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DieselNet Technology Guide » Diesel Fuel Injection

www.DieselNet.com. Copyright © Ecopoint Inc. Revision 2001.10

Advanced Injection Systems

and Their Control
Abstract: All advanced injection systems, including the pump-line-nozzle, unit injector, and
common-rail have adopted electronic controls. Through the use of electronics, new control functions
could have been introduced and existing functions, such as torque curve shaping or smoke control,
improved. Electronic controls in diesel fuel injection system range from electronically controlled
racks (commonly known as electronic governors), through solenoid valve actuated injectors, to
sophisticated control algorithms in the common-rail system.

Modernizing The Pump-Line-Nozzle System

Modernizing Unit Injector System
Electronically-Controlled Common-Rail System

Modernizing the Pump-Line-Nozzle System

The P-L-N system has been modernized through an evolutionary process where the initial steps were
simply using electrical components to replicate functions that were previously performed by
mechanical components. The introduction of electronics to the diesel engine industry has been slow,
largely due to the negative cost implications, as well as doubts about the reliability of electronics in
the rugged applications of the diesel engine. Uncertainty about whether electronics would really be
required to meet emission regulations while helping maintain good engine performance further
delayed progress toward adopting electronics in heavy-duty diesel fuel systems. Emission regulations
continued on an increasingly stringent path, forcing more demands on the fuel injection system.
Further, early demonstrations of what electronics can do helped focus attention on these
developments and direct more capital and resources into research efforts.

This section will address the specific developments of the P-L-N fuel injection system. A somewhat
detailed description is given for the “electronification” of the in-line pump with a special treatment of
some of its basic, as well as new functions. Parallels are drawn to project the changes performed in
the distributor/rotary pump system as well as the unit pump system.

Electronically-Controlling the In-Line Pump System

The development of electronic in-line pump system targeted primarily heavy-duty applications. The
1988 emission regulations in the United States and contemporaneous performance objectives were
met without electronic controls. For 1991, some North American manufacturers decided that the time
for introducing electronics in commercial on-highway trucks and buses was ripe. Projects were
established for the evaluation of engine electronic controls at most engine companies in North
America, as well as in Japan and Europe. For instance, Robert Bosch, one of the largest
manufacturers of in-line pump systems introduced the P-3000 and P-7000 series pumps, equipped
initially with just fuel metering control and later with electronic injection timing control. These
pumps were equipped with an electronically controlled rack (commonly known as electronic
governor) and code named RE-24. Some of its control functions are described in this section as well
as results of an engine evaluation of the electronic governor. With electronic control of fuel quantity
as implemented in the Bosch P-3000 pump equipped with an RE-24 electronic governor, some
functions were substantially improved and new functions were added. The following is a summary of

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these functions.

Improved Functions

„ Key start/stop was accomplished by using a solenoid to actuate the pump shut-off lever in the
traditional in-line pump system. With electronic rack control, this function is performed by de-
energizing the rack actuator (actuator for fueling) shown in Figure 1 [Brady 1996]. This
eliminates the need for a separate shut-off solenoid. In addition, an emergency shut-off
solenoid is provided at the fuel entry point into the high injection pressure pump. When the
emergency solenoid is activated, the path of the supply fuel to the pump fill gallery is
interrupted.

Figure 1. Electronically-Controlled In-Line Pump

„ Torque curve shaping is more easily achieved through the use of electronics. In some cases it
may be difficult if not impossible to obtain the desired torque/speed relationship with a
mechanical governor. Add on devices such as two-stage boost controllers, torque capsules,
puff limiters and K-cams (as in the Bosch RQV..K governor) are used to approximate the
desired torque shape. In the case of electronic rack control this function is accomplished by
regulating the current to the rack actuator according to a preset schedule stored in the memory
of the microprocessor. This preset schedule is a function of the throttle position, engine speed,
intake air pressure and temperature as well as fuel temperature.

„ Flexible driveability characteristics can be accomplished with relative ease. This means that
more than one type of governor characteristic can be stored in memory then retrieved as
desired according to each application. Under certain driving conditions, an all-speed governor
may be preferred while other conditions may require a minimum/maximum governor scheme.
Both control strategies can be accommodated if required for a certain application.

„ Achieving a zero droop (change of fuel rate/crankangle degree) at idle can easily be achieved
with an electronic rack control compared to the mechanical governor which relies on the
dynamics of a mass/spring system.

„ Flexibility and accuracy in controlling smoke is provided with the electronic rack control
through the use of anticipatory strategies which account for the turbocharger lag.

„ The electronic rack control provides tighter droop (close to zero) through the intermediate
speed range (idle to rated) for power take-off (PTO) applications. This system offers added
flexibility for the end speed (or high idle speed) regulation.

„ The electronic system makes it more difficult to tamper with the fuel system calibration.

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New functions and advantages

„ Fuel temperature compensation is non-existent with the mechanical system. With the
electronic rack controller, the rack position could be modified as a function of the fuel
temperature.

„ Air temperature compensation is provided with an electronic rack controller.

„ Coolant temperature as an indicator of a cold or a warm engine condition can be used to

control the starting (excess) fuel quantity.

„ Cruise control can easily be implemented.

„ Road speed limiting is another function which is easily provided. This feature has shown
significant savings in fuel consumption.

„ Linking the fuel system control and other engine control devices, such as variable geometry
turbochargers, can be achieved more effectively without the use of mechanical linkages.

„ On board monitors and diagnostics are effectively implemented.

„ Pump inventory reductions through using a common hydro-mechanical pump (where

applicable) and a blank programmable read only memory (PROM) for end-of-line
programming.

Bosch RE-24 Rack Controller

The Bosch RE-24 rack controller is more than just an electronic governor. It has the responsibility of
metering fuel to the engine, as a function of a number of variables, throughout its speed and load
ranges. Figure 1 shows the construction of the electrical components of the system. A fuel rack
actuator (or linear solenoid coil) is in contact with the end of the control rack. Varying the current to
the coil moves the control rod to increase or decrease fueling to the engine. A return spring always
returns the rack to the no fuel position when the coil is de-energized. An eddy current sensor with an
induction ring on the control rack serves as a rack position sensor which is also temperature
compensated. An engine speed sensor is installed in the “governor” housing. The engine speed sensor
is an electromagnetic sensor which works in conjunction with a toothed gear to indicate speed. The
electrical components which are built into the “governor” housing are wired to a multi-pin, heavy-
duty connector which is accessible from the back of the pump. The oil fill hole on the side of the
“governor” housing provides visual means to verify the static “base” injection timing.

Figure 2 is a functional schematic representation of the RE-24 system [Bosch 1994]. It shows other
sensors which can be used for the acquisition of information required as input to the microprocessor.
These sensors include an accelerator pedal position sensor, a boost pressure sensor, an air temperature
sensor, a coolant temperature sensor, and a fuel temperature sensor. Other sensors may be added
depending on the needs of the specific application. Inputs from these sensors are received by the
microprocessor which in turn computes a rack position. This rack position is relayed to the rack
actuator which in turn moves the rack to that position. The rack position sensor closes the loop by
sending a signal to the microprocessor confirming the actual position of the rack, thus causing the
microprocessor to take corrective action in case the rack is not at the desired position.

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Figure 2. Functional Schematic of Electronic In-Line Pump System

1 - Fuel tank; 2 - Supply pump; 3 - Fuel filter; 4 - In-line fuel injection pump; 5 -
Electrical shutoff device (ELAB); 6 - Fuel temperature sensor; 7 - Rack travel sensor; 8
- Actuator with linear motion solenoid; 9 - Pump speed sensor; 10 - Injector; 11 -
Coolant temperature sensor; 12 - Accelerator pedal sensor; 13 - Switches for brakes,
exhaust brake, clutch; 14 - Operator panel; 15 - Warning lamp and diagnosis
connection; 16 - Tachograph or vehicle speed sensor; 17 - ECU; 18 - Air temperature
sensor; 19 - Charge air pressure sensor; 20 - Exhaust gas turbocharger; 21 - Battery;
22 - Glow plug and starter switch

Figure 2 also shows elements of vehicle controls such as an exhaust brake and how diagnostics might
be implemented. Several other sensors are used to feed the control unit information required for
various other functions such as cruise control and positive traction control.

Function of the RE-24 Rack Controller

Control Overview

Figure 3 shows an overview of the rack control functional variables which are usually stored table
form in the microprocessor memory.

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Figure 3. Functional Overview of Electronic Governor Function and Control

N1 - Engagement speed; N2 - Disengagement speed; N2’ - Re-engagement speed; N3
- Cut-out speed

Lines shown in the map can be explained as follows:

„ “Start fuel” is given in terms of “rack position” command (RC), which corresponds to “fuel
quantity” command (FC). Two lines (1 - solid and dashed) indicate either a fuel command or a
rack command, for cold engine start. Two additional lines (2), show the same two variables for
a warm engine start. A vertical dashed line (N1) shows the “engagement” speed below which
no fuel is allowed into the engine.
„ “Full load torque” is shown as line (3) which is determined for each engine according to the
desired level of performance, i.e. torque output, at each speed. Dashed lines (4, 5) indicate the
limits that could be set on the full load torque curve (3) to account for the cold fuel
temperature (4) or the hot fuel temperature (5).
„ “Smoke limit”, for a given pressure and temperature condition, is designated by line (6). Lines
(7, 8) show the smoke limit under cold and warm intake manifold temperature, respectively.
„ “Intermediate speed regulation” is designated by the diagonal parallel lines (9).
„ “End speed regulation” is shown as line (10).
„ “Low idle, rated, and high idle speeds” are designated N2, N4 and N5 respectively.
„ “Re-engagement speed” is the speed at which a cold engine might stall and start fuel quantity
(modified by fuel temperature) would be required to avoid stalling.
„ “Cut-out speed” (N3) is the speed indicating the end of the start process.

Fuel Quantity Regulation

Figure 4 is a block diagram of a sample logic used in the regulation of fuel quantity. Starting from the
upper right hand corner, a throttle position or command A, and an engine speed signal B are inputs to
the “governor limit” block C. For that engine speed and throttle command the microprocessor will
look up a rack command (or fuel command) value that is stored in its memory. This value is an output
signal N from block C to the “minimum block” D. “Torque limit” F receives an engine speed signal
B for which the microprocessor looks up a maximum allowable torque value (limit) for that speed.
This value is an input G into the “minimum” block H. “Smoke limit” E receives two inputs. The first
is an engine speed input B, and the second is an air density signal I resulting from a computation in
the “air density” block J, based on the intake manifold pressure and temperature values. The output of
block E (smoke limit) is input to the comparator block H, where a minimum value K is selected

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(wins). The latter is used as input into the “fuel temperature compensation” block L which computes
a fuel quantity command signal M based on engine speed, smoke limit, and a fuel temperature
correction factor. Comparator D receives two signals M and N, and governed by a “minimum-win”
logic, a fuel flow command (FC) is selected and transmitted to the rack actuator.

Figure 4. Fuel Quantity Regulation

Electronic In-Line Pump Timing Control

Figure 5[Brady 1996] shows the relationship between the plunger, barrel, and control sleeve in two
positions. Position “a” is the spill port closing position that leads to the start of delivery, and Position
“b” is the spill port opening that leads to the end of injection. The motion and position of the control
sleeve is based on inputs from several sensors, as in the case of the fuel quantity regulations. In
addition, a needle lift sensor serves as monitor and sends a feedback signal for accurate timing
control.

Figure 5. Control of Injection Timing/Metering via Control Sleeve

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a - Port closing (start of delivery); b - Port opening (end of delivery)

1 - high pressure chamber; 2 - pump barrel; 3 - control sleeve; 4 - spill port; 5 - helix;
6 - control bore; 7 - suction gallery; 8 - pump plunger; h - lift

Electronically Controlling Distributor Pump System

Figure 6 shows the details of the electronically-controlled distributor pump. The solenoid actuator
rotates a control shaft at the end of which is an eccentric pin. The eccentric pin engages the control
collar through a slot and causes it to move horizontally, thus sliding over the plunger and able to
cover or uncover the spill ports. Control of fuel quantity is achieved in a very similar fashion to the
mechanically-controlled distributor pump. Injected fuel quantity can be controlled at any value from
no fuel to the pump’s maximum delivery capacity. Maximum delivery is often required in cold start
conditions to overcome friction and assist the engine in achieving stable idle speed. The control shaft
angular position at a given pump or engine speed is an input to the electronic control unit to
determine injected fuel quantity at that speed. If no voltage is applied on the actuator, a return spring
rotates the control shaft and uncovers the spill ports to prevent any fuel delivery.

Figure 6. Electronically-Controlled Distributor Pump System

The electronically-controlled distributor pump system is equipped with an automatic advance and
retard mechanism. This system uses internal pump pressure applied to a small piston in performing
this operation. Since the internal pump pressure is proportional to engine or pump speed, a clocked
solenoid valve modulates the timing device pressure to trim the basic start of injection. When the
solenoid valve is open, the pressure on the timing-device piston is reduced to effectively retard
injection timing. The opposite action causes injection timing to advance.

Figure 7 illustrates the effect of start of injection on a number of dependent variables including
hydrocarbon, smoke, and nitrogen oxide emissions as well as fuel consumption for various brake
mean effective pressures (Pe) [Tschoeke 1999].

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Figure 7. Effect of Injection Timing on Emissions and Fuel Consumption

To meet the demand for high injection pressure while maintaining cost at a reasonable level, Bosch
developed the VP44 pump in the early 1990’s. This pump is a radial-piston rotary distributor design
that allows peak injection pressures of about 140 MPa (1400 bar). The pump operates according to
the principle of the Roosa-Master rotary distributor pump from the mechanical standpoint. Fuel
injection timing and metering is achieved by means of solenoid valve and the electronic control unit
is pump-mounted, as shown in Figure 8. The primary difference is that instead of relying on a control
sleeve in the typical distributor pump system, a high pressure solenoid valve closes off the high
pressure area from the fuel supply area. Closing and opening the solenoid valve, in conjunction with
the proper pump cam phasing, determines injection timing, and fueling rate. This system is also
capable of pilot injection (pre-injection) which reduces noise level, especially at engine idling
conditions.

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Figure 8. Cutaway of Bosch VP44 Rotary-Piston Distributor Pump

Electronically-Controlling the Unit Pump System

Electronically-controlled unit pumps incorporate a high speed electronically-controlled solenoid

valve. The opening of the solenoid valve allows the injection to commence. Its closing terminates the
injection event. The time between its opening and closing determines the total fuel metered into a
cylinder. As illustrated in Figure 9, unit pump systems consist of the pump housing with the attached
solenoid valve, the high pressure injection line, and the nozzle holder. Sensors monitor important
parameters and transfer their signals to the electronic control unit which in turn sends its command to
the high speed solenoid valve to either open or close. This process is done in an optimal way to
ensure low exhaust emissions while maintaining good fuel economy.

Figure 9. Electronically-Controlled Unit Pump System

The unit pump system is suitable for a number of different applications. Its electronics allow fault-
detection capability, self-diagnosis, and the possibility of communicating with other compatible
systems through various interfaces [Bosch 1994].

Modernizing Unit Injector System

Unit injector assemblies combine a pumping element and an injector nozzle, without the high
pressure pipe that connects the pumping element with the injector nozzle. As in the case of the unit
pump, electronically controlled unit injectors also feature a high speed solenoid valve installed
alongside the body of the injector, as shown in Figure 10 [Lucas 1999]. This electronic unit injector has
the capability of delivering up to 200 MPa injection pressure. It has full authority control of injection
timing and fuel metering. It also provides two-stage lift to give the capability of rate shaping and pilot
injection.

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Figure 10. Electronically-Controlled Unit Injector

Modern unit injector controllers are also designed to communicate and control other engine sub-
systems such as exhaust gas recirculation, turbocharger waste-gate, and positive traction. Cycle-to-
cycle variability can be monitored and corrected for and idle speed cylinder cut-out is an added
feature to provide even lower fuel consumption. The control unit also offers full diagnostics
capability.

The unit injectors are normally installed in the cylinder head above the combustion chamber, with the
pumping plungers driven by the engine camshaft via rocker arms. Fuel feed and spill are through
integral passages in the cylinder head. Sensors provide information to the electronic control unit
(ECU) on the relevant functions of engine operation which are:

„ accelerator pedal position

„ engine speed
„ camshaft position
„ intake manifold temperature
„ intake manifold pressure
„ coolant temperature
„ and other engine parameters

This information is continuously compared with the optimum values stored in the ECU memory. The
result of that comparison is translated into signals instructing the unit injector solenoid-actuated spill
valve system to deliver the fuel at the timing required by the engine.

Each plunger moves through a fixed stroke under the action of the engine camshaft via a rocker arm
and a plunger return spring. On the upward (filling) stroke, fuel at feed pressure passes from the
cylinder head, through passage A, the open spill valve and passage B into the chamber below the
plunger. At a point determined by the ECU an electrical pulse energizes the solenoid stator, moving
the armature, thus closing the spill control valve. The plunger continues its downward stroke causing
pressure to build rapidly in the high pressure passages. At a preset pressure the nozzle opens and
injection begins. When the stator is de-energized the spill control valve is opened, causing the
pressure to collapse, allowing the nozzle to close, thus giving a rapid termination of injection.

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Injection timing and fuel quantity are determined by the starting point and duration of the electrical
signal supplied to the stator by the electronic control unit.

Electronically-Controlled Common-Rail System

High injection pressures that can be chosen independent of fuel quantity and engine speed; highly
accurate injected fuel quantity; flexible injection timing control, and pilot injection capability; small
injection quantity capability; full electronic control; and high precision over the system’s lifetime are
all desirable qualities in a fuel injection system. The common-rail system fulfills these requirements,
decoupling pressure generation and injection and allowing selection of injection pressure independent
of engine speed and injected fuel quantity, within certain limits. Combustion and its corresponding
noise are improved by increasing fuel pressure up to 150 MPa and by introducing pilot or multiple
injections. Common-rail systems can replace conventional injection systems for engines producing
30-50 kW/cylinder without requiring major engine modifications.

The modular common-rail system (Figure 11) consists of a fuel-quantity-controlled high-pressure

pump; fuel rail and high-pressure pipes; injectors; electronic control unit (ECU); and various sensors
and actuators [Boehmer 1997]. The supply pump draws fuel from the tank and delivers it to the high-
pressure fuel rail. The fuel volume in the rail damps the oscillations caused by the high-pressure
pump and the injection process. A sensor measures pressure in the rail and provides the data to the
ECU. The pump, sensor, and ECU comprise a closed loop for rail pressure control. The ECU
compares the actual pressure with a set value, which depends on engine speed and injection quantity,
and changes delivery of the pump to achieve minimal rail pressure deviation. The control of injection
pressure is a completely new feature provided by the common-rail system.

Figure 11. Common-Rail Injection System

Key components of the system are the electronically-controlled injectors. They are supplied with fuel
from the rail by short pipes. Their shape is quite similar to existing units, but injection is started by
activating a solenoid valve inside each injector. A pulse from the ECU defines the start and end of the
injection process. Injection quantity is determined by rail pressure, hydraulic flow of the nozzle, and
the pulse length from the ECU.

The high-pressure pump for heavy commercial vehicles is a radial type with three pistons. To
minimize its power consumption, its delivery can be adapted to the demand by a variable metering
orifice. A solenoid valve positions a slide valve with a control edge to change the orifice and the fuel
delivery to the pumping plungers. The required delivery is comprised of the injection quantity, the

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amount of leakage (especially in the injectors), and the amount of fuel in the solenoid valve for
control of injection (control valve).

In a common-rail system, the fuel volume between the high-pressure pump and the injector acts as an
accumulator. Therefore, the pressure in the rail is almost constant during the injection process. Only a
small oscillation (less than 5 MPa) in pressure occurs. This oscillation is due to the pulsating delivery
from the pump and the injection process at the injectors. To prevent an effect on the fuel-injection
value, the rail pressure is measured and fuel-injection quantity set point is calculated just before
injection. The rail, a pipe containing a 60 cm3 fuel volume, is a compromise between the prevention
of rail-pressure oscillations and assurance of sufficient pressure dynamics in the system. The
resistance of the rail pressure sensor element changes as a function of pressure. The injector (Figure
12) is controlled by a special solenoid-operated valve. It consists of an injector body similar to a
conventional nozzle holder; a multi-hole nozzle; a valve body with two orifices controlling the
pressure in the control chamber and a corresponding control piston; an armature device with a small
ball to open and close the throttle (A in Figure 12); and a solenoid-coil assembly and the electrical
connection for the ECU. The ECU oversees the functional control of the injectors (such as fuel
pressure), engine (such as low idle), and vehicle (such as cruise control). Fuel-quantity calculation is
similar to that in conventional electronic diesel injection systems. In normal conditions, the driver
determines the fuel quantity with the accelerator pedal. From the fuel-quantity set point and the
measured rail pressure, the control unit calculates the pulse length for the injectors. In addition, the
ECU controls rail pressure by varying the duty cycle of the solenoid valve in the pump.

Figure 12. Common-Rail Injector

The system’s sensors are constantly monitored by the ECU (Figure 13). A distinguishing feature of a
common-rail system is the closed loop for rail-pressure control. The duty cycle for the control of the
high-pressure pump is changed by the ECU if the measured rail pressure deviates from the proper
value. In case of continual deviation, the fuel injection value for full load as well as the speed for the
maximum speed governor are reduced. A valve mounted on the rail limits system pressure to avoid
damaging the circuit.

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Figure 13. Electronic Control Layout Of Common-Rail Injection System

In contrast to conventional systems, the rail pressure is always available at the nozzle seat. To avoid
engine and injection system damage, additional measures and components are necessary. Flow
limiters in the rail, one for each cylinder, stop fuel flow to the injectors in case of leakage or
continuous injection.

The common-rail system maintains injection pressure regardless of other engine parameters. Figure
14 shows the effect of pressure variation on the injection quantity for different solenoid energizing
times. Specific fuel quantities can be delivered with different energizing times at different pressures.
The curves are smooth and follow a typical Bernoulli-type behavior. A minimum rail pressure of
about 15 MPa is necessary for injection to occur in the case shown in Figure 14. This minimum
pressure depends on the flow rates of the injector’s two throttles. These throttles have to be
manufactured carefully, since they also determine pressure dynamics in the control chamber and,
therefore, the dynamics of the nozzle-needle motion.

Figure 14. Injection Quantity Versus Rail Pressure for Various Control Pulse Widths

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