First Quarter Module 2: Origin and Structure of the Earth discuss the primary

components of the solid Earth (rocks and minerals). Our home planet, as described by NASA, is
the third planet from the Sun, and the only planet we know so far that can sustain life. Earth is a
rocky planet with a solid and dynamic surface of mountains, canyons, plains and more.Through
this module, you will have a deeper understanding of the materials and processes that occur within
the Earth (how they are transformed and converted from one form to another). You will also have
a closer look at the different geologic phenomena that reflects how the Earth is constantly changing
itself, why it happens, and project these processes into the future.

Module 2: Earth Materials and Processes

Module Content
Lesson 1: What Makes Up The Crust Of The Earth?
Lesson 2: What Factors Cause The Different Shapes And Structures Of The
Earth?
Lesson 3: What Causes The Deformation Of The Earth’s Crust?
Lesson 4: How Did The Earth Evolve?

In this module, you will learn to:

1. Identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical
properties.
2. Classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
3. Explain how the products of weathering are carried away by erosion and deposited
elsewhere.
4. Describe where the Earth’s internal heat comes from.
5. Describe how magma is formed (magmatism).
6. Describe the physical and chemical changes in rocks due to changes in pressure and
temperature (metamorphism).
7. Compare and contrast the formation of the different types of igneous rocks.
8. Explain how the movement of plates leads to the formation of folds and faults.
9. Describe how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed.
10. Describe the different methods (relative and absolute dating) to determine the age
of stratified rocks.
11. Explain how relative and absolute dating were used to determine the subdivisions
of geologic time.
12. Describe how the Earth’s history can be interpreted from the geologic time scale.

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 1
LESSON
What Makes Up The Crust Of The Earth?

Let’s Develop Your Cumulative Knowledge

Let us check how much you know about the materials that make up the Earth.

Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer and write this in your notebook.

1. Which of the following is NOT a physical property of minerals?

a. habit b. luster c. oxidizing potential d. streak

2. Which of the following is the most abundant element found in rocks?

a. carbon b. hydrogen c. oxygen d. silicon

3. It is the measure of a mineral’s resistance to scratching.

a. habit b. hardness c. color d. streak

4. These are rocks that are formed from the solidification of lava when a volcano erupts.

a. igneous rocks b. metamorphic rocks c. sedimentary rocks

5. These rocks are formed by the accumulation of sediments.

a. igneous rocks b. metamorphic rocks c. sedimentary rocks

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 Directions: Look at the clues below and determine the word that fits in the crossword
puzzle either across or down.

II. Discover
The Earth’s crust is made of rocks, which in turn are composed of minerals.
MINERALS
Minerals are naturally occurring substances that build up the Earth’s crust. There
are many types of minerals, but they all have some characteristics common to each other.
These characteristics include the following:
1. Minerals are crystalline solids.
2. Minerals are made of chemical elements and compounds.
3. Minerals have known chemical compositions.
4. Minerals are inorganic.
Most minerals are derived or extracted from nature through the process of mining.
They are generally made of a higher form of elements, like iron, magnesium, chromium, and
silicon. These are usually crystalline solids with definite shapes and structures. There are
substances, however, that meet the five criteria but do not have a definite shape or crystallinity.
These amorphous minerals are classified as mineraloids.
29
 Minerals are present everywhere and some examples of these can be found at
home. Diamond rings, aluminum foil, and talcum powder are made of minerals. Other examples
are as follows:
1. Hematite – hinges, handles, mattress spring, make-up color
2. Chromite – chrome plating, dyes
3. Copper – electrical wiring
4. Quartz – clocks, mirrors
5. Gold – jewelry, plating, coating
6. Borax – abrasive, cleaner, antiseptic
7. Feldspar – porcelain, ceramics
8. Fluorite – toothpaste
9. Spharelite – dyes
Minerals are made up of different ions bonded
together. Ions are charged atoms and categorized as cation
(positive ions) and anion (negative ions).
Some of the common cations and anions are shown
in Figure 1.1 Table 2.1 Common cations and anions

Classification of Minerals
Minerals can be classified based on their chemical compositions and physical properties.
Generally, minerals are categorized as silicates, nonsilicates,
metallic, nonmetallic, and a gem.
Silicate minerals are those that contain silicon and oxygen.
They are further classified into mafic silicates and felsic silicates.
Mafic silicates generally contain iron (Fe) or magnesium
(Mg) and are dark in color. Examples are olivine, pyroxene,
amphibole, and biotite mica.
Felsic silicates contain potassium (K) or sodium (Na) and
aluminum (Al) and are light in color. Examples are feldspar, Figure 2.1 Silicate Minerals
quartz, clay minerals, and muscovite (white mica).
Nonsilicate minerals are those that do not contain silicon.
The most common groups of nonsilicate minerals are
carbonates, halides, and sulfates.
Carbonates include calcium carbonate (CaCO3).
Also known as calcite, calcium carbonate is a common
constituent of limestone.
Halide, or sodium chloride (NaCl), is an example of
halide. Other forms of halides are bromide, fluoride, and
Figure 2.2 Nonsilicate Minerals iodide. Gypsum or calcium sulfate (CaSO4) is an example
of a sulfate.
Metallic minerals are those that are made up of heavy metallic elements. Copper, iron,
gold, silver, chromium, and nickel, are examples of metallic minerals.
Nonmetallic minerals lack the properties of metallic minerals, such as bright metallic
luster, hardness, density, and good conduction of heat and electricity. Examples of nonmetallic
minerals are calcite, quartz, talc, and gypsum.

30
 Gem minerals are those that possess unique bright colors and are commonly used for
jewelry. Some examples are jade, sapphire, ruby, opal, and garnet.

From left to right: Figure 2.3 Metallic minerals, Figure 2.4 Nonmetallic minerals, and Figure 2.5 Gem minerals

Identification of Minerals
Minerals can be distinguished using their physical and chemical properties. Geologists
preferably use the physical properties to identify newly discovered minerals. These physical
properties include habit, luster, cleavage, hardness, color, and streak.
1. Habit refers to the overall shape or growth pattern of the mineral. Scientists use “equant”,
“elongate”, and “platy” to describe the habit of minerals.
a. Equant – Three dimensions of the mineral have about the same length as that of a
cube or sphere. Garnet shows an equant habit.
b. Elongate – Minerals form prismatic or prism-like crystals that are thicker than
needles as in a pencil. Indicolite shows an elongated habit.
c. Platy – The minerals look like a flattened and thin crystals (like plates). Wulfenite
shows a platy habit.
2. Luster refers to the quantity and quality of light reflected from the exterior surface of the
mineral. The luster of minerals can be described as opaque, transparent, dull, or shiny. Gold
and silver exhibit metallic luster. Silicates have a nonmetallic luster.
3. Cleavage refers to the tendency of a mineral to break along very smooth, flat, and shiny
surfaces. The breakage happens parallel to zones of weak bonding in the crystal structure
of a mineral.
4. Hardness is a measure of the mineral’s resistance to scratching. Harder minerals will
scratch softer minerals. Geologists rank minerals according to hardness using Moh’s scale
of hardness. The scale was created by German mineralogist Friedrich Mohs in 1812.

Figure 2.7 Mohs Scale of Hardness

Figure 2.6 Cleavage

5. Color varies in many minerals
making it very unreliable to set a standard for identification. Some minerals come in just
one color, while others come in many colors and varieties.

6. Streak refers to the color of mark or powder left by rubbing the mineral against a streak
plate (unglazed porcelain). The streak of metallic minerals appears to be darker in color
than that of the nonmetallic ones.

31
 Figure 2.8 Color of minerals Figure 2.9 Streak

ROCKS
Rocks are natural solid materials that make up most of the Earth’s lithosphere. They can
be found lying around the surface of the Earth and even beneath it.
Three types of rocks can interchangeably transform from one type to another. These are
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Rocks constantly change from one type to another
and get transported from place to place in a cycle known as the rock cycle.
The rock cycle starts with the molten
material called magma found beneath the surface of
the Earth. In time, the magma cools down and
solidifies to form igneous rocks. This may occur
either on the surface or beneath the ground.
Igneous rocks formed on the surface are
known as extrusive or volcanic igneous rocks, while
those that formed beneath the ground are known as
intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks.
On the surface of the Earth, igneous rocks are
slowly broken down into smaller fragments known
as sediments through the process of weathering.

Figure 2.10 The Rock Cycle

The different agents of erosion will

transport down these sediments to
nearby bodies of water or in the deserts.
At the site of deposition, the sediments
undergo processes, like sedimentation,
compaction, and cementation.

Figure 2.11 Deposition, Compaction, and Cementation

32
 Some rocks remain on the surface of the Earth but if buried, they will be subjected to great
pressure and intense heat. The pressure and heat will transform the sedimentary rocks into
metamorphic rocks. Further heating and exposure to extreme pressure and temperature will turn
these metamorphic rocks back into magma, which when cooled, will solidify to form igneous rock,
thus
repeating
the cycle.

Figure 2.12 Types of Rocks

Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed from the solidification of lava when a volcano erupts. There are
two basic types – intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks, and extrusive or volcanic igneous rocks.
Intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks are formed when the magma gets trapped beneath the
ground and cools down very slowly, forming larger crystals and coarse-grained rocks. Examples
of this kind of rock are granite, diorite, gabbro, pegmatite, dunite, and peridotite.
Extrusive or volcanic igneous rocks are formed when the magma reaches the Earth’s
surface as a volcano erupts and cools quickly to form small crystals. Examples include basalt,
andesite, obsidian, pumice, rhyolite, scoria, and tuff.
Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation of sediments. There are three basic
types of sedimentary rocks: clastic, chemical, and organic.
Clastic sedimentary rocks are composed of clasts, which are little pieces of broken rock
particles that have been joined together as a result of compaction and cementation. Examples of
clastic sedimentary rocks are conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, and shale.
Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed as a result of repeated flooding and evaporation.
Usually, when water evaporates, it leaves a layer of dissolved minerals behind, such as rock salt,
iron ore, flint, some dolomites, and some limestones.
Organic sedimentary rocks such as coal, some dolomites, and some limestones, form from
the accumulation of plant or animal debris.
Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks have been modified by heat, pressure, and chemical processes usually
while buried deep below the Earth’s surface. Exposure to these extreme conditions can alter the
mineralogy, texture, and chemical composition of rocks.
Metamorphic rocks can be foliated or non-foliated. Foliated metamorphic rocks, such as
gneiss, phyllite, schist, and slate, have layered or banded appearances caused by exposure of
minerals to heat and pressure. Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks, such as hornfels, marble, quartzite,
and novaculite, do not display layering or banding that are present in foliated rocks.

33
 Activity – Guess That Mineral!
Minerals can be found around us. Identify the object in the picture and on the
opposite side, write the minerals in which the object is made of.

OBJECT MINERALS WHERE IT IS MADE OF

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

34
 KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER:
✓ The Earth’s crust is made of rocks, which in turn are composed of minerals.
✓ Minerals are naturally occuring substances that build up the Earth’s crust.
✓ Minerals can be classified based on their chemical compositions and physical properties.
Generally, minerals are categorized as silicates, nonsilicates, metallic, nonmetallic, and
gem.
✓ Minerals can also be distinguished using their physical and chemical properties.
Physical properties include habit, luster, cleavage, hardness, color, and streak.
✓ Rocks are natural solid materials that make up the most of the Earth’s lithosphere.
✓ There are three types of rocks which can interchangeably transform from one type to
another. These are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. Rocks constantly
change from one type to another and get transported from place to place in a cycle
known as the rock cycle.

Learning about rocks and minerals gives us a deeper appreciation of God’s artistic nature.
As a matter of fact, in most places of the Earth, stand God’s own masterpieces of various and
stunning rock formations.
Below are some of the Famous Rock Formations of the World. Identify and write their
names below their picture.

____________________ __________________________ ________________________

_______________________ ____________________________

35
Baltazar, R. A. et.al. (2016). Conceptual Science and Beyond Earth and Life Science.
Brilliant Creations Publishing, Inc.
Geology of Gems
http://geologycafe.com/gems/chapter1.html
Ions
https://classnotes.org.in/class-9/atoms-and-molecules/ions/
Metallic minerals
https://slideplayer.com/slide/14738080/
Minerals
https://www.slideshare.net/gpc2717/minerals-physical-properties
Non-silicate Materials Examples
https://www.slideserve.com/zoheret/identifying-minerals-ch-5-sec-3
Rocks
https://www.slideserve.com/donat/rocks
Rocks and Minerals Worksheet
https://worksheetplace.com/mf_pdf/Rocks-and-Minerals-Crossword.pdf
Rock Cycle
https://www.sciencefacts.net/rock-cycle.html
Sedimentary Rock
http://www.goodrichscience.com/2-gaa-sedimentary-rocks.html
Silicate Minerals Examples
http://www.agrilearner.com/primary-silicate-minerals/
The Process of Rocks – Mohs Scale
https://theprocessofrocks.weebly.com/mohs-scale-of-mineral-hardness.html
The 20 Most Famous and Amazing Rock Formations in the World
https://wanderwisdom.com/travel-destinations/Incredible-Rock-Formations

36
 2
LESSON
What Factors Cause The Different Shapes And Structures
Of The Earth?

Let’s Develop Your Cumulative Knowledge

Let us check how much you know about the factors affecting the shape and structure
of the Earth.

Directions: Match Column A to Column B. Write the letter of the correct answer in your notebook.

A B
________1.This happens when fragments of rocks move from a. Erosion

one place to another. b. Weathering

_______ 2. The process of degradation or breaking down of c. Mechanical weathering

rocks into smaller fragments known as sediments. d. Mass wasting

_______ 3. The movement of a large fragment of rocks down e. Physical weathering

the slope due to gravity.

_______ 4. Also called mechanical weathering and it is

caused by the breaking apart of rocks without changing their

chemical composition.

_______ 5. It involves the chemical decomposition of rocks

due to chemical reactions or minerals within the rocks and the

environment.

37
 Zoom in – Zoom out!
Using the application Google Earth, describe the face of the Earth as viewed from space
and its actual view as you explore the following landscapes. Paste the pictures of the view in your
notebook to support your observation.
✓ Mayon Volcano, Albay
✓ Hundred Islands, Alaminos Pangasinan
✓ Mount Apo, Davao City

Note: If you are using your browser, you may visit the link: https://earth.google.com/
If you are only using your phone, download the Google Earth application on playstore.

If you look at the Earth from a distance, it

looks as if it does not have a uniform appearance.
The Earth has varying shapes, structures, and
formations, which could be attributed to the
different processes that alter its face. These
processes could be either exogenic, which occurs
externally at or near the Earth’s surface or
endogenic, which occurs internally below the
Figure 2.13 Earth as viewed from space (left) and Earth’s landscape
Earth’s surface.
(right)
Exogenic Processes
Exogenic processes are caused by exogenic factors, or agents supplying energy for
activities that are located at or near the Earth’s surface. Exogenic factors are usually driven by
gravitational and/or atmospheric forces. Processes that are caused by exogenic factors are
weathering, erosion, mass wasting, and denudation.
Weathering
Weathering is the process of degradation or breaking down of rocks into smaller fragments
known as sediments. It occurs when mechanical force is applied on rocks or through chemical
reactions happening on the surface or within the rocks. There are two types of weathering: physical
and chemical weathering.
Physical weathering is also called mechanical weathering and it is caused by the breaking
apart of rocks without changing their chemical composition. The following are examples that
illustrate physical weathering.
a. Frost heaving and wedging – This
occurs when water seeps into the
rocks or occupies spaces in between
rocks and freezes, acting as a wedge.

Figure 2.14 A diagram displaying the steps of frost wedging

38
 b. Plant roots – Huge trees that
produce large roots anchor
themselves on rocks and force their
way into them.

c. Burrowing animals – Some

animals create their homes by
making holes on the rocks. Figure 2.15 Plant roots breaking rocks and burrowing animal

d. Abrasion – Rocks in the rivers, seas,

valleys, mountains, or deserts, degrade or
disintegrate due to friction or repeated
collisions or impacts.
e. Temperature changes – Sudden temperature
changes weaken the integral structure of
rocks, resulting in weathering.
Figure 2.16. Rocks on a beach are worn down by abrasion
as passing waves cause them to strike each other

Chemical weathering involves the chemical decomposition of rocks due to chemical

reactions or minerals within the rocks and the environment. Some agents of chemical weathering
are as follows:
a. Water – It dissolves the soluble minerals present in rocks.
b. Oxygen – It facilitates the oxidation process in the presence of water in some metallic
minerals, such as pyrite.
c. Living organisms – Organisms, such as lichens, produce weak acids that slowly corrode
the rocks.
d. Acids – Carbon acid (H2CO3) is formed when carbon dioxide (CO2) present in the
atmosphere reacts with water. It easily decomposes limestones and marbles. Acid rain is
formed from nonmetallic oxides. The abundance of these acids results in observable
damages to structures, buildings, plants, and vegetation as well.

Erosion and Mass Wasting

Erosion happens when fragments of rocks move from one place to another. It is called
erosion if the rock fragments are moved by various agents, such as air, water, and ice.

Figure 2.17 Wind, Water and Ice Erosion

39
 Mass wasting is the
movement of a large
fragment of rocks down the
slope due to gravity.
Landslide, mudslide,
slumps, and debris flow are
all examples of mass
wasting.

Figure 2.18 Types of Mass Wasting

Endogenic Processes
As you have learned, exogenic processes cause rocks to form and break down into smaller
fragments and get transported from one place to another. These facilitate the shaping of the Earth’s
surface. However, the internal processes provide a greater influence on changing the shape of the
Earth’s surface. Such changes include the formation of mountains and the spreading of the
continents and ocean floor. The internal processes can also cause earthquakes or volcanic
eruptions.
Endogenic processes are caused by endogenic factors, or agents supplying energy for
activities that are located within the Earth or below the Earth’s surface. They refer to the movement
of the Earth’s lithosphere resulting in the
formation of various landforms.
Magmatism explains the movement
of magma to form igneous rocks. This is the
process responsible also for mountain
formation. Mountains, volcanoes, or island
arcs at convergent plate boundaries, as well
as mid-ocean and seafloor spreading ridges
at divergent plate boundaries of the Earth,
are additional mass and volume formed due
to magmatism.
Figure 2.19 Magmatism forming igneous rocks

On the other hand, plutonism, also known as

volcanism, explains that the rocks are formed in
fire by volcanic activity. According to this theory,
rocks gradually wither through time, are washed
away, and then deposited on the seafloor, forming
layers of sedimentary rocks through heat and
pressure. This results in stratified layers of rocks
that determine the age of the continents and the

Figure 2.20 Plutonism ocean.

40
 Activity 1 – Let’s Compare!
Compare the endogenic and exogenic processes using the Venn diagram below.

Endogenic Process Exogenic Process

Compare physical and chemical weathering using the Venn diagram below.

Physical weathering
Chemical weathering

41
 KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER:
✓ The Earth has varying shapes, structures, and formations, which could be attributed
to the different processes that alter its face.
✓ These processes could be either exogenic, which occurs externally at or near the
Earth’s surface, or endogenic, which occurs internally below the Earth’s surface.
✓ Weathering is the process of degradation or breaking down of rocks into smaller
fragments known as sediments. It can either be physical or chemical.
✓ Erosion happens when fragments of rocks move from one place to another.
✓ Mass wasting is the movement of large fragment of rocks down the slope due to
gravity.
✓ Magmatism explains the movement of magma to form igneous rocks.
✓ Plutonism, also known as volcanism, explains that the rocks are formed in fire by
volcanic activity.

Explain the following briefly. Write your thoughts in your notebook.

1. How does erosion and mass wasting alter the surface of the Earth? In what way do they
pose a threat to mankind?

2. Would you consider the current activities of man today have an impact on the future of
the Earth?

42
Baltazar, R. A. et.al. (2016). Conceptual Science and Beyond Earth and Life Science.
Brilliant Creations Publishing, Inc.

Erosion by Wind, Ice, and Gravity | Earth Science

https://earthscience.xyz/WindIceGravityErosion
How Can Plants Break Rocks?
https://www.nsta.org/lesson-plan/how-can-plants-break-rocks
Igneous Rocks
https://www.thinglink.com/scene/580528466319900672
Learning Geology: Volcanism and Igneous Rocks
http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/09/igneous-rocks.html
Mass Wasting and Types of Mass wasting
https://www.brainkart.com/article/Mass-Wasting-and-Types-of-Mass-Wasting_33781/
Mechanical Weathering
https://www.ck12.org/c/earth-science/mechanical-weathering/lesson/Mechanical-
Weathering-HS- ES/
Weathering
https://brilliant.org/wiki/weathering/

43
 3
LESSON
What Causes the Deformation of the Earth’s Crust?

Let’s Develop your Cumulative Knowledge

Let us check how much you know about the Deformation of the Earth’s Crust.

Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer and write this on your answer sheet.
1. Which refers to a crack in the Earth’s crust?
a. fault c. moraine
b. fold d. earthquake
2. Which is a long, narrow trough in the seafloor formed where a subducting plate turns
downward to sink into the mantle.
a. bay c. ridge
b. gulf d. trench
3. According to the hypothesis of the spreading seafloor, where does the molten rock rise up?
a. equator c. ridges on Mid-ocean floor
b. location of the Tethy sea d. trenches on the rim of the Pacific
ocean
4. What theory states that the lithosphere is divided into plates?
a. theory of plate tectonics c. transform boundary
b. asthenosphere d. divergent plate boundary
5. It refers to the fault on which the movement is horizontal.
a. normal fault c. trust fault
b. reverse fault d. strike-slip fault
6. They proposed the Seafloor spreading hypothesis.
a. Charles Darwin and James Hutton c. John Butler and Arthur Smite
b. Harry Hess and Roberts S. Dietz d. F. Vine and D. Matthews

44
 I. Share

Directions: Answer the crossword puzzle. Use the given hints below.

CONTINENTAL DRIFT CROSSWORD PUZZLE

1 2

3 4 5

8 9 10

11

12

13

14 15

16

17

18

19

20

45
Across Down
1. He came up with the idea of continental 2. a slowly moving mass or river of ice
drift formed by the accumulation and
3. An action of where thing move away compaction of snow on mountains or near
from each other the poles
5. Another word for lava 4. Something you drink to stay alive
6. a theory explaining the structure of the 7. The rigid outer part of the earth,
earth's crust and many associated consisting of the crust and upper mantle
phenomena as resulting from the 9. the movement caused within a fluid by
interaction of rigid lithospheric plates that the tendency of hotter and therefore less
move slowly over the underlying mantle. dense material to rise, and colder, denser
8. a large natural stream of water flowing in material to sink under the influence of
a channel to the sea, a lake, or another gravity, which consequently results in
such stream transfer of heat
12. the upper layer of the earth's mantle 10. a large natural elevation of the earth's
13. a change in global or regional climate surface rising abruptly from the surrounding
patterns, in particular a change apparent level; a large steep hill
from the mid to late 20th century onwards 11. Bones found of things that are now
and attributed largely to the increased dead that used to be alive
levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide 16. Outer most layer of a planet
produced by the use of fossil fuels. 17. The thickest layer of the earth
14. The planet we live on
15. The biggest body of water available
18. When the continents were all hooked
together it was called.....
19. Where all the continents spread apart
20. Alfred Wegner believed that all the
continents fitted together like.......

Understanding crustal deformation helps explain the forces necessary to bend and fold
rocks which help create mountains. This lesson will discuss the types of forces needed to
accomplish such a powerful feat. Have you ever wondered how strong those forces would have to
be? The answer to that is beyond our comprehension.

Along with these forces, we will investigate various types of folds as well as different
types of faults. If you recall from the plate tectonics sections, earthquakes occur along active fault
lines. This lesson will help us to understand how faults work.

46
 Plate tectonics
As formulated during the 1960s, the plate tectonic theory explains that the
lithosphere was so brittle that it was divided into major plates considered to be floating over the
hot liquid of the asthenosphere. There are a total of seven major plates namely: North American,
South American, Pacific, African, Eurasian, Australian, and Antarctic; and six minor plates,
namely Cocos, Caribbean, Nazca, Scotia, Arabian and Philippine plate.

Figure 2.21 The major plates of the world mapped in the 20th century

Aside from being divided into several plates, these plates move across Earth's
surface, each in different directions from their neighbors. They glide slowly over the weak
asthenosphere at rates ranging from one to about 18 cm a year. As these plates move, they bump
and grind together at their boundaries, leading to the formation of various landforms. Another
theory that was considered to be an aspect of this theory is the continental drift theory.

Alfred Wegener created a map of the Earth by fitting the continents into one. He
then hypothesized that the continents were joined together into one supercontinent known as
Pangaea about 225 million years ago. Since then, as explained in the plate tectonic theory, the
continents were constantly moving which resulted in the splitting of the supercontinent into two
major continents-Gondwanaland and Laurasia. The continents further moved, eventually
leading to the seven continents that we have at present.

47
 Figure 2.22 The breakup of Pangaea over time

Wegener's theory required evidence to support his claim. Aside from the fact that
the continents look like a jigsaw puzzle, other shreds of evidence were gathered. One evidence
is the fossils of a dinosaur known as Mesosaurus that had been found in South America and
Africa, but nowhere else in the world. Another fossil evidence found in Antarctica, Africa,
Australia, South America, and India supported the claim of Wegener. These were the fossils of a
fern called Glossopteris. Paleontologists and Wegener agreed that there was some type of land
connection between South America and Africa. Other pieces of evidence that support the theory
are the rock types and structures that match across continents. The continental drift may be
proven by evidence, but what is causing the movement?

According to geologists, the movement of the plates can be attributed to three

possible forces;
1. Gravity-the most common force that shapes the surface of the Earth. The plates are
made up of denser materials than the asthenosphere, allowing them to be pulled by gravity and
making them sink and gradually move across each plate.

2. Convection current that exists within the asthenosphere. Geologists explain that the
materials within the asthenosphere circulate due to temperature differences. Hotter materials go
up to the crust, while colder materials are pushed to the center of the Earth, moving in a circular
pattern. As the materials move, they slightly push the plates above, causing the plates to move.

48
 Figure 2.23 Trenches and Ridges are formed as a result of mantle activity.

3. Thermal plume, or known as a mantle plume. Thermal plumes are vertical

columns of molten materials that rise from the mantle towards the bottom of the lithosphere and
spread out beneath the plates, causing the plates to move. These plumes were believed to
originate from the impact of a large meteorite, creating a crater on the surface of the Earth.

Seafloor Spreading
The discovery of Mid-Atlantic Ridge as a part of a continuous submarine mountain
chain
called mid-oceanic ridge, which girdles the entire globe, confirms the lateral motion of
continents, and indicates the young age of oceanic crust. This evidence led to the theories of
seafloor spreading and plate tectonics in the 1960s. American marine geologists Robert S. Dietz
and Harry H. Hess proposed the seafloor spreading hypothesis, which states that the oceanic
crust is created as the seafloor spreads apart along mid-ocean ridges.

American oceanographers Bruce C. Heezen, Marie Tharp, and others prepared

detailed maps of the ocean floors and the mid-Atlantic ridge and rift system, a mountainous
chain found throughout the ocean. These maps provided additional evidence that seemed to
support the continental drift theory.

Further evidence came from paleomagnetism, the record of the orientation of

Earth's magnetic field recorded in rocks. In the 1950s, British geophysicist S. Keith Runcorn
determined through this evidence that the continents had moved relative to the Earth's magnetic
poles.
British marine geophysicists Fred J. Vine and Drummond Matthews described
the record of changes in the Earth's magnetic field when they discovered "magnetic stripes
formed at spreading centers of the mid-ocean ridges, leading to the Vine-Matthews hypothesis.

Magnetic stripes were also independently described by Canadian geophysicist

Lawrence Morley and confirmed by American marine geologist Walter Pitman and others.
These stripes indicated reversals of the direction of the Earth's magnetic field recorded in rock as
new ocean crusts were created at mid-ocean ridges.

49
Isostasy
Isostasy refers to the state of gravitational equilibrium between the Earth's
lithosphere and asthenosphere such that the tectonic plates "float" at an elevation, which
depends on their thickness and density. It explains how different topographic heights can exist at
the Earth's surface. When a certain area of the lithosphere reaches the state of isostasy, it is said
to be in isostatic equilibrium.

Some areas (such as the Himalayas) are not in isostatic equilibrium, which has forced
researchers to identify other reasons to explain their topographic heights. For example, in the
case of the Himalayas, researchers propose that the elevation is being "propped-up" by the
force of the impacting Indian plate.

Figure 2.24 Formation of the Himalayas

Isostasy can be observed where the Earth's strong lithosphere exerts stress on the
weaker asthenosphere over geological time. It flows laterally such that the load of the lithosphere
is accommodated by height adjustments.

Plate Boundaries
As discussed in plate tectonics, the lithosphere is divided into plates that are constantly
moving in different directions. As a result, it leads to the formation of plate boundaries. There
are three types of plate boundaries, namely:

a. Transform fault boundary occurs when two plates slide or grind past each other.
b. Divergent boundary occurs when two plates move away from each other. The divergence of
two continental plates creates a rift valley
c. Convergent boundary occurs when two plates come together or move towards each other.

The convergence of two oceanic plates creates island arcs and trenches.

50
 The convergence of an oceanic plate and a continental plate results in the formation of
volcanic mountain range and trenches. The convergence of two continental plates creates folded
mountain range.

Figure 2.25 Three Types of Plate Boundaries

Folds and Faults

Folds are bent rock layers or series of layers that are originally horizontal and
subsequently deformed. The two most common types of folds are anticlines and
synclines. An anticline is a fold in the sedimentary strata, resembling an arch. A
syncline is a linear downfold in the sedimentary strata.
Synclines and anticlines vary in symmetry. They may be symmetrical,
asymmetrical, or-if one limb has been tilted beyond the vertical-overturned.

Figure 2.26 Anticlines

Figure 2.27 Synclines

51
 Faults are fractures in the crust along which appreciable displacement has
occurred on a scale from centimeters to kilometers. A valley formed by downward
displacement of the fault-bounded block is called graben. On the other hand, horst is an
elongated, uplifted block of crust bounded by faults.

There are four types of faults:

1. Normal fault- a dip-slip fault in which the rock above the fault plane has
moved relative to the rock below

2. Reverse fault a dip-slip fault in which the material above the fault plane
moves up with the material below

3. Trust fault-a reverse fault with a dip less than 45 degrees

4. Strike-slip fault-a fault on which the movement is horizontal.

Figure 2.28 Four Types of Faults

52
 III. Connect
ACTIVITY 1 – Identify the Plate Boundaries!
Directions: Identify the type of plate boundary involved in the formation of the
following landforms.

Landforms Type of Plate boundaries

a. folded mountain range

b. volcanic ranges

c. island arc and trenches

d. rift valleys

e. San Andreas fault

ACTIVITY 2 – A Moving Crust-Post Assessment

Directions: Draw a picture to illustrate each term.

1. Convergent plate boundary 2. Divergent plate boundary

Are convergent and divergent plate movements a fast or slow process and why?
_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

53
IV. Establish

KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER:

✓ The Plate Tectonic Theory explains that the lithosphere was so brittle that it was
divided into major plates considered floating over the hot liquid of the
asthenosphere.
✓ The seven major plates are;
➢ North American
➢ South American
➢ Pacific
➢ African
➢ Eurasian
➢ Australian
➢ Antarctic
✓ The six minor plates are;
➢ Cocos
➢ Caribbean
➢ Nazca
➢ Scotia
➢ Arabian
➢ Philippine plate
✓ The Continental Drift Theory explains that the plates, aside from being divided
moves across the Earth’s surface, each in different directions from their
neighbors.
✓ The movement of the plates can be attributed to three possible forces;
➢ Gravity
➢ Convection current
➢ Thermal plume
✓ The Seafloor spreading hypothesis states that the oceanic crust is created as
the seafloor spreads apart along mid-ocean ridges.
✓ Isostasy refers to the state of gravitational equilibrium between the Earth’s
lithosphere and asthenosphere such that the tectonic plates “float” at an
elevation, which depends on their thickness and density.
✓ The three types of Plate boundaries are;
➢ Transform fault boundary
➢ Divergent boundary
➢ Convergent boundary
✓ Folds are bent rock layers or series of layers that are originally horizontal
and subsequently deformed.
✓ The two most common types of Folds are;
➢ Anticlines
➢ Synclines
✓ Faults are fractures in the crust along which appreciable displacement has
occurred on a scale from centimeters to kilometers.
✓ The four types of Faults are;
➢ Normal fault
➢ Reverse fault
➢ Trust fault
➢ Strike-slip fault

54
 V. Internalize

Explain the question briefly. Write your thoughts in your notebook.

If mountains and volcanoes were formed as a result of plate movements, how are
hills and canyons formed?

References:

Baltazar, R. A. et.al. (2016). Conceptual Science and Beyond Earth and Life Science.
Brilliant Creations Publishing, Inc.
Understanding Crustal Deformation
Why It Matters: Crustal Deformation | Geology (lumenlearning.com)

Continental Drift Crossword Puzzle

continental drift crossword puzzle - WordMint

The Major Plates of the World Mapped in the 20th Century

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Plates_tect2_en.svg/1200p
x- Plates_tect2_en.svg.png

The Break-up of Pangaea over time

https://cdn.mos.cms.futurecdn.net/MukkwnPZe2zTtY5NSvyC8X-970-80.jpg.webp

Trenches and Ridges are formed as a result of mantle activity

https://www.buddinggeographers.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Mantle-convention-
current1.jpg
Formation of the Himalayas
https://media.sciencephoto.com/image/c0279080/800wm
Three Types of Plate Boundaries
https://i.pinimg.com/originals/40/f1/1f/40f11fe27d2d95129d98a8812ea8d16f.jpg
Anticlines
Chapter 10 – Crustal Deformation (colorado.edu)
Synclines
Chapter 10 – Crustal Deformation (colorado.edu)
Four Types of Faults
https://geologycafe.com/images/faults.jpg
A Moving Crust-Post Assessment
FINALrev3_G4U8.indd (noaa.gov)

55
 4
LESSON
How Did Earth Evolve?

Let’s Develop your Cumulative Knowledge

Let us check how much you know about the Earth’s evolution.

Direction: Choose the letter of the best answer and write this on your answer sheet.

1. What era was known to be the age of dinosaurs?

a. Paleozoic era c. Mesozoic era
b. Precambrian time d. Cenozoic era
2. About how many million years ago does volcanic activity filled up the atmosphere with
carbon dioxide?
a. 4.5 billion years ago c. 550 million years ago
b. 10 million years ago d. 65 million years ago
3. What is the correct order of arrangement of the Earth’s geologic clock?
a. Mesozoic, Paleozoic, Precambrian, Cenozoic
b. Cenozoic, Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic
c. Paleozoic, Cenozoic, Mesozoic, Precambrian
d. Precambrian. Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic
4. Which is TRUE among the following statements below?
a. The mass extinction of dinosaurs is caused by volcanic activity.
b. The Hominids were the first reptiles of the Earth.
c. Cyanobacteria was a microorganism created during the Precambrian time.
d. Ice age was formed when the supercontinent Pangaea separated into pieces.
5. In what era did humans dominated the planet Earth?
a. Cenozoic era c. Paleozoic era
b. Mesozoic era d. Precambrian time

56
 I. Share

Directions: Fill in the box with the missing letters to complete the word being
described in the sentence.

1. It is the force by which a planet or other body draws objects toward its center.

R V Y
2. It is the natural process by which life has arisen from non-living matter, such as simple
organic compounds.
A G N S S
3. A family of erect bipedal primate mammals that includes recent humans together with
extinct ancestral and related forms and in some recent classifications, the great apes.
O M I

4. Mountains that were formed due to the major crustal movements during the Cenozoic era.

I L Y
5 It is caused by currents of electricity that flow in the molten core of the earth.

G N T F E D
6. These are microscopic organisms found naturally in all types of water. It is also called blue-
green algae.
C Y N B C T I A

7. It acts as an invisible shield and protects us from harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the
sun. O N E L E R

8. These are classes of cold-blooded vertebrates which spend part of their lives in water and part
on land.
P H I I N S

9. These are cold-blooded vertebrates that have dry skin and were covered with scales or bony
plates.

R P I L E
10. These are flowerless plants that produce cones and seeds.

G M O P R S

57
 II. Discover

As the Sun is formed, the solar system started to construct. The formation of the solar
system gave birth to the planet where we are living now, Earth. It was 4.6 billion years ago, as
elements combined to form the planets. The Earth's 4.6-billion-year history is subdivided into
four major units of time.

Precambrian time

By the time the Earth emerged from the combining elements, our planet was spinning
rapidly and it looked like an alien planet. Molten lava was flowing and it took only six hours for
a day to last. It seemed that the Earth was in chaos with all the elements in disorder.

However, gravity made all things in

order with the heavier elements forming the
core and the lighter materials floating and
turning into crust. The molten iron and nickel
core created a magnetic field that protected
the Earth from harmful charged particles in
space and allowed life to span.

About 4.5 billion years ago, the planet

experienced a turning point as it was hit by an
object as huge as Mars. Some of the molten
debris created another sphere moving around
the Earth now known as the moon. The
Figure 2.29 The Precambrian Era impact tilted the Earth's axis of rotation,
creating seasons and provided stability to the
planet. The tilted axis of the Earth lengthens
the day into 24 hours and cools down the
Earth.

About 4.4 billion years ago, the Earth's surface was too
hot, vaporizing water into steam. As the Earth started to cool down,
rain poured down from the sky for millions of years, creating
different bodies of water. In these bodies of water, abiogenesis took
place. Key elements combined forming the foundation of all life
forms-the DNA. These molecules created the first organism: the
cyanobacteria.
Figure 2.30 The Cyanobacteria

These microorganisms evolved and later developed the ability to harness the energy
from the sun and produced the most essential of gases, oxygen. These oxygen molecules
occupied the primeval ocean and reacted with iron, forming iron oxide, constituting our major
landmass. Later, they escaped into the atmosphere creating the ozone layer that further protected
us from the harmful radiation of the sun. Large solid continents appeared, making the crust more
suitable for living organisms. This leads to the Cambrian explosion.

58
 Figure 2.31 The Cambrian Explosion

Paleozoic Era
About 550 million years ago, with oxygen in the primeval ocean and the
atmosphere, marine communities flourished. Early fishes and aquatic plants developed. Later
plants began to occupy the land and soon some forms of fish also conquered the land. The first
amphibians emerged from the ocean and lived on land.
However, the amphibians could only
reside near water for them to deposit their
eggs. Later they developed the ability to
produce hard shells allowing them to carry
their eggs anywhere on land. Reptiles and
insects emerged.

About 250 million years ago,

Figure 2.32 Amphibians volcanic activity filled up the atmosphere
with carbon dioxide. Species that evolved
during the Cambrian time got extinct, leading to the Permian extinction. This marked the end of
the Paleozoic era and the new era emerged, giving birth to new dominant species.

Figure 2.33 The Permian extinction

59
Mesozoic Era
This era is also known as the age of the dinosaurs. This was the time when
gymnosperms emerged and the land was dominated by reptiles. Mammals started to evolve too
but were held back by the dinosaurs. The supercontinent Pangaea began to separate, forming the
Rocky Mountains.

Figure 2.34 Dinosaurs

The dominance of the dinosaurs faced an end as the asteroid hit the surface of the Earth,
causing mass extinction of the dinosaurs and giving way for mammals to flourish and a new era
to emerge.

Figure 2.35 The Dinosaurs’

Extinction

Cenozoic Era

About 65 million years ago, the continued evolution of mammals, birds, insects,
and flowering plants took place. Mammals became the dominant species and the first primates
evolved. Major crustal movements occurred during this era, creating mountains like the
Himalayas, connecting North and South America. As these two continents connected, it
disrupted the ocean current in the Atlantic, altering the climate and forming the ice age. As the
Earth cooled down, our primate ancestors inhabited the warm climate of the tropics.

60
 Figure 3.36 The Himalayas

About 10 million years ago, new plant species-the grasses-emerged and dominated the
land, giving way to grassland. Early primates inhabited most of the treetops but as the grassland
emerged, they moved to explore it. With fewer trees, the apes adapted and moved into grassland.
With tall grasses, they started walking on two feet and free hands. They later evolved to become
the first humans: the hominid. From that day on until the present time, humans dominated the
planet.

Figure 3.37 Evolution of Man

61
 The whole history of the Earth has been identified and studied through radiometric
dating and fossil analysis. The listed data mark specific timelines in the geologic time scale.

Figure 2.38 The Geologic Clock

62
 III. Connect

ACTIVITY 1 – Arrange Me Chronologically!

Directions: Classify the following events in Earth’s geologic history according to
the era where they occurred. Arrange them chronologically under each era.

a. abiogenesis
b. domination of dinosaurs

c. domination of mammals
d. asteroid impact
e. collision of a huge mass on Earth, resulting in the formation of the moon

f. formation of the Earth’s atmosphere

g. the emergence of cyanobacteria
h. evolution of humans
i. flourishing of gymnosperms
j. Pangaea

k. emergence of first amphibians

l. long duration of rain, resulting in the formation of the ocean
m. crustal formation

n. rule of primates

Precambrian Era Paleozoic Era Mesozoic Era Cenozoic Era

63
 ACTIVITY 2 – I need You to COMPLETE me!
Directions: Complete the Brace Map below by supplying the correct information
in each blank.

The Earth’s
Geologic
Time Scale

64
IV. Establish

KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER:

✓ The Earth’s history was subdivided into four major units of time namely;
➢ Precambrian time
➢ Paleozoic Era
➢ Mesozoic Era
➢ Cenozoic Era
✓ The major events that happened during the Precambrian time were;
➢ Abiogenesis took place.
➢ Cyanobacteria were formed.
➢ Formation of the Ozone layer.
➢ Cambrian explosion.
✓ The major events that happened during the Paleozoic era were;
➢ The emergence of amphibians.
➢ Reptiles and insects emerged.
➢ Permian extinction.
✓ The major events that happened during the Mesozoic era were;
➢ Age of the dinosaurs
➢ Gymnosperms emerged.
➢ Formation of the rocky mountains
➢ Mass extinction of dinosaurs
✓ The major events that happened during the Cenozoic era were;
➢ Evolution of mammals, birds, insects, and flowering plants.
➢ Formation of the Himalayas Mountains.
➢ Ice age formation.
➢ Grassland formation.
➢ The evolution of man (Hominid)
✓ Radiometric dating and Fossil analysis were used to identify and study the
whole history of the earth.

65
 V. Internalize

Explain the following briefly. Write your thoughts in your notebook.

1. How did life on Earth change from one period of geologic time to the next?
2. Do you agree that the formation of the Moon allows the Earth to be able to support life? Does the
changing of the face of the moon influence life on Earth?

References:

Baltazar, R. A. et.al. (2016). Conceptual Science and Beyond Earth and Life Science.
Brilliant Creations Publishing, Inc.

Definition of Gravity
What Is Gravity? | NASA Space Place – NASA Science for Kids
Definition of Abiogenesis
Abiogenesis - Wikipedia

Definition of Hominid
Hominid | Definition of Hominid by Merriam-Webster

Definition of Magnetic field

AAmag (nasa.gov)
Definition of Cyanobacteria
NCEH Cyanobacteria Blooms Fact Sheet (cdc.gov)
Definition of Ozone layer
Ozone and You | Ozone Secretariat (unep.org)
Definition of Amphibians
Amphibians | National Wildlife Federation (nwf.org)
Definition of Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms: Definition, Examples, and Reproduction (thoughtco.com)
The Precambrian Era
https://www.newdinosaurs.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/Precambrian-Era.jpg
The Cyanobacteria
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Cyanobacteria_guerrero_n
egro.jpg/255px-Cyanobacteria_guerrero_negro.jpg
The Cambrian Explosion
When life exploded | Science News for Students
The Permian Extinction
https://cdna.artstation.com/p/assets/images/images/000/127/964/medium/daren-horley-
extinction-event.jpg?1404819036
Dinosaurs
https://dinoanimals.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Dinosaurs-Dinosauria.jpg

66
The Dinosaurs’ Extinction
http://www.science.earthjay.com/instruction/CR_eureka/2016_spring/GEO_02/lectures/l
ecture_16/Mesozoic%20Era%20Timeline%20and%20Important%20Facts_files/mesozoi
c-era-cretaceous-tertiary-mass-extinction.jpg

The Himalayas
http://www.attikainternational.com/xml/cache/mceimages/Himalayas.jpg
Evolution of Man
http://p2emersonh-gts.weebly.com/uploads/4/3/5/6/43569565/1510151.jpg?408
The Geologic Clock
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Joao-Roberto-De-
Mattos/publication/278404045/figure/fig1/AS:392014777602050@1470475014324/Cloc
k-representation-of-the-Earths-geologic-time-scale-and-regarded-life-events-10.png

Geologic Time Scale

Geologic Time Scale | Earth Science (lumenlearning.com)

67