guilt or shame directly. As such, the third scale was labeled emotional distress.
Collectively, the total scale was named the CPUI-9. Correlations between the original 18-item
addictive patterns subscale and the shortened access efforts subscale (r = .78, p < .001) and the
3-item compulsivity subscale were high (r = .72, p < .001), as were the correlations between the
brief emotional distress scale and the original nine-item guilt scale (r = .89, p < .001). When
the access efforts and compulsivity subscales were averaged together, however, the aggregate of
the two correlated highly (r = .89, p < .001) with the original addictive patterns scale. These
 10 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

TABLE 3
Descriptive Statistics and Intercorrelations of CPUI-9 and Its Subscales

Study 1 (N = 269) Study 2 (N = 214) Study 3 (N = 152)

α M SD 1 2 3 α M SD 1 2 3 α M SD 1 2 3

Total scale .81 2.1 1.0 .74 .76 .83 .89 1.7 1.2 .78 .86 .87 .75 1.8 0.9 .56 .90 .59
1. Efforts .75 1.9 0.7 — .26 .46 .81 2.1 1.3 — .21 .61 .78 1.4 0.8 — .19 .37
2. Distress .84 2.4 0.9 — .47 .89 2.4 1.4 — .62 .81 2.3 1.7 — .44
3. Comp. .83 1.9 1.2 — .81 1.6 1.1 — .74 1.6 1.2 —

Note. All correlations reported are significant at p < .01. Study 3 used binary responses (true/false) rather than
continuous. CPUI = Cyber Pornography Use Inventory.
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associations suggest a very high degree of overlap between the full-length CPUI and the various
subscales of the CPUI-9 and point to the utility of the shorter measure in place of the longer
measure.

Perceived Addiction and Use

To determine whether higher scores on the CPUI-9 and its component scales were associated with
greater use of Internet pornography, we conducted an analysis of variance to examine differences
between those who used very frequently versus those who did not. Respondents were divided
on the basis of their response to the question, “How many times have you viewed pornography
online within the past month?” Possible answers included “1–3 times” (n = 81), “4–6 times”
(n = 42) “7–9 times” (n = 38), or “10 or more times” (n = 106). Analysis of variance with
Bonferroni-corrected comparisons revealed higher scores on the total scale for those who had
viewed 10 or more times (M = 2.4, SD = 1.0) compared with those who had viewed 1–3 times
(M = 1.9, SD = 0.8) or 4–6 times (M = 1.9, SD = 0.8), F(3, 266) = 7.6, p = .001. In regards to
perceived compulsivity, those who had viewed pornography 10 or more times in the past month
scored significantly higher (M = 2.4, SD = 1.4) than those who had viewed 1–3 times (M = 1.6,
SD = 1.0), and those who had viewed 4–6 times (M = 1.6, SD = 0.9), F(3, 266) = 5.2 p < .001).
For the access efforts subscale, those who had viewed ten or more times scored significantly
higher (M = 2.6, SD = 1.3) than those who had viewed 1–3 times (M = 1.5, SD = 0.9), 4–6 times
(M = 1.9, SD = 1.2), and 7–9 times (M = 1.9, SD = 1.2), F(3, 263) = 11.9, p < .001. Significant
differences were not observed for emotional distress in these analyses; F(3, 263) = 1.3, ns. In
sum, increased frequency of use was generally associated with higher scores on the CPUI-9, with
particular elevations on the compulsivity and access efforts subscales.

Perceived Addiction and Individual Differences

To examine the associations between the inventory and relevant personality constructs, Pearson
correlations were computed (see Table 4). Of note, neuroticism was positively associated with
perceived compulsivity and emotional distress. Furthermore, self-control also demonstrated an
inverse association with access efforts.
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TABLE 4
Interitem Correlations for CPUI-9/Subscales and Measures of Individual Differences, Psychological Distress, and Pornography Use

Study 1 Study 2 Study 3

Total scale Efforts Distress Compulsivity Total scale Efforts Distress Compulsivity Total scale Efforts Distress Compulsivity

Individual differences — — — —
Neuroticism .17+ .08 .23∗ .06 .15+ 12∗ .16∗ .15+ — — — —
Self-control brief −.05 −.15∗ .04 .04 −.22∗ −.22∗ −.15∗ −.21∗ — — — —
Social desirability −.08 −.14∗ −.03 .01 −.14+ −.13+ −.14+ −.16+ — — — —
Psychological distress
Depression .17+ .02 .20∗ .15+ — — — — — — — —
Perceived stress .25∗ .06 .26∗ .21∗ — — — — — — — —
State anxiety .25∗ .08 .28∗ .19+ — — — — — — — —
Symptom checklist 10R — — — — .26∗ .28∗ .19∗ .25∗ — — — —
Pornography use in hours
Per day — — — — .20∗ .47∗ −.05 .17+ — — — —
Per week — — — — .19∗ .42∗ −.03 .16+ — — — —
Sexual compulsivity (K-SCS) — — — — .51∗ .44∗ .48∗ .50∗ .40∗ .42∗ .28∗ .37∗

Note. CPUI = Cyber Pornography Use Inventory; K-SCS = Kalichman Sexual Compulsivity Scale.
+p < .05. ∗ p < .01.

11
 12 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

TABLE 5
Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Individual Difference and Pornography Variables Predicting
Psychological Distress

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

Study 1 Study 2 Study 1 Study 2 Study 1 Study 2
Variable (N = 269) (N = 214) (N = 269) (N = 214) (N = 269) (N = 214)

Neuroticism .65∗∗ .58∗∗ .63∗∗ .62∗∗ — .57∗∗

Self-control −.20∗∗ −.21∗∗ −.20∗∗ −.13∗ — −.16∗∗
Social desirability −.07 .00 −.06 .01 — −.02
CPUI-9 — — .11∗∗ .17∗∗ — .15∗∗
Hours per week — — — — — −.10
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Hours per day — — — — — .19+

R2 .57 .50 .59 .53 — .54
R2 — — .02∗∗ .03∗∗ — .01
Partial F 116.9∗∗ 87.1∗∗ 9.4∗∗ 14.8∗∗ — 3.1∗

Note. Psychological distress was measured using the aggregate index described in Study 1 and the Global Severity
Index of the SCL-R described in Study 2. CPUI = Cyber Pornography Use Inventory; SCL-R = Symptom Checklist
10-Revised.
∗ p < .05 (two-tailed). ∗∗ p < .01 level (two-tailed). +p < .10 (two-tailed).

Perceived Addiction and Psychological Distress

To test the hypothesis that perceived addiction to Internet pornography would be associated with
psychological distress (consistent with prior research on the topic; e.g., Egan & Parmar, 2013),
Pearson correlations were computed (see Table 4). We consistently found positive associations
between the various indicators of distress and the CPUI-9, both at the total scale and subscale
levels.
To further test these associations, a general distress index was calculated in which depression,
anxiety, and perceived stress were standardized and aggregated into a single measure of psy-
chological distress. The internal consistency of these three standardized scales was acceptable
(α = .88). This index was loaded as a dependent variable in a hierarchical regression (see Table 5).
In the first step neuroticism, self-control, and socially desirable responding were controlled, ac-
counting for a great deal of variance. In the following step, the CPUI-9 emerged as a robust
predictor of distress, indicating a very robust relation between the two constructs.
To test the validity of the brief instrument in contrast to the full instrument, partial correlations
were computed between the omitted items of the full scale and the psychological distress index,
while controlling for the items of the CPUI-9. Results revealed no significant correlations between
the omitted items from the original addictive patterns subscale and the distress index (r = .03, ns)
or the omitted items from the original guilt scale and the distress index (r = .05, ns) when CPUI-9
scores were controlled. These findings underscore the utility of the brief measure in place of the
longer measure.

DISCUSSION

Initial factor analyses revealed that the CPUI could be effectively reduced to a three-factor brief
inventory, as hypothesized. The three factors that emerged were perceived compulsivity, access
 CYBER PORNOGRAPHY USE INVENTORY-9 13

efforts, and emotional distress. These three factors each showed acceptable internal consistency
and are conceptually related to the idea of perceived addiction to Internet pornography as a
subdomain of hypersexuality. These shortened subscales were highly related to the much longer
CPUI- Full Form subscales, further showing the utility of the brief measure. Scores on the total
CPUI-9, the compulsivity subscale, and the access efforts subscale were all associated with
increased use of online pornography, indicating that perceived addiction is related to greater
frequency of use.
The CPUI-9 and its various components also showed several associations with measures of psy-
chological distress. Even when relevant personality structures (e.g., neuroticism and self-control)
were controlled, the CPUI-9 still demonstrated a robust relation with aggregated psychological
distress. These results suggest that individuals who perceive themselves as being more addicted
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to Internet pornography are likely to exhibit subjective psychological distress. Last, we noted
that while maintaining strong correlations with the original, full-length CPUI, the CPUI-9 itself
accounted for the majority of variance in the associations between the scale and psychological
distress, indicating that the brief form is an adequate substitute for the longer scale in assessing
the problematic nature of perceived addiction to Internet pornography.

STUDY 2: CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS

IN A CROSS-SECTIONAL ADULT SAMPLE

In Study 2, we aimed to examine the performance of the CPUI in a cross-sectional adult sample,
to confirm its structure, and to further validate our findings. We further aimed to test the relation
between perceived addiction to Internet pornography and psychological distress, hypothesizing
that perceived addiction to Internet pornography would be robustly associated with various
indicators of psychological distress. Last, we aimed to examine the relation between Internet
pornography addiction specifically and the broader construct of hypersexuality.

METHOD

Sample and Procedure

Participants were adults recruited through Amazon’s Mechanical Turk worker database. Previous
social science research has shown that samples obtained from this service are psychometrically
sound and generally reliable (Buhrmester, Kwang, & Gosling, 2011). Participants took part in a
larger study called “Personality, Beliefs, and Behavior,” examining religious beliefs, personality
structure, personal behaviors, and psychological functioning.
The initial sample consisted of 614 respondents. However, only those who reported viewing
pornography online within the past month were included in analyses. This limited the sample to
214 (136 men, 74 women, 3 transgender, 1 unreported; M age = 31.8 years, SD = 10.7 years). The
predominant ethnicity reported was Caucasian or White (82%), followed by African American
(6%), Asian or Pacific Islander (6%), Latino or Hispanic (4%), and other (4%).
 14 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

Measures

Unless otherwise indicated, all measures were scored by taking the average of items.

Pornography Use and Perceived Addiction

Only those who had viewed pornography online within the past month (n = 214) were included
in analyses. The nine items of the CPUI-9 were included and scored on a 7-point scale ranging
from 1 (not at all) to 7 (extremely). Items were presented in randomized order.
Respondents also completed a series of questions detailing their use of Internet pornography.
Participants indicated the number of times they had viewed pornography within the past month
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in the same fashion as Study 1. Participants also listed how many hours per day and per week
they spent viewing pornography online.

Hypersexuality

We included the Kalichman Sexual Compulsivity Scale (K-SCS; Kalichman & Rompa, 1995)
as a means of assessing hypersexuality. Although only a brief measure, the K-SCS is a highly
effective means of assessing hypersexual tendencies, general sexual addiction, and sexual acting
out (Cooper, Delmonico, & Burg, 2000; Kalichman & Rompa, 1995). Participants rated agreement
on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (not at all like me) to 4 (very much like me) with items such as
“I feel that sexual thoughts and feelings are stronger than I am.”

Individual Differences

The Brief Self-Control Scale and the Marlow-Crowne Scale of Socially Desirable Responding
were included. See Study 1 for individual descriptions of these scales.

Psychological Distress

The Symptom Checklist 10-Revised was included (Rosen et al., 2000). Participants rated their
agreement with certain experiences (e.g., “feeling blue” or “feeling tensed or keyed up”) over
the past 30 days. Responses were scored on a 5-point scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 4
(extremely). The mean score is calculated to form the Global Severity Index, representative of
total psychological distress.

RESULTS

Confirmatory Factor Analyses

To provide further evidence supporting the CPUI-9, the three-factor structure of the CPUI-9 was
tested using confirmatory factor analysis. Figure presents results. The proposed three-factor model
demonstrated a good fit, χ 2(24, N = 214) = 33.7, p = .05, CFI = .989, TLI = .982 RMSEA =
.051, SRMR = .025, confirming the proposed structure. To test the proposed three-factor solution
 CYBER PORNOGRAPHY USE INVENTORY-9 15

in comparison with other solutions, it was alternatively posited that the CPUI-9 may actually
exhibit a two-factor structure in which compulsivity and access efforts items would emerge as
one factor, and emotional distress would emerge as another distinct factor. However, this model
demonstrated a very poor fit, χ 2(26, N = 214) = 123.16, p = .000, CFI = .909, TLI = .874
RMSEA = .134, SRMR = .057. It was also posited than another two-factor model may exist in
which the emotional distress and compulsivity items loaded on one factor representing negative
evaluations of behavior and access efforts loaded on another. Again, such a model provided a
poor fit; χ 2(26, N = 208) = 239.26, p = .000, CFI = .800, TLI = .721 RMSEA = .199, SRMR
= .125. Last, we also speculated that the CPUI-9 may only represent a single factor containing
all nine items assessing perceived addiction as a broad concept. Again, this theoretical structure
demonstrated an exceedingly poor fit, χ 2(27, N = 208) = 307.48, p = .000, CFI = .737, TLI =
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.649 RMSEA = .223, SRMR = .100. As such, we determined that the hypothesized three-factor
structure did represent the best interpretation of the scale.

Validity Testing

To determine the relation between actual time spent viewing pornography and scores on the
CPUI-9, Pearson correlations were computed (see Table 4). It is notable that there were significant
positive correlations between the total scale and pornography use (in hours) per day and per week,
as well as moderate-to-strong correlations between access efforts and pornography use and weak
correlations between perceived compulsivity and use.
To test the correlation between perceived addiction to Internet pornography and general
hypersexuality, correlations were computed between the CPUI-9 and component scales with
the K-SCS (see Table 4). The total scale and all component scales demonstrated significant
positive relations with the K-SCS ranging in strength from r = .44 to r = .51. Such findings
point to a high degree of relatedness between perceived addiction to Internet pornography and
general hypsersexual tendencies. This finding underscores the present understanding of perceived
addiction to Internet pornography as a subdomain of hypersexuality more broadly.

Psychological Distress

Pearson correlations were calculated between the Symptom Checklist 10-Revised and the CPUI-9
with its various subscales (see Table 4). The CPUI-9 was positively associated with distress. To
further test these associations, we conducted a hierarchical regression controlling for socially
desirable responding, self-control, and neuroticism (see Table 5). Again, the CPUI-9 was a
significant predictor of psychological distress, even when other highly related constructs were
controlled. Furthermore, in a subsequent step in which daily and weekly use (in hours) were
added into the regression, the CPUI-9 maintained significance in predicting distress, strongly
suggesting that perceived addiction to Internet pornography is related to psychological distress.

DISCUSSION

Using a broad, web-based, adult sample, results from this second study strongly support the
factor structure of the CPUI-9. In this sample, a three-factor structure consisting of perceived
 16 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

compulsivity, access efforts, and emotional distress was confirmed using confirmatory factor
analysis. Although alternate structures were tested, the hypothesized three-factor solution clearly
fit best. In keeping with Study 1, the components of the CPUI-9 were associated with increased
indicators of psychological distress, even when highly related constructs (including actual levels
of use) were controlled for. These findings suggests that individual’s perceptions of personal use
is highly a relevant consideration, whereas simply assessing the time spent viewing pornography
may not be sufficient. Last, we found that the CPUI-9 was strongly positively associated with
general hypersexual tendencies, as measured by the K-SCS. This points to the high degree of
interrelatedness between compulsive pornography use and hypersexuality more generally.
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STUDY 3: CONFIRMATORY FACTOR ANALYSIS IN A CLINICAL SAMPLE

In Study 3, we attempted to confirm the proposed factor structure in a clinical sample and
to establish whether a brief screening version of the CPUI-9 would demonstrate acceptable
psychometric qualities. We also aimed to further substantiate the relation between perceived
addiction to Internet pornography and hypersexuality.

METHOD

Participants and Procedure

Participants were students at a mid-sized university in the southeastern United States seeking
therapy at the university’s counseling center for a full range of psychological complaints. The
CPUI-9 was included among various measures administered to students at the time of intake.
Only students who acknowledged viewing pornography online within 30 days before intake
(N = 152; 103 men, 49 women; Mage = 20.3 years, SD = 1.8 years) were given the inventory.
Because of the clinical nature of the sample and the sensitive nature of the data collected, only
the de-identified data regarding the CPUI-9 and the associated K-SCS were included in analyses.

Measures

All measures were scored by taking the average of items, unless otherwise indicated.

Internet Pornography Use

Participants completed all 9 items of the CPUI-9. Because of time constraints on administration
and scoring within this sample, responses were recorded in a binary (True/False) system, rather
than a continuous manner. Items for each subscale were summed, with positive responses receiving
a score of 1 and negative responses receiving a score of 0, for a total range of possible scores on
each subscale ranging from 0–3. The total scale score was obtained by taking the average of the
three component scales.
 CYBER PORNOGRAPHY USE INVENTORY-9 17

Hypersexuality

To assess general hypersexuality as it relates to perceived addiction to Internet pornography,

we again used the K-SCS (Kalichman & Rompa, 1995). For details regarding this instrument,
see the description in Study 2.

RESULTS

Descriptive Statistics
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Descriptive statistics for the K-SCS can be seen in Table 1. Descriptive statistics for the CPUI-9
and interscale correlations can be seen in Table 3.

Factor Structure

To further test the factor structure of the CPUI-9, the nine items were again entered into a
confirmatory factor analysis. Results revealed a good fit for the proposed three-factor solution,
χ 2(24, N = 152) = 27.8, p = .27, CFI = .987, TLI = .980 RMSEA = .034, SRMR = .043. See
Figure 1 for the complete path model.

FIGURE 1 Confirmatory factor analysis of CPUI-9 with three subscales in adult web-sample: χ 2 (24, N = 208) = 33.7,
p = .05,CFI = .989, TLI = .982 RMSEA = .051, SRMR = .025; and undergraduate counseling center sample: χ 2 (24,
N = I52) = 27.8, p = .27, CFI = .987, TLI = .980 RMSEA = .034, SRMR = .043. ∗ Adult Web /Undergraduate
Counseling Center; All loadings significant at p <. 0l
 18 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

Correlational Analyses

Correlations between the CPUI-9 and subscales and the KSCS can be seen in Table 4. The full
CPUI-9 and each of its component scales demonstrated highly significant positive associations
with the K-SCS, again illustrating the high degree of relatedness between perceived addiction to
Internet pornography and general hypersexual tendencies and further confirming an understanding
of perceived addiction to Internet pornography as a subdomain of hypersexuality.

DISCUSSION

Results from this final study again illustrate the general structure of the CPUI-9. Despite being
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limited to a binary-response, brief screening format, the factor structure of the CPUI-9 clearly
emerged. This finding suggests that the factor structure of the inventory is robust. The results
also suggest the utility of a brief screening version of the CPUI-9 for situations in which brevity
is a necessity. Although this study did not explore the relations between the CPUI-9 and other
clinical constructs, these findings indicate that the scale is useful in clinical settings. Last, the
correlations between the CPUI-9 and the established K-SCS again underscore the validity of the
scale and the interrelatedness of compulsive pornography use and hypersexuality more generally.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

At the outset of this study, we aimed to refine the 32-item CPUI into a brief instrument measuring
perceived addiction to Internet pornography. We further aimed to demonstrate that perceived
addiction to Internet pornography would be robustly related to psychological distress indicators.
We achieved these objectives by examining the inventory in two web-based samples (undergrad-
uates and adults) and a student counseling center sample. Across studies, we found consistent
support for our hypotheses. Here, we summarize those findings, discuss the implications of those
findings, and highlight areas of future interest.

The CPUI-9

At the outset of this study, we aimed to reduce the overall length of the CPUI into a useful, short
measure assessing the addictive nature of problematic Internet pornography use. Factor analyses
revealed that the CPUI could be reduced to a three-factor, 9-item inventory, which we labeled
the CPUI-9. The three emerging factors—perceived compulsivity, access efforts, and emotional
distress—were generally in line with the hypothesized factors. We confirmed this structure in
both a web-based adult sample (Study 2) and a clinical sample (Study 3). These shortened scales
showed strong correlations with the first measure (Study 1), strong correlations with hypersexual
tendencies (Studies 2 and 3), and were robust predictors of psychological distress (Studies 1 and 2).
We consistently found that higher scores on the CPUI-9 were associated with greater use of
Internet pornography, both in frequency of use and in duration. These findings were particularly
notable for the compulsivity and efforts subscales. However, our results also showed that emo-
tional distress was not associated with increased use. Although cross-sectional data such as this
does not allow for inferences about causation, it is possible that emotional distress, while being
 CYBER PORNOGRAPHY USE INVENTORY-9 19

highly related to feelings of addiction, may be independent of actual use. Such a finding would be
consistent with previous work (e.g., Gilliland et al., 2011) demonstrating that feelings of guilt can
actually help deter hypersexual tendencies. However, given no relation emerged between distress
regarding use and participants’ actual use, we are hesitant to make substantive inferences. Future
work examining the exact relation between moral-affective responses to Internet pornography use
(e.g., guilt, shame) and actual use is needed. In sum, the associations between higher scores on
the CPUI-9 and higher levels of pornography use provide evidence for the validity of the CPUI-9
as a brief measure assessing perceived pornography addiction.
As we predicted at the outset of this study, we found that perceived compulsivity in Internet
pornography use was positively associated with sexual compulsivity more generally. The CPUI-9
was rather strongly associated with hypersexual tendencies and sexual compulsivity as measured
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by the K-SCS (Kalichman & Rompa, 1995). The relation between these two measures points to an
understanding of perceived addiction to Internet pornography as a subdomain of hypersexuality
more generally.
As a research instrument, the CPUI-9 is a promising brief tool examining an individual’s
perceptions of his or her own pornography use. Our findings also extend to the clinical domain.
The factor structure of the instrument emerged very clearly within a clinical setting, even when
the inventory was restricted to a true/false response format. This true/false response format,
coupled with the brevity of the instrument, indicate that the CPUI-9 can be used easily within
clinical settings as a quick screening measure to determine whether an individual is troubled
by their use of pornography. By assessing behaviors related to use, attitudes toward use, and
emotional distress about use, this brief scale captures three key elements of perceived addiction
to Internet pornography. In sum, our analyses indicate that the CPUI-9 has indicated promise
both psychometrically and theoretically.

CPUI-9 and Psychological Distress

Pornography use has previously been linked to distress (Owens, Behun, Manning, & Reid, 2011).
We aimed to demonstrate that perceived addiction to Internet pornography is robustly related
to distress, even when actual use is accounted for. Across the first two studies, the various
components of the CPUI-9 were robustly and diversely associated with heightened psychological
distress, even when holding an individual’s actual level of use constant. This indicates that
perception of use may be a driving factor in the relation between Internet pornography use
and psychological distress. Furthermore, these associations were not only seen in relation to the
emotional distress subscale (as one would expect), but also in relation to the compulsivity subscale
(Studies 1 and 2) as well as the access efforts subscale (Study 2). Last, in both studies, even when
known predictors of distress (e.g., neuroticism, poor self-control) were controlled, these relations
maintained significance. Although the findings were small in magnitude, the significance of our
findings even when controlling for highly relevant covariates suggests the robustness of this
relation. This finding echoes previous qualitative work demonstrating a link between perceived
Internet pornography addiction and psychological distress (Philaretou et al., 2005).
Although cross-sectional analyses do not allow for causal inferences, the robustness of the
relation between the CPUI-9 and psychological distress points to the clinical relevance of ex-
amining perceived addiction to Internet pornography. It is possible that perceived addiction to
Internet pornography is simply a function of psychological distress. The ruminative and obsessive
 20 J. B. GRUBBS ET AL.

tendencies characteristic of heightened depression and anxiety could lead to a negative interpre-
tation of one’s use. We also suspect that compulsive Internet pornography use could be used as a
coping mechanism for dealing with other forms of psychological distress. Such an interpretation
is not uncommon in literature examining hypersexuality (Cooper, Putnam, Planchon, & Boies,
2000; Reid, Cooper, Prause, Li, & Fong, 2012). However, regardless of the causal direction of this
relation, the association still stands, indicating that there is a relation between these constructs
that should be examined more carefully. Given the prevalence of Internet pornography use in
adults and emerging adults, these findings strongly point to the clinical relevance of perceived
addiction to Internet pornography. Last, given that these associations persisted, even when actual
time spent viewing was controlled for statistically, these findings illustrate that an individual’s
attitude toward personal of Internet pornography may be of more clinical relevance than the actual
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amount of time spent viewing pornography.

CPUI-9 and Individual Differences

Although not a primary focus of this undertaking, we consistently found that the CPUI-9 and its
various subscales were related to measures of individual differences. In particular, we noted that
neuroticism was strongly associated with distress regarding use and compulsivity across samples.
This finding was expected, as neuroticism has been linked to perceived addiction to Internet
pornography (Egan & Parmar, 2013). We also noted that there were sporadic negative associations
between trait self-control and the various subscales of the CPUI-9. This finding suggests that
individuals who generally exhibit less self-regulation may be more likely to experience difficulty
regulating their behaviors in this domain as well. This finding was sporadic across studies, so no
conclusions can be drawn. However, it points to an area where future research is needed.

Limitations and Future Directions

Despite the persuasive findings regarding the validity and utility of the CPUI-9, the limitations
of our findings must be considered. All of our data were collected using adults in the United
States. Findings may differ in different cultural settings or among adolescents, indicating an area
of needed future research. Although our findings were consistent across studies and socially
desirable responding was controlled across the first two studies, all conclusions must be made
while accounting for the limitations of self-report data. Furthermore, because of the cross-
sectional nature of our samples, we were limited in the conclusions we could make regarding the
implications of addiction to Internet pornography. Although Internet pornography use is typically
private and unobserved by others, future research of perceived addiction to Internet pornography
should strive to include alternate sources of data, if at all possible. Future longitudinal research is
needed that allows for the study of perceived Internet pornography addiction over time, thereby
allowing for more definitive conclusions to be made regarding the associations between perceived
addiction, increased use of Internet pornography, and psychological distress. Last, there is a need
for future work examining the nuances of the relation between hypersexuality broadly and Internet
pornography addiction specifically. Although the present work examined hypersexuality briefly
using the K-SCS, we see a need for future work cross validating the CPUI-9 with more expansive
inventories such as the SAST-R (Carnes et al., 2010), the Compulsive Sexual Behavior Inventory
(Coleman et al., 2001), or the Hypersexual Behavior Inventory (Reid et al., 2011).
 CYBER PORNOGRAPHY USE INVENTORY-9 21

Conclusion

Internet pornography use is a growing phenomenon that is likely to have diverse effects in various
domains. At present, we were able to demonstrate that a brief, nine-item measure known as the
CPUI-9 is a psychometrically sound instrument for the assessment of problematic pornography
use and perceived addiction to Internet pornography. This scale was tested and validated in
both web-based and clinical settings, demonstrating sound psychometric qualities in each. The
scale was also tested in an extremely brief true/false response format, again demonstrating
good psychometric qualities. The scale also demonstrated strong correlations with hypersexual
tendencies, reinforcing an understanding of compulsive pornography use as a subdomain of
hypersexuality. Across samples, we further determined that the various components of the CPUI-
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9 were broadly associated with psychological distress, indicating that there is a unique relation
between Internet pornography addiction and psychological distress. These findings persisted, even
when the amount of time spent viewing pornography was controlled for statistically, indicating
that perceived addiction to Internet pornography is more closely related to psychological distress
than actual levels of use. In sum, these findings point to the usefulness of this brief instrument as
a measure of perceived addiction to Internet pornography.

FUNDING

We gratefully acknowledge the support of the John Templeton Foundation Grant #36094 in
funding Study 1 of this work. We also gratefully acknowledge the support of the American Psy-
chological Association’s Division 36: The Society for the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality
in funding Study 2 of this project in the form of a Research Seed Award Grant awarded to the
first author of this publication.

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APPENDIX

The Cyber Pornography Use Inventory–9

Please rate your agreement with the following statements.1

Not at all2 Extremely

1 I believe I am addicted to Internet pornography. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2 Even when I do not want to use pornography 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
online, I feel drawn to it.
3 I feel unable to stop my use of online pornography. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
4 At times, I try to arrange my schedule so that I will 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
be able to be alone in order to view pornography.
5 I have refused to go out with friends or attend 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
certain social functions to have the opportunity
to view pornography.
6 I have put off important priorities to view 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
pornography.
7 I feel ashamed after viewing pornography online. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 I feel depressed after viewing pornography online. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9 I feel sick after viewing pornography online. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1Scale is scored by taking the average of items. Total scale = Items 1–9; perceived compulsivity = Items 1–3; access

efforts = Items 4–6; emotional distress = Items 7–9.

2This scale may also be administered in a brief screening true/false format. Contact the authors for additional

information on this format of the scale.