CHAPTER Electrons in Atoms

CHAPTER 5 Electrons in Atoms
Resource Manager
Section Objectives Activities/Features
Section 5.1 1. Compare the wave and particle models Discovery Lab: What’s Inside?, p. 117
Light and Quantized of light. MiniLab: Flame Tests, p. 125
Energy 2. Define a quantum of energy and explain ChemLab: Line Spectra, pp. 142–143
P how it is related to an energy change of
11/2 sessions
1/2 block matter.
3. Contrast continuous electromagnetic
spectra and atomic emission spectra.
LS
Section 5.2 4. Compare the Bohr and quantum Problem-Solving Lab: How was Bohr’s
Quantum Theory and mechanical models of the atom. atomic model able to explain the line
the Atom 5. Explain the impact of de Broglie’s spectrum of hydrogen? p. 130
P wave-particle duality and the Heisenberg Physics Connection, p. 131
11/2 sessions
1 block uncertainty principle on the modern view
of electrons in atoms.
6. Identify the relationships among a
LS hydrogen atom’s energy levels, sublevels,
and atomic orbitals.
Section 5.3 7. Apply the Pauli exclusion principle, the Careers Using Chemistry: Spectroscopist,
Electron Configurations aufbau principle, and Hund’s rule to write p. 136
P electron configurations using orbital How It Works: Lasers, p. 144
3 sessions
11/2 blocks diagrams and electron configuration
notation.
8. Define valence electrons and draw
LS electron-dot structures representing an
atom’s valence electrons.
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CHAPTER 5 RESOURCE MANAGER
National Science State/Local Reproducible Masters Transparencies

Content Standards Standards
UCP.1, UCP.2; A.1, A.2; 1(A), 2(B), 2(E), 3(C), Study Guide for Content Mastery, Section Focus
B.1, B.6; G.1, G.2, G.3 3(E), 5(A) pp. 25–26 L2 Transparency 17 L1 ELL
ChemLab and MiniLab Teaching
Worksheets, pp. 17–20 L2 Transparency 15 L2 ELL
Math Skills P
Transparency 5 L2 ELL
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UCP.1, UCP.2; A.2; B.1, 3(A), 3(C), 3(E), 5(A), Study Guide for Content Mastery, Section Focus PLS
B.6; G.2, G.3 6(A) pp. 27–28 L2 Transparency 18 L1P
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Laboratory Manual, pp. 33–36 L2 Teaching
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Challenge Problems, p. 5 L3 Transparency 16 PL2 ELL
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UCP.1, UCP.2; A.1, A.2; 1(A), 2(A), 2(B), 2(C), Study Guide for Content Mastery, Section Focus
LS
B.1, B.6; E.2; F.6; G.2, 2(D), 2(E), 3(D), 3(E), pp. 29–30 LS
L2 Transparency 19 L1 ELL
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G.3 5(A), 6(A), 8(A) Laboratory Manual, LS Teaching
pp. 37–40 L2
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Transparency 17 LS
L2 ELL
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Key to National Science Content Standards: UCP Unifying Concepts P
and LS
Processes, A Science as Inquiry, B Physical Science, C Life Science,
D Earth and Space Sciences, E Science and Technology,
LS
F Science in Personal and Social Perspectives, G History and Nature of Science LS
LS LS
Refer to pages 4T–5T of the Teacher Guide for an explanation of the
National Science Content Standards correlations.
116B
CHAPTER 5 Electrons in Atoms
Resource Manager
Materials List
ChemLab (pages 142–143)
40-W tubular light bulb, light socket with power cord, spectrum tubes (hydrogen, neon, and
mercury), spectrum tube power supplies (3), Flinn C-Spectra®‚ diffraction grating, colored pencils,
food coloring (red, green, blue, and yellow), 275-mL polystyrene culture flasks (4), book, water
Discovery Lab (page 117)

wrapped box containing small object
MiniLab (page 125)

Bunsen burner, cotton swabs (6), distilled water, lithium chloride, sodium chloride,
potassium chloride, calcium chloride, strontium chloride, unknown
Demonstration (pages 136–137)

spectrum tubes (hydrogen and neon), spectrum tube power supply, Flinn C-Spectra®‚
diffraction grating, colored pencils or chalk
Preparation of Solutions
For a review of solution preparation, see page 46T of the Teacher Guide.
There are no solutions to be prepared for the activities in this chapter.
Assessment Resources Additional Resources

Chapter Assessment, pp. 25–30 Spanish Resources ELL
MindJogger Videoquizzes Guided Reading Audio Program, Chapter 5 ELL
Alternate Assessment in the Science Classroom Cooperative Learning in the Science Classroom
TestCheck Software Lab and Safety SkillsP in the Science Classroom
Solutions Manual, Chapter 5 Lesson Plans P
Supplemental Problems, Chapter 5 Block Scheduling Lesson Plans
Performance Assessment in the Science Classroom Texas Lesson Plans LS
Chemistry Interactive CD-ROM, Chapter 5 quiz Texas Block Scheduling Lesson Plans LS
116C
CHAPTER 5 RESOURCE MANAGER
Glencoe Technology
The following multimedia for this chapter are available from Glencoe.
VIDEOTAPE/DVD CD-ROM
MindJogger Videoquizzes, Chemistry: Matter and Change
Chapter 5 Flame Test, Video
VIDEODISC The Aurora, Video
Cosmic Chemistry Atomic Emissions, Video
Greenhouse Effect, Movie Electrons and Energy Levels, Animation
Albert Einstein, Still Building Atoms, Exploration
Niels Bohr, Still
Atomic Theories, Movie
Louis-Victor de Broglie, Still
Bohr-de Broglie Hydrogen Orbits, Still
Multiple Learning Styles

Look for the following icons for strategies that emphasize different learning modalities.
Kinesthetic Linguistic
Building a Model, p. 123; Meeting Individual Chemistry Journal, pp. 119, 122, 140; Portfolio,
Needs, pp. 127, 139; Quick Demo, p. 131 p. 133
Visual-Spatial Logical-Mathematical
Portfolio, p. 118; Chemistry Journal, p. 133; Meeting Individual Needs, p. 128
Reteach, p. 141
Intrapersonal
English Language Learners, p. 121; Enrichment,
p. 122; Meeting Individual Needs, p. 131; Chemistry
Journal, p. 129
Key to Teaching Strategies Assessment Planner

L1 Level 1 activities should be appropriate for students with Portfolio Assessment Knowledge Assessment
learning difficulties. Portfolio, TWE, pp. 118, 120, Assessment, TWE, pp. 126,
L2 Level 2 activities should be within the ability range of 133, 145 134
all students. Assessment, p. 139 Section Assessment, SE,
Performance Assessment pp. 126, 134, 141
L3 Level 3 activities are designed for above-average students. Chapter Assessment, SE,
Assessment, TWE, pp. 122,
ELL ELL activities should be within the ability range of 128 pp. 146-149
English Language Learners. MiniLab, SE, p. 125 Skill Assessment
COOP LEARN Cooperative Learning activities are designed ChemLab, SE, pp. 142-143 Assessment, TWE, p. 141
P small group work.
for Discovery Lab, SE, p. 117 Problem-Solving Lab, TWE,
P
P p. 130
P These strategies represent student products that can be ChemLab, TWE, p. 143
P
placed into a best-work portfolio.
Demonstration, TWE, p. 137
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LS These strategies are useful in a block scheduling format.
LS
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LS 116D
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 5
Tying to Previous
Knowledge
Have students review the following
Electrons in Atoms
concepts before studying this
chapter. What You’ll Learn
Chapter 4: atomic structure You will compare the wave
▲
and particle models of light.
Using the Photo You will describe how the
▲
frequency of light emitted
Point out that the vivid colors of by an atom is a unique
light given off by fireworks are characteristic of that atom.
of different origin than colors ▲
You will compare and con-
produced by colored light bulbs or trast the Bohr and quantum
mechanical models of the
filters. Explain that energy transi- atom.
tions within atoms cause the You will express the
▲
distinctive colors—something that arrangements of electrons

students will learn more about in in atoms through orbital
the chapter. notations, electron configu-
rations, and electron dot
structures.
Chapter Themes
The following themes from the
Why It’s Important
Why are some fireworks red,
National Science Education some white, and others blue?
Standards are covered in this The key to understanding the
chapter. Refer to page 4T of the chemical behavior of fire-
Teacher Guide for an explanation works, and all matter, lies in
understanding how electrons
of the correlations. are arranged in atoms of each
Systems, order, and organization element.
(UCP.1)
Evidence, models, and explanation
(UCP.2)
Form and function (UCP.5)
Visit the Chemistry Web site at
science.glencoe.com to find
links about electrons and atomic
structure.
The colorful display from fire-

works is due to changes in the
electron configurations of atoms.
116 Chapter 5
DISCOVERY
P LAB
Purpose Teaching Strategies Expected Results
Students will make observations using all • Try to use objects in the box that are Results will vary. Students should try to
the senses except sight. simple, but challenging. use senses other than sight to determine
LS • When students are through with the the relative size, mass, shape, and
Safety and Disposal lab, you may want to identity the number of objects.
Keep boxes for use next year. objects, or, to demonstrate that
chemists can’t always see what they are Analysis
looking for, you may want to leave the Answers will vary. Students will deter-
object’s identity a mystery! mine that observations typically rely
heavily upon sight, although touch and
hearing are somewhat useful.
116
DISCOVERY LAB Section 5.1
What's Inside?
t's your birthday, and there are many wrapped presents for you to 1 Focus
I open. Much of the fun is trying to figure out what's inside the
package before you open it. In trying to determine the structure of Focus Transparency
the atom, chemists had a similar experience. How good are your
skills of observation and deduction? Before presenting the lesson, display
Procedure
Section Focus Transparency 17
1. Obtain a wrapped box from your instructor.
on the overhead projector. Have
students answer the accompanying
2. Using as many observation methods as you can, and without
unwrapping or opening the box, try to figure out what the object
questions using Section Focus
Materials inside the box is. Transparency Master 17. L1
a wrapped box from your 3. Record the observations you make throughout this discovery ELL
instructor process.
Analysis
Section
How were you able to determine things such as size, shape, number, P Focus Transpare
ncy
17 Light Wav
and composition of the object in the box? What senses did you use es
Use with
to make your observations? Why is it hard to figure out what type of Chapter
5, Sectio
n 5.1
object is in the box without actually seeing it?
LS P
Section 5.1 Light and Quantized Energy

LS
Inc.
anies,
aw-Hill Comp
of the McGr
Objectives
a division
Although three subatomic particles had been discovered by the early-1900s,
Graw-Hill,
• Compare the wave and par- the quest to understand the atom and its structure had really just begun. That
© Glencoe/Mc
1
ticle models of light. quest continues in this chapter, as scientists pursued an understanding of how What ma
Copyright
kes the
colors in
2 What ot a rainbow
her types ?
electrons were arranged within atoms. Perform the DISCOVERY LAB on of wave
s exist?
• Define a quantum of
this page to better understand the difficulties scientists faced in researching
energy and explain how
the unseen atom. Chemistry:
it is related to an energy Matter and

Change
change of matter. Section

Focus Tran
The Nuclear Atom and Unanswered Questions

sparencies
• Contrast continuous electro-

magnetic spectra and As you learned in Chapter 4, Rutherford proposed that all of an atom’s pos-
atomic emission spectra. itive charge and virtually all of its mass are concentrated in a nucleus that
Vocabulary
is surrounded by fast-moving electrons. Although his nuclear model was a
major scientific development, it lacked detail about how electrons occupy
2 Teach
electromagnetic radiation the space surrounding the nucleus. In this chapter, you will learn how elec- Concept Development
wavelength trons are arranged in an atom and how that arrangement plays a role in
Explain that the concept that matter
frequency chemical behavior.
amplitude Many scientists in the early twentieth century found Rutherford’s nuclear is made up of atoms is useful in
electromagnetic spectrum atomic model to be fundamentally incomplete. To physicists, the model did many ways. For example, the fact
quantum not explain how the atom’s electrons are arranged in the space around the that water contains two atoms of
Planck’s constant nucleus. Nor did it address the question of why the negatively charged elec- hydrogen for every atom of oxygen
photoelectric effect trons are not pulled into the atom’s positively charged nucleus. Chemists explains why the masses of the two
photon found Rutherford’s nuclear model lacking because it did not begin to account
atomic emission spectrum elements are always in the same
for the differences in chemical behavior among the various elements.
proportion in the compound. Point
out, however, that something well
5.1 Light and Quantized Energy 117
beyond this concept must account
for the vastly different chemical
behaviors of hydrogen, oxygen,
Resource Manager and the other chemical elements.
Study Guide for Content

Mastery, pp. 25–26 L2
Solving Problems: A Chemistry
Handbook, Section 5.1
and Master L1 ELL Pages 116–117
1(A), 3(E)
P 117
P
Quick Demo
Demonstrate that unlike
charges attract using the
following materials, which can
probably be obtained from
your school’s physics depart-
ment: a hard rubber rod;
either a piece of cat hide with
the fur attached or a piece of
wool; a glass rod; a piece of
synthetic fabric, such as nylon. a b c
Use a Y-shaped piece of string
to suspend the rubber rod Figure 5-1
horizontally from a support. a Chlorine gas, shown here
For example, consider the elements chlorine, argon, and potassium, which
Impart a negative charge to reacting vigorously with steel
wool, reacts with many other
are found in consecutive order on the periodic table but have very different
the rod by rubbing it with fur. atoms as well. b Argon gas fills chemical behaviors. Atoms of chlorine, a yellow-green gas at room temper-
Then, impart a positive charge the interior of this incandescent ature, react readily with atoms of many other elements. Figure 5-1a shows
to the glass rod by rubbing it bulb. The nonreactive argon chlorine atoms reacting with steel wool. The interaction of highly reactive
with synthetic fabric. When prevents the hot filament from chlorine atoms with the large surface area provided by the steel results in a
oxidizing, thus extending the
you bring the glass rod close to life of the bulb. c Solid potas-
vigorous reaction. Argon, which is used in the incandescent bulb shown in
the suspended rubber rod, the sium metal is submerged in oil Figure 5-1b, also is a gas. Argon, however, is so unreactive that it is consid-
rubber rod will move toward to prevent it from reacting with ered a noble gas. Potassium is a reactive metal at room temperature. In fact,
the glass rod. Explain that the air or water. as you can see in Figure 5-1c, because potassium is so reactive, it must be
rods’ unlike charges cause the stored under kerosene or oil to prevent its atoms from reacting with the oxy-
attraction. Point out that an gen and water in the air. Rutherford’s nuclear atomic model could not explain
atom’s positively charged why atoms of these elements behave the way they do.
In the early 1900s, scientists began to unravel the puzzle of chemical
nucleus exerts the same type
behavior. They had observed that certain elements emitted visible light when
of electrostatic
P attraction heated in a flame. Analysis of the emitted light revealed that an element’s
for its negatively charged
chemical behavior is related to the arrangement of the electrons in its atoms.
electrons. In order for you to better understand this relationship and the nature of atomic
structure, it will be helpful for you to first understand the nature of light.
LS
Go to the Chemistry Interactive Wave Nature of Light
CD-ROM to find additional Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy that exhibits wavelike behav-
resources for this chapter.
ior as it travels through space. Visible light is a type of electromagnetic radia-
tion. Other examples of electromagnetic radiation include visible light from the
sun, microwaves that warm and cook your food, X rays that doctors and den-
VIDEODISC tists use to examine bones and teeth, and waves that carry radio and television
programs to your home.
Cosmic Chemistry
All waves can be described by several characteristics, a few of which you
Disc 4, Side 8 may be familiar with from everyday experience. Figure 5-2a shows a stand-
Movie: Greenhouse ing wave created by rhythmically moving the free end of a spring toy.
Effect 1:00 min Figure 5-2b illustrates several primary characteristics of all waves, wave-
Examination of this length, frequency, amplitude, and speed. Wavelength (represented by , the
chemical phenomenon Greek letter lambda) is the shortest distance between equivalent points on a
continuous wave. For example, in Figure 5-2b the wavelength is measured
{bs`eQa”} from crest to crest or from trough to trough. Wavelength is usually expressed
in meters, centimeters, or nanometers (1 nm 1 109 m). Frequency (rep-
resented by , the Greek letter nu) is the number of waves that pass a given
118 Chapter 5 Electrons in Atoms
Portfolio
Portfolio
Classical Physics and Electrons in Atoms
Visual-Spatial Have students research explanations and diagrams in their portfo-
and explain how electrons in atoms lios. Negatively charged electrons orbiting
should behave according to classical physics. the nucleus should spiral into the
P posi-
Have them draw diagrams illustrating their tively charged nucleus, giving off energy
findings. Students should include their in the process. L2 ELL P
LS
118 P
LS
Quick Demo
Wavelength Crest
Project the beam from a high-
Amplitude intensity projector into the side
Origin
of a large beaker of water.
Darken the room and adjust
the arrangement so students
Wavelength Trough
can see the visible portion of
a b the electromagnetic spectrum
on a wall or screen. Explain
Figure 5-2 that reflection and refraction
point per second. One hertz (Hz), the SI unit of frequency, equals one wave a The standing wave produced separate the component colors
per second. In calculations, frequency is expressed with units of “waves per with this spring toy displays of white light from the
second,” 1s or (s1), where the term “waves” is understood. For example, properties that are characteristic
projector as they pass through
of all waves. b The primary
652 Hz 652 waves/second 652 652 s1 characteristics of waves are the beaker and water. Point out
s wavelength, frequency, ampli- that rainbows are formed in
The amplitude of a wave is the wave’s height from the origin to a crest, or tude, and speed. What is the much the same manner when
from the origin to a trough. To learn how lightwaves are able to form pow- wavelength of the wave in
centimeters? the colors in sunlight separate
P
erful laser beams, read the How It Works at the end of this chapter. as they are reflected and
All electromagnetic waves, including visible light, travel at a speed of refracted by raindrops.
3.00 108 m/s in a vacuum. Because the speed of light is such an important
and universal value, it is given its own symbol, c. The speed of light is the
product of its wavelength () and its frequency (). LS
c
Figure Caption Questions
Figure 5-2 What is the wavelength
Although the speed of all electromagnetic waves is the same, waves may of the wave in centimeters?
have different wavelengths and frequencies. As you can see from the equa-
tion above, wavelength and frequency are inversely related; in other words,
4.5 cm
as one quantity increases, the other decreases. To better understand this rela- Figure 5-3 Which wave has the
tionship, examine the red and violet light waves illustrated in Figure 5-3. larger amplitude? The red wave
Although both waves travel at the speed of light, you can see that red light has a larger amplitude.
has a longer wavelength and lower frequency than violet light.
Sunlight, which is one example of what is called white light, contains a con-
tinuous range of wavelengths and frequencies. Sunlight passing through a prism
Longer
wavelength
Lower frequency Figure 5-3

Shorter The inverse relationship
wavelength between wavelength and fre-
quency of electromagnetic
waves can be seen in these red
and violet waves. As wavelength
increases, frequency decreases.
Wavelength and frequency do
not affect the amplitude of a
wave. Which wave has the
Higher frequency larger amplitude?
Resource Manager CHEMISTRY JOURNAL

Frequencies and Daily Living
Math Skills Transparency 5 and Linguistic In order to reinforce the
Master L2 ELL concept of frequency, have students
think of and describe at least five phe-
nomena they encounter that recur or
occur at given frequencies in their daily
P Pages 118–119
lives. Have them describe these
P phenom-
ena in their journals and, when possible, 3(C), 3(E)
quantify the frequencies.
P 119
LS
Figure 5-4 is separated into a continuous
Quick Demo White light is separated into a spectrum of colors. These are
continuous spectrum when it the colors of the visible spec-
passes through a prism. trum. The spectrum is called
Borrow a Slinky from the
continuous because there is no
physics department and attach portion of it that does not cor-
it securely to an object on one respond to a unique wave-
side of the room. Demonstrate length and frequency of light.
wave characteristics— You are already familiar with
wavelength, frequency, and all of the colors of the visible
energy—by generating spectrum from your everyday
standing waves. Start with a experiences. And if you have
half wave, showing the longest ever seen a rainbow, you have
wavelength, lowest frequency, seen all of the visible colors at
and least energy. Work up to once. A rainbow is formed
two or two and one-half when tiny drops of water in the
standing waves. It will be air disperse the white light from the sun into its component colors, producing a
obvious that you must use continuous spectrum that arches across the sky.
more energy as the number of The visible spectrum of light shown in Figure 5-4, however, comprises only
standing waves increases. With a small portion of the complete electromagnetic spectrum, which is illustrated
in Figure 5-5. The electromagnetic spectrum, also called the EM spectrum,
each increase in the number of
encompasses all forms of electromagnetic radiation, with the only differences
waves, ask students what is
in the types of radiation being their frequencies and wavelengths. Note in
happening to frequency and Figure 5-4 that the short wavelengths bend more than long wavelengths as they
wavelength, and how energy pass through the prism, resulting in the sequence of colors red, orange, yellow,
is changing. Frequency is green, blue, indigo, and violet. This sequence can be remembered using the fic-
increasing, wavelength
P is titious name Roy G. Biv as a memory aid. In examining the energy of the radi-
decreasing, and energy is ation shown in Figure 5-5, you should note that energy increases with increasing
increasing. Figure 5-5 frequency. Thus, looking back at Figure 5-3, the violet light, with its greater
The electromagnetic spectrum frequency, has more energy than the red light. This relationship between fre-
includes a wide range of wave- quency and energy will be explained in the next section.
LS lengths (and frequencies).
Figure Caption Question Energy of the radiation increases
with increasing frequency.
Figure 5-5 Which types of waves Which types of waves or rays
or rays have the highest energy? have the highest energy?
gamma rays and X rays
Visible light
Wavelengths () in meters

4 2 -6 -8 -10 -12 -14
3 10 3 10 3 3 10
-2
3 10
-4
3 10 3 10 3 10 3 10 3 10
Radio Infrared Ultraviolet Gamma rays
Microwaves X rays
AM TV, FM
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency () in hertz
Energy increases
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Portfolio
Portfolio Resource Manager
Electromagnetic Waves and Uses
Have students research and discuss the Teaching Transparency 15 and Master
many ways humans use electromagnetic L2 ELL
waves to transmit information and carry
energy fromP place to place. Have them
write up their findings in their portfolios.
L2 P
P
120
LS
P
LS LS
Because all electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed, you can use
the formula c to calculate the wavelength or frequency of any wave. PROBLEMS
Example Problem 5-1 shows how this is done.
Have students refer to Appendix
D for complete solutions to
Practice Problems.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 5-1 1. 6.12 1014 s1
Calculating Wavelength of an EM Wave
2. 2.61 1018 s1
Microwaves are used to transmit information. What is the wavelength 3. 3.00 108 m/s
of a microwave having a frequency of 3.44 109 Hz? 4. 3.17 m
1. Analyze the Problem
You are given the frequency of a microwave. You also know that
because microwaves are part of the electromagnetic spectrum,
their speed, frequency, and wavelength are related by the formula
Reinforcement
c . The value of c is a known constant. First, solve the equation When the people in a stadium
for wavelength, then substitute the known values and solve.
make a “wave,” the wave travels
Known Unknown
around the stadium as individual
3.44 109Hz ?m
persons move their bodies and
c 3.00 108 m/s
arms up and down. Point out,
2. Solve for the Unknown however, that each person trans-
Solve the equation relating the speed, frequency, and wavelength mitting the wave remains in the
of an electromagnetic wave for wavelength ().
same place.
c
c/ Microwave relay antennas are
used to transmit voice and data
Substitute c and the microwave’s frequency, , into the equation. Math in Chemistry
from one area to another with-
Note that hertz is equivalent to 1/s or s1.
out the use of wires or cables.
3.00 108 m/s

Explain that when two quantities
3.44 109 s1 are related mathematically in such
Divide the values to determine wavelength, , and cancel units as a way that the increase in one
required. quantity is proportional to the
3.00 108 m/s
8.72 102 m decrease in the other quantity, the
3.44 109 s1
two quantities are said to be
3. Evaluate the Answer inversely proportional. Point out
The answer is correctly expressed in a unit of wavelength (m). Both of that the relationship c is valid
the known values in the problem are expressed with three significant
figures, so the answer should have three significant figures, which it only if the quantities and are
does. The value for the wavelength is within the wavelength range inversely related.
for microwaves shown in Figure 5-5.
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
e!
1. What is the frequency of green light, which has a wavelength of Practic For more practice with
4.90 107 m? speed, frequency, and
wavelength problems,
2. An X ray has a wavelength of 1.15 1010 m. What is its frequency? go to Supplemental
3. What is the speed of an electromagnetic wave that has a frequency Practice Problems in
of 7.8 106 Hz? Appendix A.
4. A popular radio station broadcasts with a frequency of 94.7 MHz.

What is the wavelength of the broadcast? (1 MHz 106 Hz)
M EETING I NDIVIDUAL N EEDS

English Language Learners
Intrapersonal Have English language
learners look up and then explain
the meanings of several key English words
used in this section: radiation, spectrum,
constant, effect, emission,Pquantum. Then
ask them to use the words in a paragraph
about waves. L1 ELL
121
LS
P
Assessment Particle Nature of Light
While considering light as a wave does explain much of its everyday behav-
Performance Have ior, it fails to adequately describe important aspects of light’s interactions with
students develop an experiment or matter. The wave model of light cannot explain why heated objects emit only
demonstration that illustrates the certain frequencies of light at a given temperature, or why some metals emit
quantum concept. They might use a electrons when colored light of a specific frequency shines on them. Obviously,
balance and small objects having a totally new model or a revision of the current model of light was needed to
address these phenomena.
nearly equal masses, such as paper
clips. Or, they might use a gradu- The quantum concept The glowing light emitted by the hot objects shown
ated cylinder and small objects in Figure 5-6 are examples of a phenomenon you have certainly seen. Iron
having nearly equal volumes, such provides another example of the phenomenon. A piece of iron appears dark
as marbles or ball bearings. Use the gray at room temperature, glows red when heated sufficiently, and appears
bluish in color at even higher temperatures. As you will learn in greater detail
Performance Task Assessment List later on in this course, the temperature of an object is a measure of the aver-
P
for Designing an Experiment in age kinetic energy of its particles. As the iron gets hotter it possesses a
PASC, p. 23. L2 greater amount of energy, and emits different colors of light. These differ-
ent colors correspond to different frequencies and wavelengths. The wave
model could not explain the emission of these different wavelengths of light
Enrichment LS at different temperatures. In 1900, the German physicist Max Planck
(1858–1947) began searching for an explanation as he studied the light emit-
Intrapersonal Have inter- ted from heated objects. His study of the phenomenon led him to a startling
ested students research and conclusion: matter can gain or lose energy only in small, specific amounts
make a class presentation or report called quanta. That is, a quantum is the minimum amount of energy that can
on the operationP of an optical be gained or lost by an atom.
pyrometer, a device that measures Planck and other physicists of the time thought the concept of quantized
extremely high temperatures by energy was revolutionary—and some found it disturbing. Prior experience had
led scientists to believe that energy could be absorbed and emitted in con-
the wavelengths of light emitted by
tinually varying quantities, with no minimum limit to the amount. For exam-
the objects. L2LS ple, think about heating a cup of water in a microwave oven. It seems that
you can add any amount of thermal energy to the water by regulating the
Figure 5-6 power and duration of the microwaves. Actually, the water’s temperature
These photos illustrate the increases in infinitesimal steps as its molecules absorb quanta of energy.
phenomenon of heated objects Because these steps are so small, the temperature seems to rise in a continu-
emitting different frequencies of ous, rather than a stepwise, manner.
light. Matter, regardless of its
The glowing objects shown in Figure 5-6 are emitting light, which is a
form, can gain or lose energy
only in small “quantized” form of energy. Planck proposed that this emitted light energy was quantized.
P
amounts.
LS
CHEMISTRY JOURNAL
What’s a Quantum?
Linguistic Have students research the
reactions of Planck’s contemporaries
to his quantum concept. Have them listPand
explain the reactions of Planck’s contempo-
raries in their chemistry journals. L2
LS
122
Figure 5-7
Electron ejected In the photoelectric effect, light
Concept Development
from surface Beam of light of a certain minimum frequency Explain to students that they might
(energy) ejects electrons from
the surface of a metal.
think of the light emitted by an
Metal surface Increasing the intensity of the atom as a “window into the atom.”
incident light results in more Explain further that the chemical
electrons being ejected.
Increasing the frequency behaviors of the elements are
(energy) of the incident light related not to the number of
causes the ejected electrons to subatomic particles in their atoms,
travel faster.
but to the arrangement of electrons
Electrons Nuclei within their atoms.
He then went further and demonstrated mathematically that the energy of a Building a Model
quantum is related to the frequency of the emitted radiation by the equation
Kinesthetic Have student
Equantum h groups build a setup that
models the photoelectric effect.
where E is energy, h is Planck’s constant, and is frequency. Planck’s constant
has a value of 6.626 1034 J s, where J is the symbol for the joule, the SI
For example, the setup might show
unit of energy. Looking at the equation, you can see that the energy of radia- that impacting small magnets
tion increases as the radiation’s frequency, , increases. This equation explains attached to a heavy iron object
why the violet light in Figure 5-3 has greater energy than the red light. with lightweight and low-energy
According to Planck’s theory, for a given frequency, , matter can emit or objects such as marshmallows
absorb energy only in whole-number multiples of h; that is, 1h, 2h, 3h, will not displace the magnets.
and so on. A useful analogy for this concept is that of a child building a wall
Then, the setup could show
of wooden blocks. The child can add to or take away height from the wall
only in increments of a whole number of blocks. Partial blocks are not pos- that heavier objects with greater
sible. Similarly, matter can have only certain amounts of energy—quantities energy displace the magnets. Have
of energy between these values do not exist. students draw the analogy between
the marshmallows and low-energy
The photoelectric effect Scientists knew that the wave model (still very pop-
ular in spite of Planck’s proposal) could not explain a phenomenon called the
photons and between the heavier
photoelectric effect. In the photoelectric effect, electrons, called photoelectrons, objects and high-energy photons.
are emitted from a metal’s surface when light of a certain frequency shines on L2 ELL COOP LEARN
the surface, as shown in Figure 5-7. Perhaps you’ve taken advantage of the pho-
toelectric effect by using a calculator, such as the one shown in Figure 5-8, that Figure 5-8 P
is powered by photoelectric cells. Photoelectric cells in these and many other The direct conversion of sun-
devices convert the energy of incident light into electrical energy. light into electrical energy is a P
The mystery of the photoelectric effect concerns the frequency, and there- viable power source for low-
power consumption devices such
fore color, of the incident light. The wave model predicts that given enough
time, even low-energy, low-frequency light would accumulate and supply as this calculator. The cost of LS
enough energy to eject photoelectrons from a metal. However, a metal will
photoelectric cells makes them
P VIDEODISC
not eject photoelectrons below a specific frequency of incident light. For
impractical for large-scale power LS Cosmic Chemistry:
production.
example, no matter how intense or how long it shines, light with a frequency Disc 1, Side 1
less than 1.14 1015 Hz does not eject photoelectrons from silver. But even Still: Albert Einstein
dim light having a frequency equal to or greater than 1.14 1015 Hz causes
the ejection of photoelectrons from silver.
In explaining the photoelectric effect, Albert Einstein proposed in 1905 that
LS
{`qê—–}
electromagnetic radiation has both wavelike and particlelike natures. That is, Disc 3, Side 6 and
while a beam of light has many wavelike characteristics, it also can be thought Disc 4, Side 8
of as a stream of tiny particles, or bundles of energy, called photons. Thus, a
photon is a particle of electromagnetic radiation with no mass that carries a
quantum of energy.
{`@ÄQ◊}
Internet Address Book

Note Internet addresses that you find useful in the
space below for quick reference.
Pages 120–123
3(C), 3(E), 5(A)
123
Extending Planck’s idea of quantized energy, Einstein calculated that a pho-
PROBLEMS ton’s energy depends on its frequency.
Have students refer to Appendix Ephoton h
Practice Problems. Further, Einstein proposed that the energy of a photon of light must have a
certain minimum, or threshold, value to cause the ejection of a photoelectron.
5. a. 4.19 1013 J That is, for the photoelectric effect to occur a photon must possess, at a min-
b. 6.29 1020 J imum, the energy required to free an electron from an atom of the metal.
c. 6.96 1018 J According to this theory, even small numbers of photons with energy above
the threshold value will cause the photoelectric effect. Although Einstein was
6. a. gamma ray or X ray able to explain the photoelectric effect by giving electromagnetic radiation
b. infrared particlelike properties, it’s important to note that a dual wave-particle model
of light was required.
c. ultraviolet
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 5-2

3 Assess Calculating the Energy of a Photon
Tiny water drops in the air disperse the white light of the sun into a
Check for Understanding rainbow. What is the energy of a photon from the violet portion of
Ask students to explain why the rainbow if it has a frequency of 7.23 1014 s1?
chemists found Rutherford’s 1. Analyze the Problem

nuclear model of the atom lacking. You are given the frequency of a photon of violet light. You also
It did not explain or account for know that the energy of a photon is related to its frequency by the
equation Ephoton h. The value of h, Planck’s constant, is known. By
the differences in the chemical substituting the known values, the equation can be solved for the
behavior of the elements. energy of a photon of violet light.
Known Unknown
7.23 1014 s1 Ephoton ? J
h 6.626 1034 J s
2. Solve for the Unknown

Substitute the known values for frequency and Planck’s constant into
CD-ROM the equation relating energy of a photon and frequency.
Ephoton h
Chemistry: Matter
Sunlight bathes Earth in white
and Change Ephoton (6.626 1034 J s)(7.23 1014 s1)
light—light composed of all of
Video: Flame Test the visible colors of the electro- Multiply the known values and cancel units.
magnetic spectrum. Ephoton (6.626 1034 J s)(7.23 1014 s1) 4.79 1019 J
Video: The Aurora
Video: Atomic The energy of one photon of violet light is 4.79 1019 J.
Emissions 3. Evaluate the Answer
The answer is correctly expressed in a unit of energy (J). The known
value for frequency has three significant figures, and the answer also
is expressed with three significant figures, as it should be. As
expected, the energy of a single photon of light is extremely small.
Resource
Manager PRACTICE PROBLEMS
e!
ChemLab and MiniLab Practic For more practice 5. What is the energy of each of the following types of radiation?
Worksheets, p. 17 L2 with photon energy
problems, go to a. 6.32 1020 s1 b. 9.50 1013 Hz c. 1. 05 1016 s1
Supplemental Practice 6. Use Figure 5-5 to determine the types of radiation described in
Problems in Appendix A. problem 5.
Extension 124 Chapter 5 Electrons in Atoms

Begin to extend students’ under-
standing of wave-particle duality
P
by explaining that not only do M EETING I NDIVIDUAL N EEDS
waves have a particle nature, but
moving particles have a wave Gifted
nature, a concept students will Have capable students research and perhaps emitted light can be gathered by a
LS
learn more about in the next explain to the class how astrophysicists telescope and analyzed. From the atomic
section. determine what elements make up Earth’s emission and absorption
P spectra of the
Sun and other stars. In general, because a light, the elements present in the star can
star is made up of hot, glowing gases, its be determined. L3
LS
124
P
Atomic Emission Spectra
Have you ever wondered how light is produced in the glowing tubes of neon mini LAB
P
signs? The process illustrates another phenomenon that cannot be explained
by the wave model of light. The light of the neon sign is produced by pass- Purpose
ing electricity through a tube filled with neon gas. Neon atoms in the tube Students will observe and record
absorb energy and become excited. These excited and unstable atoms then the colors of light emitted when
release energy by emitting light. If the light emitted by the neon is passed
LS
certain compounds are burned in
through a glass prism, neon’s atomic emission spectrum is produced. The a flame.
atomic emission spectrum of an element is the set of frequencies of the elec-
tromagnetic waves emitted by atoms of the element. Neon’s atomic emission Process Skills
spectrum consists of several individual lines of color, not a continuous range Classifying, comparing and
of colors as seen in the visible spectrum. contrasting, observing and infer-
Each element’s atomic emission spectrum is unique and can be used to deter- ring, predicting
mine if that element is part of an unknown compound. For example, when a
platinum wire is dipped into a strontium nitrate solution and then inserted into Safety Precautions
a burner flame, the strontium atoms emit a characteristic red color. You can Remind students to use caution
perform a series of flame tests yourself by doing the miniLAB below.
with the flame. Although the wet
Figure 5-9 on the following page shows an illustration of the characteris-
tic purple-pink glow produced by excited hydrogen atoms and the visible por- swab will not burn very easily,
tion of hydrogen’s emission spectrum responsible for producing the glow. have a beaker of tap water set out
Note how the line nature of hydrogen’s atomic emission spectrum differs from for students to drop the hot cotton
that of a continuous spectrum. To gain firsthand experience with types of line swabs into—this will decrease the
spectra, you can perform the CHEMLAB at the end of this chapter. fire hazard.
Disposal
Swabs should be thrown in the
miniLAB trash. Remind students not to throw
swabs into the sink. Teachers
Flame Tests Flame Test Results
should check local regulations to
Classifying When certain compounds are Compound Flame color
determine if the chemicals used in
heated in a flame, they emit a distinctive color.
The color of the emitted light can be used to
Lithium chloride the lab are permitted in the school
identify the compound. Sodium chloride trash. If they are not, waste chemi-
Potassium chloride cals must be sent to a landfill site
Materials Bunsen burner; cotton swabs (6); dis-
tilled water; crystals of lithium chloride, sodium approved for the disposal of chem-
Calcium chloride
chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride, ical and hazardous wastes.
strontium chloride, unknown Strontium chloride
Unknown
Teaching Strategies
Procedure
• Darken the room as much as
1. Dip a cotton swab into the distilled water. Dip the unknown crystals. Record the color of the possible so that the flame colors
the moistened swab into the lithium chloride flame produced by the unknown crystals in can be seen vividly.
so that a few of the crystals stick to the cotton. your data table. Dispose of used cotton swabs
Put the crystals on the swab into the flame of as directed by your teacher. Expected Results
a Bunsen burner. Observe the color of the
flame and record it in your data table. Analysis Compound Flame
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the metallic chlorides 1. Each of the known compounds tested contains color
(sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chlorine, yet each compound produced a flame
chloride, and strontium chloride). Be sure to of a different color. Explain why this occurred. lithium chloride red
record the color of each flame in your data 2. How is the atomic emission spectrum of an ele- sodium chloride yellow
table. ment related to these flame tests?
3. Obtain a sample of unknown crystals from your 3. What is the identity of the unknown crystals? potassium chloride violet
teacher. Repeat the procedure in step 1 using Explain how you know.
calcium chloride red-orange
strontium chloride bright red
5.1 Light and Quantized Energy 125 unknown depends on
compound
Analysis Assessment
1. The colors are due primarily to electron Performance Have students look
transitions of the metal atoms. The colors
at the flame color spectra using a Flinn
are characteristic of lithium, sodium, potas-
C-Spectra or a spectroscope and relate the
sium, calcium, and strontium.
spectra to the elements comprising each
2. The colors are a composite of each compound. Use the Performance Task
element’s visible spectrum.
Assessment List for Analyzing the Data in Pages 124–125
3. Answers will vary depending on the iden- PASC, p. 27. L2 1(A), 2(B), 2(E), 3(C), 3(E), 5(A)
tity of the unknown sample.
125
Reteach
Reinforce the concept that red light
has less energy than blue light.
Explaining that you are making a Slit Prism
solution of a fluorescent substance,
prepare a solution of about 10 g
fluorescein in 100 mL water in a
150 mL beaker. Turn out the room
lights, and shine a flashlight’s beam
through a transparent red cello-
phane sheet into the fluorescein 410 434 486 656
nm nm nm nm
solution. When you turn out the
flashlight, the solution will not Hydrogen gas
fluoresce. Then, repeat the process, discharge tube (nm) 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750
but use a blue cellophane sheet Hydrogen’s atomic emission spectrum
rather than a red one. The solution
will fluoresce when you turn out Figure 5-9
the light. Ask students to explain An atomic emission spectrum is characteristic of the element being
The atomic emission spectrum of
the results. The blue light waves hydrogen consists of four dis- examined and can be used to identify that element. The fact that only cer-
have a higher frequency, shorter tinct colored lines of different tain colors appear in an element’s atomic emission spectrum means that
frequencies. This type of spec-
wavelength, and greater energy trum is also known as a line
only certain specific frequencies of light are emitted. And because those
than the red light waves. The spectrum. Which line has the emitted frequencies of light are related to energy by the formula Ephoton h,
P highest energy? it can be concluded that only photons having certain specific energies are
solution may be flushed down
emitted. This conclusion was not predicted by the laws of classical physics
the drain with water.
known at that time. Scientists found atomic emission spectra puzzling
because they had expected to observe the emission of a continuous series
LS
CHEMLAB of colors and energies as excited electrons lost energy and spiraled toward
the nucleus. In the next section, you will learn about the continuing devel-
ChemLab 5, located at the end of opment of atomic models, and how one of those models was able to account
the chapter, can be used at this for the frequencies of the light emitted by excited atoms.
point in the lesson.
Assessment
Section 5.1 Assessment
Knowledge Ask students
7. List the characteristic properties of all waves. At 11. Thinking Critically Explain how Einstein uti-
to compare the wavelengths, what speed do electromagnetic waves travel in a lized Planck’s quantum concept in explaining the
frequencies, and energies of vacuum? photoelectric effect.
microwaves and X rays. 8. Compare the wave and particle models of light. 12. Interpreting Scientific Illustrations Use
Microwaves have longer wave- What phenomena can only be explained by the Figure 5-5 and your knowledge of light to match
lengths, lower frequencies, and particle model? the numbered items on the right with the lettered
lower energies than X rays. L2 9. What is a quantum of energy? Explain how quanta items on the left. The numbered items may be
of energy are involved in the amount of energy used more than once or not at all.
matter gains and loses. a. longest wavelength 1. gamma rays
Figure Caption Question
10. Explain the difference between the continuous b. highest frequency 2. infrared waves
Figure 5-9 Which line has the spectrum of white light and the atomic emission c. greatest energy 3. radio waves
highest energy? the violet line spectrum of an element.
P
Section 5.1 LS
Assessment
7. speed, wavelength, frequency, and photoelectric effect, the color of specific colors.
amplitude; EM waves travel at c. hot objects, and emission spectra. 11. Einstein proposed that electromag-
8. The wave model treats light as an 9. A quantum is the minimum amount netic radiation has a wave-particle
electromagnetic wave. The particle of energy that can be lost or gained nature, that the energy of a
model treats light as being by an atom. Matter loses or gains photon depends on the frequency
comprised of photons. The wave energy in multiples of the quantum. of the radiation, and that the
model could not explain the 10. A continuous spectrum contains all photon’s energy is given by the
the visible colors; an atomic emis- formula Ephoton h.
126 sion spectrum contains only 12. a: 3, b: 1, c: 1
Section 5.2 Quantum Theory and the Atom
Section 5.2
You now know that the behavior of light can be explained only by a dual Objectives
wave-particle model. Although this model was successful in accounting for • Compare the Bohr and 1 Focus
several previously unexplainable phenomena, an understanding of the rela- quantum mechanical mod-
tionships among atomic structure, electrons, and atomic emission spectra still els of the atom. Focus Transparency
remained to be established.
• Explain the impact of de Before presenting the lesson, display
Broglie’s wave-particle dual-
Bohr Model of the Atom ity and the Heisenberg
Recall that hydrogen’s atomic emission spectrum is discontinuous; that is, it uncertainty principle on the on the overhead projector. Have
is made up of only certain frequencies of light. Why are elements’ atomic modern view of electrons in students answer the accompanying
emission spectra discontinuous rather than continuous? Niels Bohr, a young atoms. questions using Section Focus
Danish physicist working in Rutherford’s laboratory in 1913, proposed a • Identify the relationships Transparency Master 18. L1
quantum model for the hydrogen atom that seemed to answer this question. among a hydrogen atom’s ELL
Impressively, Bohr’s model also correctly predicted the frequencies of the energy levels, sublevels, and
lines in hydrogen’s atomic emission spectrum. atomic orbitals.
Energy states of hydrogen Building on Planck’s and Einstein’s concepts Vocabulary Section
of quantized energy (quantized means that only certain values are allowed), P Focus Transpare
ncy
18 Atomic O
ground state rbitals
Bohr proposed that the hydrogen atom has only certain allowable energy de Broglie equation Use with
Chapter
5, Sectio
n 5.2
states. The lowest allowable energy state of an atom is called its ground state. Heisenberg uncertainty
When an atom gains energy, it is said to be in an excited state. And although principle
a hydrogen atom contains only a single electron, it is capable of having many quantum mechanical model LS P
different excited states. of the atom
Bohr went even further with his atomic model by relating the hydrogen atomic orbital
atom’s energy states to the motion of the electron within the atom. Bohr sug- principal quantum number
gested that the single electron in a hydrogen atom moves around the nucleus principal energy level
in only certain allowed circular orbits. The smaller the electron’s orbit, the energy sublevel LS
Inc.
anies,
aw-Hill Comp
lower the atom’s energy state, or energy level. Conversely, the larger the elec-
of the McGr
tron’s orbit, the higher the atom’s energy state, or energy level. Bohr assigned
a division
a quantum number, n, to each orbit and even calculated the orbit’s radius. For
Graw-Hill,
© Glencoe/Mc
the first orbit, the one closest to the nucleus, n 1 and the orbit radius is Does it tak 1
Copyright
middle ru e more energy fo
0.0529 nm; for the second orbit, n 2 and the orbit radius is 0.212 nm; and Suppose 2
ng of th
e ladder
r the pa
or to th
inter to
e top ru
climb to
the
the paint ng of th
rung of er droppe e ladder?
so on. Additional information about Bohr’s description of hydrogen’s allow- paintbrus
the ladde
r. La
d his pa
h from th ter, the painter
intbrush
from the
level did e dropped top
the paint middle rung of
able orbits and energy levels is given in Table 5-1. Chemistry:
brush hit th
the sam
the grou e ladder. From wh
nd with
e
ich
Matter and more en
Change ergy?
Section
Table 5-1 Focus Tran

sparencies
Bohr’s Description of the Hydrogen Atom

Bohr Corresponding
atomic
orbit
Quantum
number
Orbit radius
(nm)
atomic energy
level
Relative
energy 2 Teach
First n1 0.0529 1 E1 Visual Learning
Second n2 0.212 2 E2 4E1 Table 5-1 Ask students to examine
Third n3 0.476 3 E3 9E1 the table’s Relative energy column
and determine Bohr’s formula
Fourth n4 0.846 4 E4 16E1
relating the hydrogen atom’s rela-
Fifth n5 1.32 5 E5 25E1
tive energy to the electron’s Bohr
Sixth n6 1.90 6 E6 36E1 atomic orbit (n). En n2E1 L2
Seventh n7 2.59 7 E7 49E1
5.2 Quantum Theory and the Atom 127
M EETING I NDIVIDUAL N EEDS P

Learning Disabled
Kinesthetic Demonstrate the electron is released. Explain the analogy between
transitions associated with energy-level the book’s energy levels and an electron’s
changes. Tell students that a book on the transitions between atomic orbits. Point out
LS
floor represents an electron in an atom’s that the energy needed to raise an electron
lowest-energy orbit. Raise the book to a to a higher-energy orbit is exactly the same
P
higher energy level (their chair). Ask if as the energy released when the electron Pages 126–127
energy is required. yes Ask what happens returns to its original orbit. L1 ELL 3(A), 3(C), 3(E), 5(A), 6(A)
when the book returns to the floor. Energy
127
LS
An explanation of hydrogen’s line spectrum Bohr suggested that the
Assessment hydrogen atom is in the ground state, also called the first energy level, when
Performance Have the electron is in the n 1 orbit. In the ground state, the atom does not radi-
students make a large copy of the ate energy. When energy is added from an outside source, the electron moves
to a higher-energy orbit such as the n 2 orbit shown in Figure 5-10a. Such
hydrogen atom’s Bohr orbits (as
an electron transition raises the atom to an excited state. When the atom is in
shown in Figure 5-10b) on a piece an excited state, the electron can drop from the higher-energy orbit to a lower-
of construction paper and tack the energy orbit. As a result of this transition, the atom emits a photon correspon-
paper to a classroom bulletin ding to the difference between the energy levels associated with the two orbits.
board. Have them put a large,
E Ehigher-energy orbit Elower-energy orbit Ephoton = h
easily visible thumbtack in the
lowest orbit to represent the orbital Figure 5-10 Visible series
occupancy related to hydrogen’s (Balmer)
a When an electron drops a
lowest energy state. Then, have from a higher-energy orbit to a
them move the thumbtack between lower-energy orbit, a photon
the appropriate orbits to simulate with a specific energy is emitted.
n2 n 3
Although hydrogen has spectral n 1
the following orbit transitions and lines associated with higher
spectral lines in hydrogen’s atomic energy levels, only the visible,
ultraviolet, and infrared series of
emission spectrum: violet (6→2), spectral lines are shown in this n4
blue-violet (5→2), blue-green diagram. b The relative ener- n5
(4→2), and red (3→2). Use the gies of the electron transitions
n6
responsible for hydrogen’s four
Performance Task Assessment visible spectral lines are shown.
Ultraviolet Infrared
series n7 series
List for Model in PASC, p. 51. Note how the energy levels
(Lyman) (Paschen)
L2 ELL become more closely spaced as n
increases.
Note that because only certain atomic energies are possible, only certain
frequencies of electromagnetic radiation can be emitted. You might compare
b hydrogen’s seven atomic orbits to seven rungs on a ladder. A person can climb
P n
up or down the ladder only from rung to rung. Similarly, the hydrogen atom’s
6 electron can move only from one allowable orbit to another, and therefore,
5
can emit or absorb only certain amounts of energy.
VIDEODISC 4 The four electron transitions that account for visible lines in hydrogen’s
P
LS Cosmic Chemistry atomic emission spectrum are shown in Figure 5-10b. For example, electrons
3
Disc 1, Side 1 dropping from the third orbit to the second orbit cause the red line. Note that
Still: Niels Bohr electron transitions from higher-energy orbits to the second orbit account for
all of hydrogen’s visible lines. This series of visible lines is called the Balmer
{`Hß¡—}
Energy of hydrogen atom
LS 2 series. Other electron transitions have been measured that are not visible, such
as the Lyman series (ultraviolet) in which electrons drop into the n = 1 orbit
Disc 1, Side1 and the Paschen series (infrared) in which electrons drop into the n = 3 orbit.
Movie: Atomic Theories 0:41 s Figure 5-10b also shows that unlike rungs on a ladder, the hydrogen atom’s
Bohr’s atomic model energy levels are not evenly spaced. You will be able to see in greater detail
how Bohr’s atomic model was able to account for hydrogen’s line spectrum
{a«¿`@QŸ} by doing the problem-solving LAB later in this chapter.
Bohr’s model explained hydrogen’s observed spectral lines remarkably
well. Unfortunately, however, the model failed to explain the spectrum of any
other element. Moreover, Bohr’s model did not fully account for the chemi-
cal behavior of atoms. In fact, although Bohr’s idea of quantized energy lev-
els laid the groundwork for atomic models to come, later experiments
Resource demonstrated that the Bohr model was fundamentally incorrect. The move-
Manager 1
ments of electrons in atoms are not completely understood even now; how-
ever, substantial evidence indicates that electrons do not move around the
Study Guide for Content nucleus in circular orbits.
Solving Problems: A Chemistry 128 Chapter 5 Electrons in Atoms
and Master L1 ELL M EETING I NDIVIDUAL N EEDS
Gifted
2 2
P hn
Logical-Mathematical Ask gifted stu- relationship rn
4π2Kmq2 . Then, have them
P
dents to work through Bohr’s use of use the equation to calculate the radii of the
P
Newton’s second law (F ma), Coulomb’s hydrogen atom’s first four Bohr orbits. L3
constant (K), and Bohr’s own concept of
LS LS
quantized angular momenta to derive the
P LS
128 P
The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
Scientists in the mid-1920s, by then convinced that the Bohr atomic model Quick Demo
was incorrect, formulated new and innovative explanations of how electrons
are arranged in atoms. In 1924, a young French graduate student in physics Have a fan rotating at high
named Louis de Broglie (1892–1987) proposed an idea that eventually speed when students enter the
accounted for the fixed energy levels of Bohr’s model. classroom so that they will not
Electrons as waves De Broglie had been thinking that Bohr’s quantized have seen the fan’s blades in
electron orbits had characteristics similar to those of waves. For example, as a stopped position. As soon
Figure 5-11b shows, only multiples of half-wavelengths are possible on a as the class period begins, ask
plucked guitar string because the string is fixed at both ends. Similarly, de them to describe the fan’s
Broglie saw that only whole numbers of wavelengths are allowed in a circu- blades. They will be able to
lar orbit of fixed radius, as shown in Figure 5-11c. He also reflected on tell the blades’ approximate
the fact that light—at length and little else. Explain
one time thought to be that scientists experience
strictly a wave pheno- somewhat the same situation
menon—has both wave in trying to describe electrons
and particle characteris- in atoms. The electrons move
tics. These thoughts led Figure 5-11 about the nucleus and appear
de Broglie to pose a a A vibrating guitar string is to fill the entire volume, yet
new question. If waves constrained to vibrate between occupy very little volume them-
can have particlelike two fixed end points. b The selves. Explain that due to the
behavior, could the possible vibrations of the guitar
string are limited to multiples of motion of the electrons and
opposite also be true?
half-wavelengths. Thus, the certain limitations in our ability
That is, can particles
“quantum” of the guitar string to view them (as described by
of matter, including elec- is one-half wavelength. c The
trons, behave like waves? Heisenberg’s uncertainty prin-
possible circular orbits of an
electron are limited to whole ciple), we are unable to simul-
a numbers of complete wave- taneously describe exactlyP
lengths. where the electrons are and
where they are going.
LS
L n 3 wavelengths
n1
VIDEODISC
Cosmic Chemistry
1 half–wavelength
Disc 1, Side 1
Still: Louis-Victor de Broglie
n2 n 5 wavelengths
2 half–wavelengths
{`Hß—“}
Disc 1, Side 1
n3
Still: Bohr-de Broglie Hydrogen
Orbits
3 half–wavelengths
b Vibrating guitar string

n whole number (not allowed)
c Orbiting electron
{`H©qÿ}
Only multiples of half wavelengths allowed Only whole numbers of wavelengths allowed

Resource
Manager
M EETING I NDIVIDUAL N EEDS CHEMISTRY JOURNAL Lab Manual, pp. 33–36 L2
English Language Learners Gases for IR and UV
Have English language learners look up Intrapersonal Have students
and then explain the meanings of several research the types of gases used to
key English words used in this section: emit infrared and ultraviolet electromag-
state (as in ground state), uncertainty, netic radiation. Have them summarize
P
principal, level
P (noun). Ask students to use their findings in their chemistry journals.
each word in a sentence or a paragraph. L2 Pages 128–129 P
L1 ELL 3(C), 3(E), 6(A)
LS 129
LS
P LS
problem-solving LAB problem-solving LAB
P
Purpose How was Bohr’s atomic model Thinking Critically
Students will explore the relation- able to explain the line spec- 1. What scale did you use to plot the orbits? How
is the energy of each orbit related to its
ship between electron orbit radii
LS trum of hydrogen? radius?
and energy states of the hydrogen Using Models Niels Bohr proposed that elec- 2. Draw a set of arrows for electron jumps that
atom. This relationship will then be trons must occupy specific, quantized energy lev- end at each energy level (quantum number).
used to explain the characteristics els in an atom. He derived the following For example, draw a set of arrows for all
of spectroscopic series that result equations for hydrogen’s electron orbit energies transitions that end at n 1, a set of arrows
(En) and radii (rn). for all transitions that end at n 2, and so on,
from electron transitions between up to n 7.
orbits. rn (0.529 1010 m)n2 3. Calculate the energy released for each of the
En (2.18 1018 J)/n2 jumps in step 2, and record the values on your
Process Skills
model. The energy released is equal to the dif-
Constructing models, using Where n quantum number (1, 2, 3...). ference in the energies of each level.
numbers, acquiring and analyzing 4. Each set of arrows in step 2 represents a spec-
information, drawing conclusions, Analysis
tral emission series. Label five of the series,
Using the orbit radii equation, calculate hydro- from greatest energy change to least energy
applying concepts, predicting gen’s first seven electron orbit radii and then change, as the Lyman, Balmer, Paschen,
Teaching Strategies construct a scale model of those orbits. Use a Brackett, and Pfund series.
compass and a metric ruler to draw your scale
• Ask students to explain how the model on two sheets of paper that have been
5. Use the energy values in step 3 to calculate the
force between two magnets frequency of each photon emitted in each
taped together. (Use caution when handling
series. Record the frequencies on your model.
depends on the separation sharp objects.) Using the orbit energy equation,
calculate the energy of each electron orbit and 6. Using the electromagnetic spectrum as a guide,
distance, and then relate this to identify in which range (visible, ultraviolet,
record the values on your model.
the electric force of attraction infrared, etc.) each series falls.
between an electron and proton.
The magnetic force decreases
with the cube of the distance.
Because of this, magnets are
useful in modeling the behavior In considering this question, de Broglie knew that if an electron has wave-
of electric force, which decreases like motion and is restricted to circular orbits of fixed radius, the electron is
with the square of the distance. allowed only certain possible wavelengths, frequencies, and energies.
Developing his idea, de Broglie derived an equation for the wavelength ()
• Ask students to describe the full of a particle of mass (m) moving at velocity (v).
range of the electromagnetic
spectrum and how frequency, , h
wavelength, , and energy, E, are mv
related. c (c is the speed of The de Broglie equation predicts that all moving particles have wave
light) and E h characteristics. Why, then, you may be wondering, haven’t you noticed the
wavelength of a fast-moving automobile? Using de Broglie’s equation pro-
Thinking Critically vides an answer. An automobile moving at 25 m/s and having a mass of 910
1. The largest radius is r7 (25.9 kg has a wavelength of 2.9 1038 m—a wavelength far too small to be
1010 m). Thus, a scale of seen or detected, even with the most sensitive scientific instrument. By com-
1 cm 1 1010 m results in a parison, an electron moving at the same speed has the easily measured wave-
graph about 26 cm in diam- length of 2.9 105 m. Subsequent experiments have proven that electrons
and other moving particles do indeed have wave characteristics.
eter, which will fit on the two
Step by step, scientists such as Rutherford, Bohr, and de Broglie had
sheets of paper. Energy been unraveling the mysteries of the atom. However, a conclusion reached
increases with increasing by the German theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg (1901–1976), a
radius. contemporary of de Broglie, proved to have profound implications for
2. See the Solutions Manual. atomic models.
3. See the Solutions Manual.
4. greatest energy to least 130 Chapter 5 Electrons in Atoms
energy: Lyman, Balmer,
Paschen, Brackett, and Pfund
5. See the Solutions Manual. Assessment
6. Lyman series, ultra-violet; Skill Have the students extend the ideas
Balmer series, visible; Paschen presented here to make a prediction concerning
series, near infrared; Brackett the spectrum that would be emitted from hydro-
series, middle infrared; Pfund genlike atoms, such as He or Li2. Or, have
series, far infrared them predict what would happen to the contin-
uous spectrum of light if it passed through a
cell containing hydrogen gas. L2
130
y y Photon's Figure 5-12
wavelength
A photon that strikes an elec-
increases
tron at rest alters the position Figure 5-12 How has the photon’s
and velocity of the electron. This
’ collision illustrates the
energy changed? It has decreased.
Photon Electron
Heisenberg uncertainty princi-
x x ple: It is impossible to simultane-
ously know both the position Enrichment
Speed = 0
Electron's speed and velocity of a particle. Note
increases
Make a sign that says “Heisenberg
that after the collision, the pho-
ton’s wavelength is longer. How May Have Slept Here.” Show it to
has the photon’s energy students and ask how the uncer-
Before collision After collision changed?
tainty about whether or not
Heisenberg slept in a given loca-
tion is analogous to an electron’s
The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle position in an atom. Heisenberg’s
Heisenberg’s concluded that it is impossible to make any measurement on an principle states that it is funda-
object without disturbing the object—at least a little. Imagine trying to locate mentally impossible to know
a hovering, helium-filled balloon in a completely darkened room. When you
wave your hand about, you’ll locate the balloon’s position when you touch Physics both a particle’s motion (actually
it. However, when you touch the balloon, even gently, you transfer energy to
momentum) and position at the
CONNECTION same time.
it and change its position. Of course, you could also detect the balloon’s posi-
tion by turning on a flashlight. Using this method, photons of light that reflect
from the balloon reach your eyes and reveal the balloon’s location. Because
P eople travel thousands of
miles to see the aurora bore-
alis (the northern lights) and the
the balloon is much more massive than the photons, the rebounding photons aurora australis (the southern
have virtually no effect on the balloon’s position. lights). Once incorrectly believed Quick Demo
to be reflections from the polar
Can photons of light help determine the position of an electron in an atom? ice fields, the auroras occur 100
As a thought experiment, imagine trying to determine the electron’s location to 1000 km above Earth. Kinesthetic Give a heavy
by “bumping” it with a high-energy photon of electromagnetic radiation. High-energy electrons and pos- ball to a blindfolded
itive ions in the solar wind speed
Unfortunately, because such a photon has about the same energy as an elec- away from the sun at more than
student in the middle of an
tron, the interaction between the two particles changes both the wavelength one million kilometers per hour. open space (about a 5-foot
of the photon and the position and velocity of the electron, as shown in These particles become trapped in radius). Quietly, set a 50-mL,
Earth’s magnetic field and follow
Figure 5-12. In other words, the act of observing the electron produces a sig- along Earth’s magnetic field lines. plastic graduated cylinder
nificant, unavoidable uncertainty in the position and motion of the electron. The electrons interact with and about 5 feet from the student.
Heisenberg’s analysis of interactions such as those between photons and elec- transfer energy to oxygen and Surround the blindfolded
trons led him to his historic conclusion. The Heisenberg uncertainty nitrogen atoms in the upper
atmosphere. The color of the student with a ring of other
principle states that it is fundamentally impossible to know precisely both the aurora depends on altitude and students about 10 feet distant,
velocity and position of a particle at the same time. which atoms become excited.
Oxygen emits green light up to
and instruct the student to
Although scientists of the time found Heisenberg’s principle difficult to
about 250 km and red light above gently roll the ball in various
accept, it has been proven to describe the fundamental limitations on what 250 km; nitrogen emits blue light directions until the cylinder is
can be observed. How important is the Heisenberg uncertainty principle? up to about 100 km and
The interaction of a photon with an object such as a helium-filled balloon has purple/violet at higher altitudes. located. When the ball finally
so little effect on the balloon that the uncertainty in its position is too small hits the cylinder, it knocks
to measure. But that’s not the case with an electron moving at 6 106 m/s the cylinder from its original
near an atomic nucleus. The uncertainty in the electron’s position is at least position. Then, ask the
109 m, about ten times greater than the diameter of the entire atom! students if the information
gained from rolling the ball
The Schrödinger wave equation In 1926, Austrian physicist Erwin gives the cylinder’s position
Schrödinger (1887–1961) furthered the wave-particle theory proposed by de after impact. The cylinder is
Broglie. Schrödinger derived an equation that treated the hydrogen atom’s no longer where it was
electron as a wave. Remarkably, Schrödinger’s new model for the hydrogen
before being hit with the
atom seemed to apply equally well to atoms of other elements—an area in
ball. Then describe the
P
which Bohr’s model failed. The atomic model in which electrons are treated
analogy to the photon and
as waves is called the wave mechanical model of the atom or, more com-
monly, the quantum mechanical model of the atom. Like Bohr’s model, electron. L1 ELL
5.2 Quantum Theory and the Atom 131 LS

P

Gifted LS
Intrapersonal Have capable students mechanics. As such, they accurately
P
investigate and report on whether describe and predict behavior at the
quantum mechanics invalidates the laws and macroscopic level. However, quantum
models of classical physics. In general, classi- mechanics is needed toPaccurately
cal physics laws and models are valid describe and explain atomic and sub-
approximations of the laws of quantum atomic behavior. L3 Pages 130–131LS
3(C), 3(E), 5(A), 6(A)
LS 131
the quantum mechanical model limits an electron’s energy to certain values.
Applying Chemistry Nucleus However, unlike Bohr’s model, the quantum mechanical model makes no
A photon striking an atom attempt to describe the electron’s path around the nucleus.
The Schrödinger wave equation is too complex to be considered here.
in an excited state stimu-
However, each solution to the equation is known as a wave function. And most
lates it to make a transi- importantly, the wave function is related to the probability of finding the elec-
tion to a lower-energy tron within a particular volume of space around the nucleus. Recall from your
state and emit a second study of math that an event having a high probability is more likely to occur
photon coherent with the first. than one having a low probability.
Coherent means that the photons What does the wave function predict about the electron’s location in an
a atom? A three-dimensional region around the nucleus called an atomic orbital
have the same associated wave-
describes the electron’s probable location. You can picture an atomic orbital
lengths and are in phase (crest-to- as a fuzzy cloud in which the density of the cloud at a given point is propor-
crest and trough-to-trough). In a tional to the probability of finding the electron at that point. Figure 5-13a illus-
laser, photons from many atoms are trates the probability map, or orbital, that describes the hydrogen electron in
reflected back and forth until they its lowest energy state. It might be helpful to think of the probability map as
build to an intense, small beam— a time-exposure photograph of the electron moving around the nucleus, in
typically about 0.5 mm in diameter. which each dot represents the electron’s location at an instant in time. Because
the dots are so numerous near the positive nucleus, they seem to form a dense
Medical lasers can be engi-
cloud that is indicative of the electron’s most probable location. However,
neered to produce pulses of varying because the cloud has no definite boundary, it also is possible that the elec-
wavelength, intensity, and duration. tron might be found at a considerable distance from the nucleus.
b
For example, ophthalmologists can
reshape corneas by removing tissue Figure 5-13 Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals
with 10-ns pulses from a 193-nm a This electron density dia- Because the boundary of an atomic orbital is fuzzy, the orbital does not have
wavelength argon laser. gram for a hydrogen atom rep- an exactly defined size. To overcome the inherent uncertainty about the elec-
Because laser beams can be resents the likelihood of finding tron’s location, chemists arbitrarily draw an orbital’s surface to contain 90%
an electron at a particular point
focused to such small diameters, of the electron’s total probability distribution. In other words, the electron
in the atom. The greater the
they can be used for internal surg- density of dots, the greater the spends 90% of the time within the volume defined by the surface, and 10%
likelihood of finding hydrogen’s of the time somewhere outside the surface. The spherical surface shown in
eries, destroying target tissue electron. b The boundary of Figure 5-13b encloses 90% of the lowest-energy orbital of hydrogen.
without adversely affecting an atom is defined as the vol- Recall that the Bohr atomic model assigns quantum numbers to electron
surrounding tissue. And by chan- ume that encloses a 90% proba- orbits. In a similar manner, the quantum mechanical model assigns principal
bility of containing its electrons.
neling laser beams through optical quantum numbers (n) that indicate the relative sizes and energies of atomic
fibers, doctors can perform surg-
eries in previously unreachable
parts of the body. For example,
bundles of optical fibers threaded
through arteries can carry laser n = 4 (4 sublevels)
beams that destroy blockages.
n = 3 (3 sublevels)
n = 2 (2 sublevels)
Enrichment
n = 1 (1 sublevels)
Students may think the letters s, p,
d, and f, which represent sublevels, Figure 5-14
arbitrary and perhaps mysterious. Energy sublevels can be thought
Explain that the letters originated of as a section of seats in a the-
from descriptions of spectral lines ater. The rows that are higher
up and farther from the stage
as sharp, principal, diffuse, and contain more seats, just as
fundamental. energy levels that are farther
from the nucleus contain more
sublevels.
Resource 132 Chapter 5 Electrons in Atoms

Manager
Challenge Problems, p. 5 L3
Teaching Transparency 16 and Internet Address Book
Master L2 ELL
Note Internet addresses that you find useful in the
space below for quick reference.
P P
P
LS LS
132
z
orbitals. That is, as n increases, the z
orbital becomes larger, the electron
spends more time farther from the x Identifying
nucleus, and the atom’s energy level x Misconceptions
increases. Therefore, n specifies the
Students may think that the
atom’s major energy levels, called prin- y
y
cipal energy levels. An atom’s lowest
hydrogen atom’s energy levels
principal energy level is assigned a prin- are evenly spaced.
cipal quantum number of one. When the a 1s orbital 2s orbital Uncover the Misconception
hydrogen atom’s single electron occu- Have students compare hydro-
pies an orbital with n = 1, the atom is in gen’s energy levels shown in
z z z
its ground state. Up to seven energy lev-
els have been detected for the hydrogen
Figure 5-10b with the rungs on a
atom, giving n values ranging from 1 x
ladder. Unlike the rungs on a
to 7. x x ladder, hydrogen’s energy
Principal energy levels contain levels are not evenly spaced.
y y
energy sublevels. Principal energy y Demonstrate the Concept
level 1 consists of a single sublevel,
principal energy level 2 consists of two px py pz Have students calculate and
sublevels, principal energy level 3 con- b p orbitals compare the ratios En/En1
sists of three sublevels, and so on. To from E2 through E 7. E2 /E1 4,
better understand the relationship Figure 5-15 E3/E2 2.25, E4 /E3 1.78,
between the atom’s energy levels and sublevels, picture the seats in a wedge- Atomic orbitals represent the E5 /E4 1.56, E6 /E5 1.44,
shaped section of a theater, as shown in Figure 5-14. As you move away from electron probability clouds of an E7 /E6 1.36
the stage, the rows become higher and contain more seats. Similarly, the atom’s electrons. a The spheri-
number of energy sublevels in a principal energy level increases as n increases. cal 1s and 2s orbitals are shown Assess New Knowledge
here. All s orbitals are spherical Have students use their calcu-
Sublevels are labeled s, p, d, or f according to the shapes of the atom’s in shape and increase in size
orbitals. All s orbitals are spherical and all p orbitals are dumbbell shaped; with increasing principal quan- lated energy ratios from
however, not all d or f orbitals have the same shape. Each orbital may con- tum number. b The three Demonstrate the Concept to
tain at most two electrons. The single sublevel in principal energy level 1 con- dumbbell-shaped p orbitals are
oriented along the three per-
make their own energy maps for
sists of a spherical orbital called the 1s orbital. The two sublevels in principal hydrogen’s energy levels. Their
pendicular x, y, and z axes. Each
energy level 2 are designated 2s and 2p. The 2s sublevel consists of the 2s
orbital, which is spherical like the 1s orbital but larger in size. See
of the p orbitals related to an energy maps will show clearly
energy sublevel has equal
Figure 5-15a. The 2p sublevel consists of three dumbbell-shaped p orbitals energy.
that hydrogen’s energy levels
P
of equal energy designated 2px, 2py, and 2pz. The subscripts x, y, and z merely become more closely spaced as
designate the orientations of p orbitals along the x, y, and z coordinate axes, n increases.
as shown in Figure 5-15b.
Principal energy level 3 consists of three sublevels designated 3s, 3p, and Figure 5-16
3d. Each d sublevel consists of five orbitals of equal energy. Four d orbitals Four of five equal-energy d LS
have identical shapes but different orientations. However, the fifth, dz2 orbital
is shaped and oriented differently from the other four. The shapes and orien-
orbitals have the same shape.
Notice how the dxy orbital lies in 3 Assess
tations of the five d orbitals are illustrated in Figure 5-16. The fourth prin-
the plane formed by the x and y
axes, the dxz orbital lies in the
Check for Understanding
cipal energy level (n 4) contains a fourth sublevel, called the 4f sublevel, plane formed by the x and z Ask students to explain why higher
which consists of seven f orbitals of equal energy. axes, and so on. The dz 2 orbital energy levels are made up of
has it own unique shape.
sublevels associated with more
z
z z z z electrons than lower energy levels.
y Higher energy levels are associ-
y y y x ated with larger volumes, which
may contain more orbitals than
y
x x x x smaller volumes. It is, reasonable,
therefore, that more electrons
dxy dxz dyz dx 2y 2 dz2 may be contained in the greater
number of orbitals associated
with higher energy levels.
Portfolio
Portfolio CHEMISTRY JOURNAL
Models of the Atom Orbital Shapes
Linguistic Have students explain and Visual-Spatial Have students sketch
trace the experimental evidence the shapes and orientations of
accompanying the evolution of models of hydrogen’s 3s, 3p, and 3d orbitals. Have
the atom. Ask them to include Thomson’s them label the
P orbital sketches and
plum-pudding model, Rutherford’s include them in their chemistry journals.
nuclear model, the Bohr model, and the L2 ELL Pages 132–133
quantum mechanical model. Have 3(C), 3(E), 6(A)
P stu-
dents place their explanations in their
chemistry portfolios. L2 P LS 133
P
Table 5-2
Reteach Hydrogen’s First Four Principal Energy Levels
Explain that an electron’s position Total number
and velocity within an atomic of orbitals
orbital are not known. Reiterate Principal Sublevels Number of related to
quantum number (types of orbitals) orbitals related principal
that at a given instant, there is a (n) present to sublevel energy level
10% probability that the electron (n 2)
is outside the orbital’s 90% proba- 1 s 1 1
bility surface. 2 s 1 4
p 3
Extension 3 s 1 9
p 3
According to quantum mechanics, d 5
each electron in an atom can
4 s 1 16
be described by four quantum p 3
numbers. Three of these (n, l, and d 5
f 7
ml ) are related to the probability of
finding the electron at various
points in space. The fourth (ms) is Hydrogen’s first four principal energy levels, sublevels, and related
atomic orbitals are summarized in Table 5-2. Note that the maximum num-
related to the direction of electron
ber of orbitals related to each principal energy level equals n2. Because each
spin—either clockwise or counter- orbital may contain at most two electrons, the maximum number of elec-
clockwise. The principal quantum trons related to each principal energy level equals 2n2.
number, n, specifies the atom’s Given the fact that a hydrogen atom contains only one electron, you might
energy level associated with the wonder how the atom can have so many energy levels, sublevels, and related
electron. l specifies the energy atomic orbitals. At any given time, the atom’s electron can occupy just one
sublevel and describes the shape of orbital. So you can think of the other orbitals as unoccupied spaces—spaces
available should the atom’s energy increase or decrease. For example, when
the region of space in which the the hydrogen atom is in the ground state, the electron occupies the 1s orbital.
electron moves. ml specifies the However, the atom may gain a quantum of energy that excites the electron to
orientation in space of the orbital the 2s orbital, to one of the three 2p orbitals, or to another vacant orbital.
containing the electron. m s speci- You have learned a lot about electrons and quantized energy in this sec-
fies the orientation of the electron’s tion: how Bohr’s orbits explained the hydrogen atom’s quantized energy
spin axis. states; how de Broglie’s insight led scientists to think of electrons as both par-
ticles and waves; and how Schrödinger’s wave equation predicted the exis-
tence of atomic orbitals containing electrons. In the next section, you’ll learn
how the electrons are arranged in atomic orbitals of atoms having more than
Assessment one electron.
Knowledge Ask students
which hydrogen energy-level tran-
sition accounts for the violet line Section 5.2 Assessment
in its emission spectrum.
n 6 → n 2 L2 13. According to the Bohr atomic model, why do 16. Thinking Critically Use de Broglie’s wave-parti-
atomic emission spectra contain only certain fre- cle duality and the Heisenberg uncertainty princi-
quencies of light? ple to explain why the location of an electron in
14. Why is the wavelength of a moving soccer ball an atom is uncertain.
not detectable to the naked eye? 17. Comparing and Contrasting Compare and
15. What sublevels are contained in the hydrogen contrast the Bohr model and quantum mechanical
atom’s first four energy levels? What orbitals are model of the atom.
P related to each s sublevel and each p sublevel?
LS
Section 5.2 Assessment
13. Because only certain atomic ener- p, and d; fourth energy level, s, p, The Heisenberg uncertainty prin-
gies are possible, only certain d, and f. Each s sublevel is related ciple states that it is fundamentally
frequencies of radiation can be to a spherical s orbital. Each p impossible to know precisely both
emitted from an atom. sublevel is related to three dumb- the velocity and position of a
14. It is too small to see or detect. bell-shaped orbitals (px , py , and pz ). particle at the same time.
15. First energy level, s; second energy 16. An electron has wave-particle char- 17. Bohr model: the electron is a
level, s and p; third energy level, s, acteristics and does not have a particle; the hydrogen atom has
single, definite location in space. only certain allowable energy
134
Section 5.3 Electron Configurations
Section 5.3
When you consider that atoms of the heaviest elements contain in excess of Objectives
100 electrons, that there are numerous principal energy levels and sublevels • Apply the Pauli exclusion 1 Focus
and their corresponding orbitals, and that each orbital may contain a maxi- principle, the aufbau princi-
mum of two electrons, the idea of determining the arrangement of an atom’s ple, and Hund’s rule to Focus Transparency
electrons seems daunting. Fortunately, the arrangement of electrons in atoms write electron configura-
follows a few very specific rules. In this section, you’ll learn these rules and tions using orbital diagrams Before presenting the lesson, display
their occasional exceptions. and electron configuration Section Focus Transparency 19
notation. on the overhead projector. Have
Ground-State Electron Configurations • Define valence electrons students answer the accompanying
The arrangement of electrons in an atom is called the atom’s electron and draw electron-dot questions using Section Focus
configuration. Because low-energy systems are more stable than high-energy structures representing an Transparency Master 19. L1
systems, electrons in an atom tend to assume the arrangement that gives the atom’s valence electrons.
ELL
atom the lowest possible energy. The most stable, lowest-energy arrangement Vocabulary
of the electrons in atoms of each element is called the element’s ground-state
electron configuration
electron configuration. Three rules, or principles—the aufbau principle, the
aufbau principle
Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund’s rule—define how electrons can be P
Section
Focus Transpare
Pauli exclusion principle ncy
19 Electron
arranged in an atom’s orbitals. Hund’s rule Configurat
ions
Use wit h Chapte
r 5, Sectio
The aufbau principle The aufbau principle states that each electron occu- valence electron n 5.3
pies the lowest energy orbital available. Therefore, your first step in deter- electron-dot structure
mining an element’s ground-state electron configuration is learning the LS P
sequence of atomic orbitals from lowest energy to highest energy. This
sequence, known as an aufbau diagram, is shown in Figure 5-17. In the dia-
gram, each box represents an atomic orbital. Several features of the aufbau
diagram stand out.
LS
Inc.
• All orbitals related to an energy sublevel are of equal energy. For exam-
anies,
aw-Hill Comp
ple, all three 2p orbitals are of equal energy.
of the McGr
a division
• In a multi-electron atom, the energy sublevels within a principal energy
Graw-Hill,
level have different energies. For example, the three 2p orbitals are of
© Glencoe/Mc
higher energy than the 2s orbital.
Copyright
Which sea 1
ts in the
arena are
Imagine 2 likely to
th be in mo
Which pa at center court re dema
nd?
rep
7p Figure 5-17 represen
rt of the
ts indivi
arena rep resents an atom’
dual orbit resents energ s nucleus
.
6d 5f
Chemistry:
Matter and
als? y levels?
Which pa
rt
7s The aufbau diagram shows the Change
6p energy of each sublevel. Each Section
5d
Focus Tran
sparencies
4f box on the diagram represents

6s
5p an atomic orbital. Does the 3d
5s 4d
Orbital filling sequence
or 4s sublevel have greater

Increasing energy
energy?
4p
4s 3d 2 Teach
3p
3s Figure 5-17 Does the 3d or 4s
sublevel have the greater energy?
2p The 3d sublevel has the greater
2s energy.
Using Science Terms

1s Explain that the name aufbau is
derived from the German aufbauen,
5.3 Electron Configurations 135 which means “to build up.”
states. Quantum mechanical

CD-ROM
model: the electron is a wave-
Chemistry: Matter and Change
particle phenomenon; an electron’s
Animation: Electrons and Energy
energy is limited to certain values.
Levels
Also, the quantum mechanical
Exploration: Building Atoms
model makes no assertions Pages 134–135
regarding the electron’s path 6(A)
around the nucleus.
135
• In order of increasing energy, the sequence of energy sublevels within a
principal energy level is s, p, d, and f.
CAREERS USING CHEMISTRY Spectroscopist
Are you interested in the com-
• Orbitals related to energy sublevels within one principal energy level can
Career Path A career as position of the materials overlap orbitals related to energy sublevels within another principal level.
around you? Do you wonder For example, the orbital related to the atom’s 4s sublevel has a lower
a spectroscopist requires what stars are made of? Then energy than the five orbitals related to the 3d sublevel.
high school courses in consider a career as a spectro-
scopist. Although the aufbau principle describes the sequence in which orbitals are
chemistry, math, physics,
Spectroscopy is the analysis of filled with electrons, it’s important to know that atoms are not actually built
and computer science. the characteristic spectra emit- up electron by electron.
Career Issue Have students ted by matter. Spectroscopists
perform chemical analyses as
investigate the various types of part of many research labora-
The Pauli exclusion principle Each electron in an atom has an associated
spectroscopy and their uses. tory projects, for quality con- spin, similar to the way a top spins on its axis. Like the top, the electron is
trol in industrial settings, and able to spin in only one of two directions. An arrow pointing up ( ) repre-
For More Information as part of forensics investiga- sents the electron spinning in one direction, an arrow pointing down ( ) rep-
tions for law enforcement
For more information about careers agencies. resents the electron spinning in the opposite direction. The Pauli exclusion
in spectroscopy, students can principle states that a maximum of two electrons may occupy a single atomic
contact orbital, but only if the electrons have opposite spins. Austrian physicist
Wolfgang Pauli proposed this principle after observing atoms in excited states.
Society for Applied Spectroscopy
An atomic orbital containing paired electrons with opposite spins is written
201 B Broadway Street
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Frederick, MD 21701-6501
Hund’s rule The fact that negatively charged electrons repel each other has
an important impact on the distribution of electrons in equal-energy orbitals.
Hund’s rule states that single electrons with the same spin must occupy each
Resource equal-energy orbital before additional electrons with opposite spins can
Manager occupy the same orbitals. For example, let the boxes below represent the 2p
orbitals. One electron enters each of the three 2p orbitals before a second elec-
Study Guide for Content tron enters any of the orbitals. The sequence in which six electrons occupy
three p orbitals is shown below.
Solving Problems: A Chemistry 1. 2. 3.
Teaching Transparency 17 and 4. 5. 6.
Master L2 ELL
and Master L1 ELL
Laboratory Manual, P
P
pp. 37–40 L2
Orbital Diagrams and Electron Configuration
P Notations
P
LS LS You can represent an atom’s electron configuration using two convenient
methods. One method is called an orbital diagram. An orbital diagram includes
a box for each of the atom’s orbitals. An empty box represents an unoc-
LS cupied orbital; a box containing a single up arrow represents an orbital
with one electron; and a box containing both up and down arrows repre-
LS P P sents a filled orbital. Each box is labeled with the principal quantum number
and sublevel associated with the orbital. For example, the orbital diagram for
a ground-state carbon atom, which contains two electrons in the 1s orbital,
two electrons in the 2s orbital, and 1 electron in two of three separate 2p
LSLS orbitals, is shown below.
C
1s 2s 2p
Demonstration power supply; Flinn C-Spectra diffraction inch card. Have students view the spec-
grating; colored pencils or chalk trum emitted from the lights in the class-
Emission PSpectra room. Then, darken the room and have
Safety Precautions
them view the excited neon atoms in
Purpose Use care around the spectrum tube high
the powered neon spectrum tubes. Use
To illustrate the relationship between the voltage power supply. Spectrum tubes will
colored pencils to record the emission
electron configurations of nonmetals and get hot when used.
LS
their emission spectra
spectrum of neon as seen through their
Procedure diffraction gratings. Remind students that
Materials An inexpensive alternative to a spectro- neon contains 10 electrons. Now repeat
Spectrum tubes (H and Ne); spectrum tube scope is to tape a small piece of the Flinn the process using a hydrogen spectrum
136 C-Spectra diffraction grating to a 3 5 tube. Since hydrogen has 1 electron, ask
Table 5-3
Electron Configurations and Orbital Diagrams
Figure Caption Questions
for Elements in the First Two Periods Figure 5-18 How many electrons
Atomic Orbital diagram Electron does each of neon’s orbitals hold?
Element number 1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz configuration notation
Each orbital contains two elec-
Hydrogen 1 1s1 trons. How many electrons in total
Helium 2 1s2 does neon’s electron cloud contain?
Lithium 3 1s22s1 ten electrons
Beryllium 4 1s22s2
Boron 5 1s22s22p1
Visual Learning
Carbon 6 1s22s22p2
Table 5-3 Have students write
an electron configuration notation
Nitrogen 7 1s22s22p3
that shows the orbital occupancy
Oxygen 8 1s22s22p4 related to a phosphorus atom’s 3p
Fluorine 9 1s22s22p5 sublevel. 3px13py13pz1 A chlorine
Neon 10 1s22s22p6 atom’s 3s and 3p sublevels.
3s23px23py23pz1
Recall that the number of electrons in an atom equals the number of protons,
which is designated by the element’s atomic number. Carbon, which has an Concept Development
atomic number of six, has six electrons in its configuration.
Another shorthand method for describing the arrangement of electrons in Ask students to think about and
an element’s atoms is called electron configuration notation. This method des- explain the analogy between
ignates the principal energy level and energy sublevel associated with each Hund’s rule and the behavior of
of the atom’s orbitals and includes a superscript representing the number of total strangers as they board an
electrons in the orbital. For example, the electron configuration notation of a empty bus. By and large, passen-
ground-state carbon atom is written 1s22s22p2. Orbital diagrams and electron gers sit in separate rows until
configuration notations for the elements in periods one and two of the peri-
people occupy all rows. Only
odic table are shown in Table 5-3. To help you visualize the relative sizes
and orientations of atomic orbitals, the filled 1s, 2s, 2px, 2py, and 2pz orbitals when no more empty rows are
of the neon atom are illustrated in Figure 5-18. available do two passengers
z z Figure 5-18 occupy a single row. For elec-
trons, the situation is much the
The 1s, 2s, and 2p orbitals of a
x neon atom overlap. How many same as they occupy orbitals
x electrons does each of neon’s related to a sublevel. Chemistry’s
orbitals hold? How many elec-
trons in total does neon’s elec-
bus principle is known as Hund’s
y
y tron cloud contain? rule.
1s
2s 2s 1s
z z z
2px
x
x x
y y
y 2py
2pz
2px 2py 2pz Neon atom

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1s 2s 2p
C05 18C 828378 a n
5.3 Electron Configurations 137
students to predict if there will be more or excited state? In the ground state, neon
fewer lines in hydrogen’s spectrum. is a clear, colorless gas. In the excited Assessment
state it gives off a red-orange light. Skill Have students view the excited
Results
3. Of the two spectra viewed, did hydrogen spectral tube of another element such as
The red-orange spectrum of neon also
or neon have more lines? Explain why. mercury. Ask them to predict if Hg will
contains some green lines. Usually only
Neon has more lines than hydrogen have more lines than neon and hydrogen
3 of the 4 lines of hydrogen are visible.
because its ten electrons have a because it has 80 electrons. No, Hg actually
Analysis greater number of possible energy has fewer lines in the visible spectrum.
1. Write the electron configurations of transitions. However, there are many additional lines
neon and hydrogen. Ne: 1s22s22p6, H: 1s1 in mercury’s IR and UV spectra.
2. What is the appearance of neon in the 137
Note that electron configuration notation usually does not show the orbital
Figure Caption Question distributions of electrons related to a sublevel. It’s understood that a desig-
1s
Figure 5-19 Which is filled first, nation such as nitrogen’s 2p3 represents the orbital occupancy 2px12py12pz1.
For sodium, the first ten electrons occupy 1s, 2s, and 2p orbitals. Then,
the 5s or 4p orbital? The 4p orbital 2s 2p according to the aufbau sequence, the eleventh electron occupies the 3s
is filled first. orbital. The electron configuration notation and orbital diagram for sodium
3s 3p 3d are written
Reinforcement Na 1s22s22p63s1
4s 4p 4d 4f
Point out that some textbooks, 1s 2s 2p 3s
reference books, and periodic
5s 5p 5d 5f Noble-gas notation is a method of representing electron configurations of
tables show electron configurations noble gases using bracketed symbols. For example, [He] represents the elec-
written in energy-level sequence 6s 6p 6d tron configuration for helium, 1s2, and [Ne] represents the electron configu-
rather than in aufbau sequence. ration for neon, 1s22s22p6. Compare the electron configuration for neon with
Reinforce that using the energy- 7s 7p
sodium’s configuration above. Note that the inner-level configuration for
level sequence for electron config- sodium is identical to the electron configuration for neon. Using noble-gas
urations does not render the aufbau notation, sodium’s electron configuration can be shortened to the form
Figure 5-19 [Ne]3s1. The electron configuration for an element can be represented using
sequence invalid. This sublevel diagram shows the the noble-gas notation for the noble gas in the previous period and the elec-
order in which the orbitals are tron configuration for the energy level being filled. The complete and abbre-
usually filled. The proper
viated (using noble-gas notation) electron configurations of the period 3
sequence for the first seven
orbitals is 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, elements are shown in Table 5-4.
and 3d. Which is filled first, the When writing electron configurations, you may refer to a convenient mem-
5s or the 4p orbital? ory aid called a sublevel diagram, which is shown in Figure 5-19. Note that
following the direction of the arrows in the sublevel diagram produces the
sublevel sequence shown in the aufbau diagram of Figure 5-17.
Exceptions to predicted configurations You can use the aufbau diagram

to write correct ground-state electron configurations for all elements up to and
including vanadium, atomic number 23. However, if you were to proceed in
this manner, your configurations for chromium, [Ar]4s23d4, and copper,
[Ar]4s23d9, would prove to be incorrect. The correct configurations for these
two elements are:
Cr [Ar]4s13d5 Cu [Ar]4s13d10
The electron configurations for these two elements, as well as those of sev-
eral elements in other periods, illustrate the increased stability of half-filled
and filled sets of s and d orbitals.
Table 5-4
Electron Configurations for Elements in Period Three
Atomic Complete electron Electron configuration
Element number configuration using noble-gas notation
Sodium 11 1s22s22p63s1 [Ne]3s1
Magnesium 12 1s22s22p63s2 [Ne]3s2

Aluminum 13 1s22s22p63s23p1 [Ne]3s23p1
Silicon 14 1s22s22p63s23p2 [Ne]3s23p2

Phosphorus 15 1s22s22p63s23p3 [Ne]3s23p3
Sulfur 16 1s22s22p63s23p4 [Ne]3s23p4
Chlorine 17 1s22s22p63s23p5 [Ne]3s23p5

Argon 18 1s22s22p63s23p6 [Ne]3s23p6 or [Ar]
The Development of Fireworks

Explain that the Chinese likely first used crackers to frighten off evil spirits and to chemical reaction, making it burn faster
fireworks about the second century B.C. celebrate weddings, births, battle victo- and hotter. This enabled the Italians to
After inventing explosive black powder, ries, and eclipses of the Moon. include various inorganic compounds
which they called “gung pow,” the Fireworks became much more inter- that burn at high temperatures and cre-
Chinese developed black-powder “crack- esting and colorful in the 1830s, when ate spectacular colors. Fireworks’ colors
ers” that produced loud explosions. Most Italian pyrotechnics experts added potas- are due to energy-level transitions of
scholars believe that the Chinese used sium chlorate to the mix. The potassium electrons in the metal atoms of these
chlorate provided more oxygen for the inorganic compounds.
138
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 5-3 PROBLEMS
Writing Electron Configurations Have students refer to Appendix
Germanium (Ge), a semiconducting element, is commonly used in the
manufacture of computer chips. What is the ground-state electron
configuration for an atom of germanium? Practice Problems.
1. Analyze the Problem
18. a. [Ar]4s23d104p5
You are given the semiconducting element, germanium (Ge). b. [Kr]5s2
Consult the periodic table to determine germanium’s atomic c. [Kr]5s24d105p3
number, which also is equal to its number of electrons. Also note
the atomic number of the noble gas element that precedes germa- d. [Xe]6s24f145d5
nium in the table. Determine the number of additional electrons a
germanium atom has compared to the nearest preceding noble
e. [Xe]6s24f9
gas, and then write out germanium’s electron configuration. f. [Ar]4s23d2
19. 6
2. Solve for the Unknown 20. 11
Atoms of boron and arsenic are
From the periodic table, germanium’s atomic number is determined to 21. indium
inserted into germanium’s crystal
be 32. Thus, a germanium atom contains 32 electrons. The noble gas
structure in order to produce a
preceding germanium is argon (Ar), which has an atomic number of
semiconducting material that can
22. barium
18. Represent germanium’s first 18 electrons using the chemical symbol
be used to manufacture com-
for argon written inside brackets.
puter chips.
[Ar]
The remaining 14 electrons of germanium’s configuration need to be
written out. Because argon is a noble gas in the third period of the Assessment
periodic table, it has completely filled 3s and 3p orbitals. Thus, the
remaining 14 electrons fill the 4s, 3d, and 4p orbitals in order. Portfolio Ask students to
[Ar]4s?3d?4p? write electron configurations and
Using the maximum number of electrons that can fill each orbital, construct orbital notations and
write out the electron configuration. electron dot structures for atoms of
[Ar]4s23d104p2
all the elements in the third period
3. Evaluate the Answer on the periodic table. Have them
All 32 electrons in a germanium atom have been accounted for. The include the configurations, nota-
correct preceding noble gas (Ar) has been used in the notation, and tions, and structures in their
the order of orbital filling for the fourth period is correct (4s, 3d, 4p).
portfolios. L2 P
PRACTICE PROBLEMS
e!
Practic For more practice with
18. Write ground-state electron configurations for the following
elements. electron configuration LS
problems, go to
a. bromine (Br) d. rhenium (Re) Supplemental Practice
b. strontium (Sr) e. terbium (Tb) Problems in Appendix A.
P
c. antimony (Sb) f. titanium (Ti)
19. How many electrons are in orbitals related to the third energy level
of a sulfur atom?
20. How many electrons occupy p orbitals in a chlorine atom?
21. What element has the following ground-state electron configura-
LS
tion? [Kr]5s24d105p1
22. What element has the following ground-state electron configura-
tion? [Xe]6s2

Visually Impaired
Kinesthetic Make or purchase
cellular polystyrene (Styrofoam) or
papier-mâché models of s, p, and d
orbitals. Allow visually impaired students
to feel the models and trace their contours
P
to gain a better appreciation of their Pages 136–139
shapes and orientations. L1 ELL 6(A)
139
LS
P
Using Science Terms Valence Electrons
Only certain electrons, called valence electrons, determine the chemical prop-
Explain to students that some text- erties of an element. Valence electrons are defined as electrons in the atom’s
books and reference books use the outermost orbitals—generally those orbitals associated with the atom’s high-
word valence in place of oxidation est principal energy level. For example, a sulfur atom contains 16 electrons,
state. For example, such books only six of which occupy the outermost 3s and 3p orbitals, as shown by sul-
fur’s electron configuration. Sulfur has six valence electrons.
would say that oxygen has a
valence of 2. S [Ne]3s23p4
Similarly, although a cesium atom contains 55 electrons, it has but one valence
Content Background electron, the 6s electron shown in cesium’s electron configuration.
Valence Electrons Explain to Cs [Xe]6s1
capable students that some inner-
level d electrons are often con- Francium, which belongs to the same group as cesium, also has a single
sidered valence electrons for valence electron.
transition elements. For example, Fr [Rn]7s1
although an atom of iron has just
two electrons in its outermost (4s) Electron-dot structures Because valence electrons are involved in form-
orbitals, an additional electron ing chemical bonds, chemists often represent them visually using a simple
associated with one of the atom’s shorthand method. An atom’s electron-dot structure consists of the ele-
3d orbitals is often involved in ment’s symbol, which represents the atomic nucleus and inner-level electrons,
bonding. And in an atom of surrounded by dots representing the atom’s valence electrons. The American
chemist G. N. Lewis (1875–1946), devised the method while teaching a col-
manganese, as many as five
lege chemistry class in 1902.
3d-orbital electrons may be In writing an atom’s electron-dot structure, dots representing valence elec-
involved in bonding. trons are placed one at a time on the four sides of the symbol (they may be
placed in any sequence) and then paired up until all are used. The ground-
state electron configurations and electron-dot structures for the elements in
PROBLEMS the second period are shown in Table 5-5.
Have students refer to Appendix

Practice Problems. Table 5-5
23. a. Mg d. Rb Electron-Dot Structures for Elements in Period Two

Atomic Electron
b. S e. Tl Element number configuration Electron-dot structure
c. Br f. Xe Lithium 3 1s22s1 Li
Beryllium 4 1s22s2 Be
Boron 5 1s22s22p1 B
3 Assess Carbon 6 1s22s22p2 C
Check for Understanding
Ask students to predict the Nitrogen 7 1s22s22p3 N
maximum number of electrons that Oxygen 8 1s22s22p4 O

can exist in orbitals related to an
atom’s fourth and fifth energy Fluorine 9 1s22s22p5 F
levels—assuming an element
Neon 10 1s22s22p6 Ne
existed that contained enough
electrons. You may want to give
students the formula 2n2, which can 140 Chapter 5 Electrons in Atoms
be used to calculate the number of
electrons related to each value of n.
32 and 50 electrons, respectively CHEMISTRY JOURNAL
Another Solar System—What if?
Linguistic Ask students to write essays of the planet’s solid, liquid, and gaseous
for their journals in which they specu- matter may contain up to three electrons
late about flying a spacecraft to a planet in rather than just two. Their speculation
P
a different solar system. In the new solar sys- should focus on the characteristics of the
tem, they discover that each atomic orbital elements on this new planet. L2
Pages 140–141
3(E), 6(A), 8(A)
LS
140
EXAMPLE PROBLEM 5-4 Reteach
Writing Electron-Dot Structures Visual-Spatial Have
Some sheet glass is manufactured using a process that makes use of students write the electron-
molten tin. What is tin’s electron-dot structure?
dot structure of strontium. The
1. Analyze the Problem structure includes the symbol Sr
You are given the element tin (Sn). Consult the periodic table to and two dots. Ask what the two
determine the total number of electrons an atom of tin has. Write
out tin’s electron configuration and determine the number of
dots represent. They represent the
valence electrons it has. Then use the number of valence electrons two electrons in a strontium
and the rules for electron-dot structures to draw the electron-dot atom’s outermost, 5s, orbital.
structure for tin.
Then, ask what the electron-dot
2. Solve for the Unknown structure does not communicate
From the periodic table, tin is found to have an atomic number of about the strontium atom’s elec-
50. Thus, a tin atom has 50 electrons. Write out the noble-gas form trons. It does not specify which
of tin’s electron configuration.
[Kr]5s24d105p2
orbital contains the two elec-
trons, nor does it give any infor-
The two 5s and the two 5p electrons (the electrons in the orbitals
related to the atom’s highest principal energy level) represent tin’s
mation about strontium’s inner
four valence electrons. Draw tin’s electron-dot structure by represent- Flat-surfaced window glass may level electrons.
ing its four valence electrons with dots, arranged one at a time, be manufactured by floating
around the four sides of tin’s chemical symbol (Sn). molten glass on top of molten
tin.
Sn Assessment
Skill Ask students to iden-
3. Evaluate the Answer
tify the elements that have the
The correct symbol for tin (Sn) has been used, and the rules for draw-
ing electron-dot structures have been correctly applied. following ground-state electron
configurations. [Ar]4s23d5
manganese [Xe]6s24f145d106p3
PRACTICE PROBLEMS bismuth L2
e!
23. Draw electron-dot structures for atoms of the following elements. Practic For more practice with
a. magnesium d. rubidium electron-dot structure
problems, go to
b. sulfur e. thallium Supplemental Practice
c. bromine f. xenon Problems in Appendix A.
P
26. A valence electron is an elec-
Section 5.3 Assessment tron in an atom’s outermost
orbitals.
24. State the aufbau principle in your own words. 27. Thinking Critically Use Hund’s rule and orbital a. SiLS c. Ca
25. Apply the Pauli exclusion principle, the aufbau diagrams to describe the sequence in which ten
electrons occupy the five orbitals related to an b. F d. Kr
principle, and Hund’s rule to write out the electron
configuration and draw the orbital diagram for atom’s d sublevel. 27. 1 electron ↑
each of the following elements. 28. Interpreting Scientific Illustrations Which of 2 electrons ↑ ↑
a. silicon c. calcium the following is the correct electron-dot structure 3 electrons ↑ ↑ ↑
b. fluorine d. krypton
for an atom of selenium? Explain. 4 electrons ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
26. What is a valence electron? Draw the electron-dot a. Se b. Se c. Se d. S 5 electrons ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
structures for the elements in problem 25. 6 electrons ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑
7 electrons ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
8 electrons ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
9 electrons ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
10 electrons ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
Single electrons with the
same spin occupy each equal-
Section 5.3 Assessment energy orbital before addi-
tional electrons with
24. Electrons tend to occupy the lowest- c. Ca 1s22s22p63s23p64s2 opposite spins occupy the
energy orbital available. ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ same orbital.
25. a. Si 1s22s22p63s23p2 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 28. c is correct; a shows three
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↑ d. Kr 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6 two-electron orbitals; b
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ shows one three-electron
b. F 1s22s22p5 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s orbital; d has the wrong
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ symbol
1s 2s 2p 3d 4p
141
CHEMLAB 5
CHEMLAB 5
P
Preparation Line Spectra
Time Allotment
LS
One laboratory period
Process Skills
Y ou know that sunlight is made up of a continuous spectrum of
colors that combine to form white light. You also have learned
that atoms of gases can emit visible light of characteristic wave-
Comparing and contrasting, lengths when excited by electricity. The color you see is the sum of all
predicting, thinking critically, clas- of the emitted wavelengths. In this experiment, you will use a diffrac-
tion grating to separate these wavelengths into emission line spectra.
sifying, observing and inferring,
You also will investigate another type of line spectrum—the absorp-
sequencing tion spectrum. The color of each solution you observe is due to the
Safety Precautions reflection or transmission of unabsorbed wavelengths of light. When
• Do not let students handle the white light passes through a sample and then a diffraction grating, dark
lines show up on the continuous spectrum of white light. These lines cor-
spectrum power supplies or tubes.
respond to the wavelengths of the photons absorbed by the solution.
Warn students not to touch the
gas spectrum tubes during use
Problem Objectives Materials
because they are very hot and can
What absorption and • Observe emission spectra of (For each group) food coloring (red,
cause burns. Exercise caution emission spectra do vari- several gases. ring stand with clamp green, blue, and
around the spectrum power ous substances produce? • Observe the absorption 40-W tubular light yellow)
supplies, as they present a signifi- spectra of various solutions. bulb set of colored pencils
• Analyze patterns of absorp- light socket with book
cant electrical shock hazard.
tion and emission spectra. power cord
(For entire class)
Disposal 275-mL polystyrene
spectrum tubes
You may want to reuse the flasks of culture flask (4)
(hydrogen, neon,
Flinn C-Spectra® or
food coloring solutions. similar diffraction
and mercury)
spectrum tube power
Preparation of Materials grating
supplies (3)
• Set up light sockets with light
bulbs prior to class and have them Safety Precautions
plugged in.
• Always wear safety goggles and a lab apron.
• Set up spectrum power supplies • Use care around the spectrum tube power supplies.
and tubes prior to class. • Spectrum tubes will get hot when used.
Pre-Lab
Pre-Lab
Drawings of Absorption Spectra
1.Read the entire CHEMLAB.
2. When electrons drop from 2. Explain how electrons in an element’s atoms pro- Red
higher-energy orbitals to duce an emission spectrum. Green
lower-energy orbitals, the 3. Distinguish among a continuous spectrum, an Blue
atom emits energy in the form emission spectrum, and an absorption spectrum.
of light. Each orbital transition Yellow
4. Prepare your data tables.
is associated with a character-
istic spectral line.
Drawings of Emission Spectra Procedure
3. A continuous spectrum contains
a continuum of visible colors Hydrogen 1. Use a Flinn C-Spectra® to view an incandescent
from red to violet. An absorp- Neon light bulb. What do you observe? Draw the spec-
tion spectrum is a continuous trum using colored pencils.
Mercury
spectrum containing black lines
at wavelengths associated with
the atoms’ energy absorptions.
An emission spectrum consists
of colored lines associated
with the atoms’ energy-level • The Flinn C-Spectra is much easier to use Expected Results
transitions. than a spectroscope for viewing spectra. It For each colored solution listed below, all colors
can be ordered from: are visible except as noted.
Flinn Scientific, Inc.
Procedure P.O. Box 219
Red solution: blue and green
• Have several groups of students Green solution: red and orange
Batavia, IL 60510 Blue solution: yellow, orange, and some red
start their observations of the gas www.flinnsci.com.
discharge tubes first so that the Yellow solution: blue
• You may be able to borrow gas spectrum tubes
area doesn’t become crowded by and power supplies from a physics teacher.
the end of the class period.
142
CHAPTER 5 CHEMLAB
2. Use the Flinn C-Spectra® to view the emission 6. With the room lights darkened, view the light using The approximate emission spectra
spectra from tubes of gaseous hydrogen, neon, and the Flinn C-Spectra®. The top spectrum viewed of the gas spectrum tubes are
mercury. Use colored pencils to make drawings in will be a continuous spectrum of the white light shown below.
the data table of the spectra observed. bulb. The bottom spectrum will be the absorption
spectrum of the red solution. The black areas of the Hydrogen
absorption spectrum represent the colors absorbed
by the red food coloring in the solution. Use col-
Mercury
ored pencils to make a drawing in the data table of
the absorption spectra you observed.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 using the green, blue, and yel- Neon
low colored solutions.
Blue Green Yellow Orange Red
Cleanup and Disposal
1. Turn off the light socket and spectrum tube power
supplies. Analyze and Conclude
2. Wait several minutes to allow the incandescent 1. The spectral lines indicate
light bulb and the spectrum tubes to cool.
energy is absorbed or released
3. Fill a 275-mL culture flask with about 100-mL 3. Follow your teacher’s instructions on how to dis-
as the atom transitions from
water. Add 2 or 3 drops of red food coloring to the pose of the liquids and how to store the light bulb
one energy level to another.
water. Shake the solution. and spectrum tubes.
2. At any given time, the elec-
4. Repeat step 3 for the green, blue, and yellow food
Analyze and Conclude tron occupies a single orbital.
coloring. CAUTION: Be sure to thoroughly dry
your hands before handling electrical equipment. However, it can move into
1. Thinking Critically How can the existence of other, vacant orbitals as the
5. Set up the light 40-W light bulb so that it is near spectra help to prove that energy levels in atoms
eye level. Place the flask with red food coloring atom absorbs or emits energy.
exist?
about 8 cm from the light bulb. Use a book or 3. The color of a solution is due
2. Thinking Critically How can the single electron
some other object to act as a stage to put the flask to the color of light it trans-
in a hydrogen atom produce all of the lines found
on. You should be able to see light from the bulb mits. The colors not trans-
in its emission spectrum?
above the solution and light from the bulb project- mitted are absorbed, and
ing through the solution. 3. Predicting How can you predict the absorption
spectrum of a solution by looking at its color? these colors comprise the
4. Thinking Critically How can spectra be used to absorption spectrum.
identify the presence of specific elements in a sub- 4. The spectrum of each element
stance? is unique. Thus, the presence
of a unique atomic spectrum
Real-World Chemistry indicates the presence of that
1. How can absorption and emission spectra be used element.
by the Hubble space telescope to study the struc-
tures of stars or other objects found in deep space? Real-World Chemistry
2. The absorption spectrum of chlorophyll a indicates
1. The light emitted by stars can
strong absorption of red and blue wavelengths.
Explain why leaves appear green.
be analyzed for the presence
of unique atomic spectra.
Such spectra can identify the
types of matter that comprise
the star.
2. Leaves appear green because
CHEMLAB 143
they reflect (do not absorb)
green light. The reflected
green light is what our
eyes see.
Resource Manager Assessment
Skill Have students look at the spec-
ChemLab and MiniLab Worksheets, trum produced by a fluorescent light and
pp. 18–20 L2 compare this spectrum to the spectrum of an
incandescent bulb. L2
Pages 142–143
1(A), 2(A), 2(B), 2(C), 2(D), 2(E),
6(A)
P 143
How It Works
P
Purpose How It Works
Students will learn how lasers are Lasers
LSof quantum theory.
an application A laser is a device that produces a beam of
intense light of a specific wavelength (color). 2 The excited atoms begin returning to the
ground state, emitting photons in the process.
Unlike light from a flashlight, laser light is These initial photons travel in all directions.
Background coherent; that is, it does not spread out as it
Most sources of light emit inco- travels through space. The precise nature of
Excited state Ground state
herent light. Incoherent light waves lasers led to their use in pointing and aiming
devices, CD players, optical fiber data E2 E2
have different wavelengths, ampli-
transmission, and surgery.
tudes, and frequencies, travel in all
directions, and are not in phase with
each other as they move through 1 The spiral-wound high-intensity lamp flashes, Photon emitted
space. Laser light is coherent, trav- supplying energy to the helium-neon gas mix-
eling in the same direction while ture inside the tube. The atoms of the gas absorb
the light energy and are raised to an excited E1 E1
being in phase. energy state. Before After
Two conditions must be met for
a laser to work. First, the atoms Sprial flash lamp
must be excited to a higher state. 1 3 The emitted photons hit other excited atoms,
2 and 3 causing them to release additional photons.
Second, the atoms must remain in These additional photons are the same wave-
the higher state longer than usual so length as the photons that struck the excited
atoms, and they are coherent (their waves are
that they can be stimulated to emit in sync because they are identical in wavelength
light rather than to emit it sponta- 5
and direction).
neously. How these conditions are Emitted
coherent
achieved depends on the type of 4 light
Excited state Ground state
Mirror
laser being used. In a ruby laser, for E2 E2
example, strong flashes of light Helium and Partially
neon filled tube
excite the atoms. The atoms then transparent
mirror
drop to a lower state that is still
excited, which leaves enough time Incident photon
4 Photons traveling parallel to the tube are
for stimulated emission to occur. reflected back through the tube by the flat
mirrors located at each end. The photons
strike additional excited atoms and cause Two coherent
photons emitted
Visual Learning more photons to be released. The intensity
of the light in the tube builds. E1 E1
Bring a laser pointer to class, and Before After
compare its light to that of an ordi- 5 Some of the laser's coherent light passes through
the partially transparent mirror at one end of the
nary flashlight. CAUTION: Be sure tube and exits the laser. These photons make up the
that students do not look directly light emitted by the laser.
into the laser light or shine it into
anyone’s eyes.
Teaching Strategies 1. Inferring How does the material used in 2. Relating Cause and Effect Why is one
the laser affect the type of light emitted? mirror partially transparent?
• Ask students to list at least five
different types of materials that can
be used in a laser to produce light.
• Ask students to select an applica-
tion of laser light to research. Have
them create a poster summarizing
Thinking Critically 2. If one of the mirrors were not partially
how the laser is used in this way.
transparent, the photons would have no
L2 ELL 1. The arrangement of electrons varies from
way to escape the laser. If the mirror were
one substance to another. As a result, the
totally transparent, the photons would
characteristics of light emitted by the
exit the laser after just one pass through
laser also vary. The material in the laser
P the tube. Thus, the photons could not
determines the characteristics of the light
stimulate the emission of additional
produced.
photons; the laser would soon weaken.
Pages 144–145
5(A),
P 6(A)
LS
144
CHAPTER 5 STUDY GUIDE CHAPTER
STUDY GUIDE 5
Summary Using the Vocabulary
5.1 Light and Quantized Energy • The quantum mechanical model of the atom is To reinforce chapter vocabulary,
• All waves can be described by their wavelength, based on the assumption that electrons are waves.
have students write a sentence
frequency, amplitude, and speed. • The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is using each term. L2 ELL
• Light is an electromagnetic wave. In a vacuum, not possible to know precisely the velocity and the
position of a particle at the same time.
all electromagnetic waves travel at a speed of Review Strategies
3.00 108 m/s. • Electrons occupy three-dimensional regions of space
• All electromagnetic waves may be described as both called atomic orbitals. There are four types of • Have students describe
P the elec-
waves and particles. Particles of light are called orbitals, denoted by the letters s, p, d, and f. tromagnetic spectrum and differ-
photons. entiate between visible light and
5.3 Electron Configurations infrared radiation. L2
• Energy is emitted and absorbed by matter in quanta. P
• In contrast to the continuous spectrum produced by
• The arrangement of electrons in an atom is called the • Ask students to write LSthe equation
atom’s electron configuration. Electron configura- that relates an electromagnetic
white light, an element’s atomic emission spectrum tions are prescribed by three rules: the aufbau princi-
consists of a series of fine lines of individual colors. wave’s frequency and wave-
ple, the Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund’s rule.
length. L2
5.2 Quantum Theory and the Atom • Electrons related to the atom’s highest principal LS the equation
• Have students write
energy level are referred to as valence electrons.
• According to the Bohr model of the atom, hydro-
Valence electrons determine the chemical properties that relates the energy of a
gen’s atomic emission spectrum results from elec- of an element. P
quantum of electromagnetic radi-
trons dropping from higher-energy atomic orbits to ation to the frequency of an asso-
lower-energy atomic orbits. • Electron configurations may be represented using
orbital diagrams, electron configuration notation, ciated wave. L2
• The de Broglie equation predicts that all moving • Ask students to explain the
and electron-dot structures.
particles have wave characteristics and relates each
particle’s wavelength to its mass, its frequency, and
LS
P of Heisenberg’s
significance
Planck’s constant. uncertainty principle as it relates
to electrons in atoms. L2
• Have students explain the rela-
Key Equations and Relationships tionshipLSbetween an atom’s
• Energy change of an electron: orbitals and itsPenergy levels. L2
• EM Wave relationship: c ␯
(p. 119)
E Ehigher-energy orbit Elower-energy orbit • Problems from Appendix A or the
E Ephoton h␯ Supplemental Problems booklet
• Energy of a quantum: Equantum h␯ (p. 128)
(p. 123)
can be used for review. L2
• de Broglie’s equation:
h
m␯
LS P
• Energy of a photon: Ephoton h␯ (p. 130)
(p. 124)
P
Vocabulary Reviewing Chemistry isLS
a compo-
• amplitude (p. 119) • electron configuration (p. 135) • photon (p. 123) nent of the Teacher Classroom
• atomic emission spectrum • electron-dot structure (p. 140) • Planck’s constant (p. 123) Resources package that wasP
(p. 125)
• atomic orbital (p. 132)
•
•
energy sublevel (p. 133)
frequency (p. 118)
•
•
principal energy level (p. 133)
principal quantum number
prepared by The Princeton LS
Review. Use the Chapter 5
• aufbau principle (p. 135) • ground state (p. 127) (p. 132)
review materials in this book
• de Broglie equation (p. 130) • Heisenberg uncertainty • quantum (p. 122)
• electromagnetic radiation principle (p. 131) • quantum mechanical model of to review the chapter with
LS your
(p. 118) • Hund’s rule (p. 136) the atom (p. 131) students.
• electromagnetic spectrum • Pauli exclusion principle (p. 136) • valence electron (p. 140)
(p. 120) • photoelectric effect (p. 123) • wavelength (p. 118)
Study Guide 145
Portfolio
Portfolio
VIDEOTAPE/DVD
Portfolio Options MindJogger
Review the portfolio options that are pro- and why they chose this example for place- Videoquizzes
vided throughout the chapter. Encourage ment into their portfolios. Additional port- Chapter 5:
students to select one product that demon- folio options may be found in the Challenge Electrons in Atoms
strates their best work for the chapter. Have Problems booklet of the Teacher Classroom Have students work in groups
students explain what they have learned Resources. L2 P as they play the videoquiz game
to review key chapter concepts.
LS 145
CHAPTER CHAPTER
CHAPTER 5
## ASSESSMENT
ASSESSMENT
ASSESSMENT 5
40. According to the Bohr model, how do electrons move
in atoms? (5.2)
41. What does n designate in Bohr’s atomic model? (5.2)
All Chapter Assessment questions
Go to the Chemistry Web site at 42. Why are you unaware of the wavelengths of moving
and answers have been validated objects such as automobiles and tennis balls? (5.2)
science.glencoe.com or use the Chemistry
for accuracy and suitability by CD-ROM for additional Chapter 5 Assessment. 43. What is the name of the atomic model in which elec-
The Princeton Review. trons are treated as waves? Who first wrote the elec-
Concept Mapping tron wave equations that led to this model? (5.2)
44. What is an atomic orbital? (5.2)
29. Complete the concept map using the following terms:
Concept Mapping speed, c , electromagnetic waves, wavelength, 45. What is the probability that an electron will be found
characteristic properties, frequency, c, and hertz. within an atomic orbital? (5.2)
29. 1. electromagnetic waves; 46. What does n represent in the quantum mechanical
2. characteristic properties; 1. model of the atom? (5.2)
3. frequency; 4. wave- 47. How many energy sublevels are contained in each of
length; 5. speed; 6. hertz; 2. the hydrogen atom’s first three energy levels? (5.2)
7. c ; 8. c 48. What atomic orbitals are related to a p sublevel? To a
3. 4. 5. d sublevel? (5.2)
Mastering Concepts 49. Which of the following atomic orbital designations are
incorrect? (5.2)
30. a. Frequency is the number measured are related of all a. 7f b. 3f c. 2d d. 6p
of waves that pass a in by waves
50. What do the sublevel designations s, p, d, and f spec-
given point per second.
6. 7. 8. ify with respect to the atom’s orbitals? (5.2)
b. Wavelength is the
51. What do subscripts such as y and xz tell you about
shortest distance atomic orbitals? (5.2)
between equivalent Mastering Concepts 52. What is the maximum number of electrons an orbital
points on a continuous may contain? (5.2)
30. Define the following terms.
wave. 53. Why is it impossible to know precisely the velocity
a. frequency (5.1) c. quantum (5.1)
c. A quantum is the b. wavelength (5.1) d. ground state (5.2)
and position of an electron at the same time? (5.2)
minimum amount of 54. What shortcomings caused scientists to finally reject
31. Why did scientists consider Rutherford’s nuclear
energy that can be lost model of the atom incomplete? (5.1)
Bohr’s model of the atom? (5.2)
or gained by an atom. 32. Name one type of electromagnetic radiation. (5.1)
55. Describe de Broglie’s revolutionary concept involving
d. An atom’s ground state the characteristics of moving particles. (5.2)
33. Explain how the gaseous neon atoms in a neon sign
is its lowest allowable 56. How is an orbital’s principal quantum number related
emit light. (5.1)
to the atom’s major energy levels? (5.2)
energy state. 34. What is a photon? (5.1)
31. Typical answers will say that 57. Explain the meaning of the aufbau principle as it
35. What is the photoelectric effect? (5.1) applies to atoms with many electrons. (5.3)
the model did not explain
36. Explain Planck’s quantum concept as it relates to 58. In what sequence do electrons fill the atomic orbitals
the following: how the energy lost or gained by matter. (5.1) related to a sublevel? (5.3)
atom’s negatively charged 37. How did Einstein explain the previously unexplainable 59. Why must the two arrows within a single block of an
electrons occupy the space photoelectric effect? (5.1) orbital diagram be written in opposite (up and down)
around the nucleus; why 38. Arrange the following types of electromagnetic radia- directions? (5.3)
the electrons are not drawn tion in order of increasing wavelength. (5.1) 60. How does noble-gas notation shorten the process of
into the atom’s positively a. ultraviolet light c. radio waves writing an element’s electron configuration? (5.3)
charged nucleus; a ratio- b. microwaves d. X rays 61. What are valence electrons? How many of a magne-
nale for the chemical prop- 39. What is the difference between an atom’s ground state sium atom’s 12 electrons are valence electrons? (5.3)
erties of the elements. and an excited state? (5.2)
32. light, microwaves, X rays,
radio waves 146 Chapter 5 Electrons in Atoms
33. Electricity passing through
the tube excites neon
atoms to higher energy light of a sufficient frequency shines
on it
Resource Manager
levels. As the excited atoms
drop back to lower energy 36. According to Planck, for a given
levels, they emit light. frequency, , matter can emit or absorb Chapter Assessment, pp. 25–30 L2
34. a particle of electromag- energy only in discrete quanta that Supplemental Problems, Ch. 5
netic radiation having a rest are whole-number multiples of h. TestCheck Software
mass of zero and carrying a 37. He proposed that photons must have a MindJogger Videoquizzes
quantum of energy certain minimum, or threshold, value to Solutions Manual, Ch. 5
35. a phenomenon in which a cause the ejection of a photoelectron. Chemistry Interactive CD-ROM,
metal emits electrons when 38. d. X rays, a. ultraviolet light, Ch. 5 quiz
b. microwaves, c. radio waves Reviewing Chemistry: Mastering P
the
146 TEKS, Ch. 5
CHAPTER 5 ASSESSMENT
62. Light is said to have a dual wave-particle nature. What 74. A photon has an energy of 1.10 1013 J. What is 39. An atom’s ground state is
does this statement mean? (5.3) the photon’s wavelength? What type of electromag- its lowest energy state,
63. Describe the difference between a quantum and a netic radiation is it? while any energy state
photon. (5.3) 75. How long does it take a radio signal from the Voyager higher than the ground
64. How many electrons are shown in the electron-dot spacecraft to reach Earth if the distance between
Voyager and Earth is 2.72 109 km?
state is an excited state.
structures of the following elements? (5.3)
76. If your favorite FM radio station broadcasts at a fre-
40. Electrons move in circular
a. carbon c. calcium
b. iodine d. gallium quency of 104.5 MHz, what is the wavelength of the orbits around the nucleus.
station’s signal in meters? What is the energy of a 41. The quantum number n
photon of the station’s electromagnetic signal? specifies the electron’s orbit.
Mastering Problems
Wavelength, Frequency, Speed, and Electron Configurations (5.3) 42. Their wavelengths are
Energy (5.1) too small to be seen.
77. List the aufbau sequence of orbitals from 1s to 7p.
65. What is the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation 43. the quantum mechanical
78. Write orbital notations and complete electron configu-
having a frequency of 5.00 1012 Hz? What kind of rations for atoms of the following elements.
model of the atom; Erwin
electromagnetic radiation is this? Schrödinger
a. beryllium
66. What is the frequency of electromagnetic radiation b. aluminum 44. a three-dimensional region
having a wavelength of 3.33 108 m? What type of c. nitrogen around the nucleus
electromagnetic radiation is this? d. sodium describing an electron’s
67. The laser in a compact disc (CD) player uses light 79. Use noble-gas notation to describe the electron config- probable location
with a wavelength of 780 nm. What is the frequency urations of the elements represented by the following
of this light? 45. The probability is 90%.
symbols.
68. What is the speed of an electromagnetic wave having 46. n represents an orbital’s
a. Mn f. W
a frequency of 1.33 1017 Hz and a wavelength of b. Kr g. Pb
principal quantum number,
2.25 nm? c. P h. Ra which indicates the relative
69. Use Figure 5-5 to determine each of the following d. Zn i. Sm size and energy of the
types of radiation. e. Zr j. Bk orbital.
a. radiation with a frequency of 8.6 1011 s1 80. What elements are represented by each of the follow- 47. energy level 1 has one
b. radiation with a wavelength 4.2 nm ing electron configurations?
sublevel, energy level 2 has
c. radiation with a frequency of 5.6 MHz a. 1s22s22p5
d. radiation that travels at a speed of 3.00 108 m/s two sublevels, energy level
b. [Ar]4s2
70. What is the energy of a photon of red light having a c. [Xe]6s24f4 3 has three sublevels
frequency of 4.48 1014 Hz? d. [Kr]5s24d105p4 48. p sublevel: x, y, and z
71. Mercury’s atomic emission spectrum is shown below. e. [Rn]7s25f13 orbitals; d sublevel: xy, xz,
Estimate the wavelength of the orange line. What is its f. 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5 yz, x 2y 2, and z 2 orbitals
frequency? What is the energy of an orange photon 81. Draw electron-dot structures for atoms of each of the 49. b, c are incorrect
emitted by the mercury atom? following elements.
50. their shapes
Hg a. carbon
b. arsenic
51. their orientations
c. polonium 52. two electrons
(nm) 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 d. potassium 53. The photon required to
e. barium measure an electron’s
72. What is the energy of an ultraviolet photon having a 82. An atom of arsenic has how many electron-containing velocity or position changes
wavelength of 1.18 108 m? orbitals? How many of the orbitals are completely both the position and
73. A photon has an energy of 2.93 1025 J. What is its filled? How many of the orbitals are associated with
frequency? What type of electromagnetic radiation is the atom’s n 4 principal energy level? velocity of the electron.
the photon? 54. Bohr’s model did not
explain the spectra of
atoms having more than
one electron and did not
Assessment 147 fully explain the chemical
behavior of atoms.
55. de Broglie proposed that
56. Because the orbital’s principal 59. Two electrons occupying a single atomic all moving particles have
quantum number indicates the orbital must have opposite spins. wave characteristics.
orbital’s relative size and energy, it also 60. The noble-gas notation uses the brack-
specifies the atom’s major energy level. eted symbol of the preceding noble gas
57. The aufbau principle describes the in the periodic table to represent an
sequence in which an atom’s orbitals atom’s inner electrons.
are filled with electrons. 61. Valence electrons are the electrons in
58. Each orbital must contain a single an atom’s outermost orbitals; 2
Pages 146–147
electron before any orbital contains 62. Light exhibits wavelike behavior in
3(E), 5(A), 6(A)
two electrons. some situations and particlelike
behavior in others. 147
63. A quantum is the minimum Mixed Review Thinking Critically

amount of energy that can
Sharpen your problem-solving skills by answering the 96. Comparing and Contrasting Briefly discuss the
be lost or gained by an following. difference between an orbit in Bohr’s model of the
atom, while a photon is a atom and an orbital in the quantum mechanical view
particle of light that carries 83. What is the frequency of electromagnetic radiation of the atom.
a quantum of energy. having a wavelength of 1.00 m? 97. Applying Concepts Scientists use atomic emission
64. a. 4 c. 2 84. What is the maximum number of electrons that can be spectra to determine the elements in materials of
contained in an atom’s orbitals having the following unknown composition. Explain what makes this
b. 7 d. 3 principal quantum numbers? method possible.
a. 3 b. 4 c. 6 d. 7 98. Using Numbers It takes 8.17 1019 J of energy
Mastering Problems 85. What is the wavelength of light with a frequency of to remove one electron from a gold surface. What is
Complete solutions to Chapter 5.77 1014 Hz? the maximum wavelength of light capable of causing
this effect?
Assessment problems can be found 86. Using the waves shown below, identify the wave or
99. Drawing a Conclusion The elements aluminum,
in the Solutions Manual. waves with the following characteristics.
silicon, gallium, germanium, arsenic, selenium are all
1. 3. used in making various types of semiconductor
Wavelength, Frequency, devices. Write electron configurations and electron-
2. 4.
Speed, and Energy (5.1) dot structures for atoms of each of these elements.
What similarities among the elements’ electron
Level 1 a. longest wavelength c. largest amplitude configurations do you notice?
65. 6.00 105 m; b. greatest frequency d. shortest wavelength
infrared radiation 87. How many orientations are possible for the orbitals Writing in Chemistry
66. 9.01 1015 s1; related to each of the following sublevels?
100. In order to make “neon” signs emit a variety of col-
ultraviolet radiation a. s b. p c. d d. f
ors, manufacturers often fill the signs with gases
67. 3.8 1014 s1 88. Describe the electrons in an atom of nickel in the other than neon. Research the use of gases in neon
ground state using the electron configuration notation
68. v 3.00 108 m/s and the noble-gas notation.
signs and specify the colors produced by the gases.
69. a. infrared
b. X ray
89. Which of the following elements have two electrons Cumulative Review
in their electron-dot structures: hydrogen, helium,
c. AM radio lithium, aluminum, calcium, cobalt, bromine, krypton, Refresh your understanding of previous chapters by
d. any EM wave and barium? answering the following.
90. In Bohr’s atomic model, what electron orbit transition
Level 2 produces the blue-green line in hydrogen’s atomic
101. Round 20.561 20 g to three significant figures.
(Chapter 2)
70. Ephoton 2.97 1019 J emission spectrum?
71. 615 nm, 4.88 1014 s1, 91. A zinc atom contains a total of 18 electrons in its 3s,
102. Identify each of the following as either chemical or
physical properties of the substance. (Chapter 3)
Ephoton 3.23 1019 J 3p, and 3d orbitals. Why does its electron-dot structure
a. mercury is a liquid at room temperature
72. Ephoton 1.68 1017 J show only two dots?
b. sucrose is a white, crystalline solid
73. 4.42 108 s1; TV or 92. An X-ray photon has an energy of 3.01 1018 J.
c. iron rusts when exposed to moist air
What is its frequency and wavelength?
FM wave d. paper burns when ignited
93. Which element has the following orbital diagram?
74. 1.81 1012 m, an 103. Identify each of the following as a pure substance or
X ray or gamma ray a mixture. (Chapter 3)
1s 2s 2p
75. t 9070 s, or 151 min a. distilled water d. diamond
94. Which element has the ground-state electron configu-
76. 2.87 m, ration represented by the noble-gas notation [Rn]7s1?
b. orange juice with pulp e. milk
c. smog f. copper metal
Ephoton 6.92 1026 J 104. An atom of gadolinium has an atomic number of 64
95. How many photons of infrared radiation having a fre-
quency of 4.88 1013 Hz are required to provide an and a mass number of 153. How many electrons,
Electron Configurations energy of 1.00 J? protons, and neutrons does it contain? (Chapter 4)
(5.3)
Level 1
77. 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 148 Chapter 5 Electrons in Atoms
5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s,
5f, 6d, 7p
78. a. Be 1s22s2 d. Na 1s22s22p63s1 i. Sm [Xe]6s24f6
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ j. Bk [Rn]7s25f9
1s 2s 1s 2s 2p 3s
b. Al 1s22s22p63s23p1 Level 2
79. a. Mn [Ar]4s23d5
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
80. a. F c. Nd e. Md
b. Kr [Ar]4s23d104p6
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
b. Ca d. Te f. Br
c. P [Ne]3s23p3
c. N 1s22s22p3 d. Zn [Ar]4s23d10 81. a. C d. K
↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑ e. Zr [Kr]5s24d2 b. As e. Ba
1s 2s 2p f. W [Xe]6s24f145d4
g. Pb [Xe]6s24f145d106p2 c. Po
148 h. Ra [Rn]7s2 82. 18; 15; 4
STANDARDIZED TEST PRACTICE
CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 5 ASSESSMENT
Use these questions and the test-taking tip to prepare 6. Which of the following is the correct orbital diagram Mixed Review
for your standardized test. for the third and fourth principal energy levels of
vanadium? 83. 3.00 108 s1
1. Cosmic rays are high-energy radiation from outer a. 84. a. 18 c. 72
0
0
0
0
0
space. What is the frequency of a cosmic ray that has
0
0
0
0
0
3s 3p 4s 3d b. 32 d. 98
a wavelength of 2.67 1013 m when it reaches
b. 85. 5.20 107 m
0
0
0
0
0
0
Earth? (The speed of light is 3.00 108 m/s.)
0
0
0
0
a. 8.90 1022 s1 3s 3p 4s 3d 86. a. longest wavelength: 4
3.75 1012 s1 c. b. greatest frequency: 3
0
0
0
0
b.
0
8.01 105 s1 c. largest amplitude: 1
0
0
0
0
c. 3s 3p 4s 3d
d. 1.12 1021 s1 d. and 3
0
0
0
0
0
2. Wavelengths of light between 5.75 109 m and d. shortest wavelength: 3
0
0
0
0
3s 3p 4s 3d
5.85 109 m appear yellow to the human eye.
7. Which of the following orbitals has the highest
87. a. 1 c. 5
What is the energy of a photon of yellow light having
a frequency of 5.45 1016 s1? (Planck’s constant is energy? b. 3 d. 7
6.626 1034 J s.) a. 4f 88. 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d8
a. 3.61 1017 J b. 5p [Ar]4s23d8
b. 1.22 1050 J c. 6s 89. helium, calcium, cobalt,
c. 8.23 1049 J d. 3d barium
d. 3.81 1024 J 8. What is the electron-dot structure for indium? 90. n4→n2
Interpreting Charts Use the periodic table and the
chart below to answer questions 3–6.
a. In c. In 91. The two dots are the atom’s
b. In d. In two 4s valence electrons.
Electron Configurations for Selected 9. The picture below shows all of the orbitals related to 92. 4.54 1015 s1;
Transition Metals one type of sublevel. The type of sublevel to which 6.60 108 m
Element Symbol Atomic Electron these orbitals belong is ________ . 93. boron
number configuration z z z
94. francium
Vanadium V 23 [Ar]4s23d3 95. 3.10 1019 photons
x
x x
Yttrium Y 39 [Kr]5s24d1
_________ ___ ___ [Xe]6s24f145d6
y
y
y
Thinking Critically
Scandium Sc 21 [Ar]4s23d1 96. In the Bohr model, an orbit
Cadmium Cd 48 ____________ a. s c. d is a circular path taken by
b. p d. f an electron as it moves
3. Using noble-gas notation, the ground-state electron 10. What is the maximum number of electrons related to around the atomic nucleus.
configuration of Cd is ________ . the fifth principal energy level of an atom? In the quantum mechanical
a. [Kr]4d104f 2 c. [Kr]5s24d10 a. 10 c. 25 model, an orbital is a
b. [Ar]4s23d10 d. [Xe]5s24d10 b. 20 d. 50 three-dimensional region
4. The element that has the ground-state electron config-
around the nucleus that
uration [Xe]6s24f145d6 is ________ .
describes the electron’s
a. La c. W
b. Ti d. Os probable location.
5. The complete electron configuration of a scandium
Do Some Reconnaissance Find out what 97. Each element emits a char-
the conditions will be for taking the test. Is it timed acteristic, unique atomic
atom is ________ .
or untimed? Can you eat a snack at the break? Can
a. 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d1 you use a calculator or other tools? Will those tools
emission spectrum.
b. 1s22s22p73s23p74s23d1 be provided? Will mathematical constants be given? 98. 2.43 107 m
c. 1s22s22p53s23p54s23d1 Know these things in advance so that you can prac- 99. Al [Ne]3s23p1
d. 1s22s12p73s13p74s23d1 tice taking tests under the same conditions. Si [Ne]3s23p2
Ga [Ar]4s23d104p1
Ge [Ar]4s23d104p2
Standardized Test Practice 149
As [Ar]4s23d104p3
Se [Ar]4s23d104p4
The atoms have filled s
Cumulative Review d. pure substance
orbitals and p orbitals
e. mixture
101. 20.6 g containing 1 to 4 electrons.
f. pure substance
102. a. physical property See the Solutions Manual
104. 64 electrons, 64 protons, 89 neutrons
b. physical property for electron dot structures.
c. chemical property
d. chemical property
Standardized Test Practice
103. a. pure substance 1. d 4. d 7. a 9. b
b. mixture 2. a 5. a 8. c 10. d Pages 148–149
c. mixture 3. c 6. b 5(A), 6(A)
149

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CHAPTER 5 Electrons in Atoms

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Key to Teaching Strategies Assessment Planner

distinctive colors—something that arrangements of electrons

The colorful display from fire-

object is in the box without actually seeing it?

Section 5.1 Light and Quantized Energy

it is related to an energy Matter and

change of matter. Section

The Nuclear Atom and Unanswered Questions

• Contrast continuous electro-

Study Guide for Content

118 Chapter 5 Electrons in Atoms

Lower frequency Figure 5-3

5.1 Light and Quantized Energy 119

Resource Manager CHEMISTRY JOURNAL

Wavelengths () in meters

Radio Infrared Ultraviolet Gamma rays

120 Chapter 5 Electrons in Atoms

4. A popular radio station broadcasts with a frequency of 94.7 MHz.

5.1 Light and Quantized Energy 121

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122 Chapter 5 Electrons in Atoms

Internet Address Book

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 5-2

chemists found Rutherford’s 1. Analyze the Problem

2. Solve for the Unknown

Extension 124 Chapter 5 Electrons in Atoms

Table 5-1 Focus Tran

Bohr’s Description of the Hydrogen Atom

5.2 Quantum Theory and the Atom 127

M EETING I NDIVIDUAL N EEDS P

b Vibrating guitar string

5.2 Quantum Theory and the Atom 129

5.2 Quantum Theory and the Atom 131 LS

M EETING I NDIVIDUAL N EEDS

Resource 132 Chapter 5 Electrons in Atoms

134 Chapter 5 Electrons in Atoms

6p energy of each sublevel. Each Section

4f box on the diagram represents

or 4s sublevel have greater

Using Science Terms

states. Quantum mechanical

136 Chapter 5 Electrons in Atoms

2px 2py 2pz Neon atom

Exceptions to predicted configurations You can use the aufbau diagram

Sodium 11 1s22s22p63s1 [Ne]3s1

Magnesium 12 1s22s22p63s2 [Ne]3s2

Silicon 14 1s22s22p63s23p2 [Ne]3s23p2

Chlorine 17 1s22s22p63s23p5 [Ne]3s23p5

138 Chapter 5 Electrons in Atoms

The Development of Fireworks

5.3 Electron Configurations 139

M EETING I NDIVIDUAL N EEDS

Have students refer to Appendix