BIOLOGY UNIT 3

REPRODUCTION AND INHERITANCE

a) REPRODUCTION
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction is the process involving the fusion of two gametes to form a zygote (fertilised egg cell)
and the production of offspring that are genetically different from each other
Fertilisation involves the fusion of a male and female gamete to produce a zygote that undergoes cell
division to become an embryo
A gamete is a sex cell
 Contain half the number of chromosomes found in other body cells- haploid nucleus
- This is bc they only contain one copy of each chromosome, rather than the two copies found in
other body cells
- Each gamete contains 23 chromosomes; a normal body cell contains 46
 When a male and female gamete fuse = zygote (fertilised egg cell):
- has full 46 chromosomes, half from father and half from mother
- diploid nucleus
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
 Increases genetic variation  Takes time, energy to find mates
- Species adapt to new environments, gives  Difficult for isolated members of species
them survival advantage to reproduce
- Disease less likely to affect population
 Allows for selective breeding
- Organisms with different desirable
characteristics can be bred to produce
offspring
- Speeds up natural selection

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
The process resulting in genetically identical offspring being produced from one parent
 Doesn’t not involve gametes, fertilisation
- Only one parent is required, so no fusion of gametes nor mixing of genetic info = offspring are
genetically identical to parent and each other (clones)
 Many plants use asexual reproduction
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
 Population can be increased rapidly in right  Limited genetic variation in population-
conditions offspring genetically identical to parent
 Exploit suitable environments quickly  population vulnerable to changes in
 More time & energy efficient conditions, may only suit 1 habitat
 Reproduction completed much faster than  Disease likely to affect whole population bc
sexual reproduction of no variation

COMPARING ASEXUAL/SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

FEATURE ASEXUAL SEXUAL
NUMBER OF PARENT 1 2
ORGANISMS
TYPE OF CELL DIVISION Offspring produced by mitosis Offspring produced by fusion of 2 haploid
REQUIRED gametes
(gametes produced by meiosis)
LEVEL OF GENETIC Genetically identical to each Genetically unique, from each other and
 SIMILARITY BETWEEN other, and parent different from both parents
OFFSPRING
SOURCES OF GENETIC Only one source- mutations 3 sources:
VARIATION IN OFFSPRING - 50% of DNA from parents
- production of gametes by meiosis
(results in new combos of alleles in
chromosomes)
- random distribution of chromosomes
into gametes during meiosis
NUMBER OF OFFSPRING Relatively large number Relatively limited number
PRODUCED
TIME TAKEN TO PRODUCE Relatively fast Relatively slowly
OFFSPRING

REPRODUCTION- FLOWERING PLANTS

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Flowers are the reproductive organs of plants, usually containing both female/male parts
 Pollen is the male gamete, egg is the female gamete
- Pollen is incapable of moving from one place to another, pollination overcomes this

Pollination: transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma, so the male gametes can fertilise the female
gametes in sexual reproduction
 Cross pollination is the type of sexual reproduction where pollen is transferred from the anther of
one plant, to the stigma of another
- Wind pollination, insect pollination
 Self-pollination is when the plant’s own pollen fertilises its egg, reduces genetic variation

FEATURE INSECT-POLLINATED WIND POLLINATED

PETALS Large + bright to attract insects Small + dull, usually green/brown
NECTAR Scented with nectar to attract insects No scent nor nectar
POLLEN GRAINS Sticky, moderate amounts Smooth, light so can be carried away
easily + in large amounts
ANTHERS Inside flower, stiff, attached so insects Outside flower, loose on long
can brush past filaments so pollen can be released
easily
STIGMA Inside flower, sticky so pollen grains Outside flower, feathery- forms
stick for when an insect brushes past network to catch pollen grains drifting
in wind
POLLENATION- FERTILISATION & FRUIT AND SEED FORMATION:
1) Pollen grains land on stigma (via insect/wind)
2) Pollen tube grows out of the pollen grain, down through the style, to the ovary and into the ovule
3) Male nucleus travels down the pollen tube from the pollen grain to fuse with the female egg
nucleus in the ovule, forming a zygote- which divides by mitosis to form an embryo
4) The zygote becomes a seed, the ovule wall the seed coat, and the ovary develops into a fruit
around the seed
Germination: process in which seeds begin to develop into a new young plant
 Water  needed to activate enzymes to break down the starch food reserves in seeds
 Oxygen  needed for aerobic respiration to release energy for growth
 Temperature  optimum temp (warm) for enzymes will increase growth rate
- Depends on the seed
* germination will only start when all conditions are suitable

1) Seed takes in water, starts to grow using energy store

2) First root starts to grow down into soil (radicle)
3) Shoot grows up (pumule)
4) Extra roots grow, first green leaves appear

PRACTICAL: INVESTIGATING CONDITIONS NEEDED FOR SEED GERMINATION

1) Take 4 boiling tubes, put some cotton wool at the bottom of each one
2) Put 10 seeds on the top of the cotton wool in each tube
3) Set up each tube:
- 1: water, oxygen, room temp (control)
- 2: no water, oxygen, room temp
- 3: water, oxygen, low temp  put in fridge
- 4: water, no oxygen, room temp  boiled water (doesn’t contain dissolved oxygen), layer of oil
on top
4) leave tubes for a few days, observe
5) control all variables, change one in each

RESULTS:
 germination only happens in tube 1, bc all conditions needed were present
 seeds in other tubes don’t germinate, shows water, oxygen, temperature is all needed

germinating seeds get energy from food stores

 a developed seed contains an embryo and a store of food reserves, wrapped in a hard seed coat
 when a seed starts to germinate, it gets glucose for respiration from its own food store, transfers
energy needed to grow
 once seed grows its green leaves, it can produce its food through photosynthesis
embryo  young root + shoot which become adult
food store  starch for plant to use until photosynthesis
seed coat  protective covering

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - Produces exact clones, bc it only involves one parent

Plants can reproduce using natural methods
 Some plants grow side branches, known
as runners, that have small plantlets at
their ends
- Runners are horizontal stems that
grow sideways out of the parent
plant
 Once they touch the soil, these plantlets
will grow roots and the new plantlets will
grow and become independent from the
parent plant
Plants can also reproduce asexually using artificial methods
 Gardeners can take cuttings from good parent plants, then plant them to produce genetically
identical copies (clones) of the parent plant
- Section of parent plant with a bud is cut off
- Planted to eventually grow into cloned adult plant
 Clones from cuttings are produced quickly and cheaply

REPRODUCTION- HUMANS
SPERM CELL:
 Tail  used to swim
 Middle  contains mitochondria for respiration, to make
energy to swim
 Nucleus + cytoplasm  contain DNA/site of chemical reactions
 Acrosome: contains digestive enzymes to help with fertilization
by digesting the egg’s membrane

EGG CELL:
 Zona pellucida/jelly layer: allows entry of one
sperm cell
 Cytoplasm: contains energy store providing energy
for dividing zygote after fertilisation

Egg cell is larger than sperm cell, sperm capable of

locomotion
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:

Oviduct connects ovary to uterus, lined with ciliated cells to push released ovum down it,
where fertilisation occurs
Ovary contains ova (female gametes) which will mature + develop when hormones are
released
Uterus muscular bag, soft lining where zygote will be implanted to develop into foetus
Cervix ring of muscle at lower end of uterus, keeps developing foetus in place during
pregnancy
Vagina muscular tube leading to inside of woman’s body, where male penis enters during
sexual intercourse and sperm are deposited

Ova are female gametes; an ovum is produced every 28 days from one of the two ovaries
 It then passes into the fallopian tube- where it might meet sperm from intercourse
- If ovum isn’t fertilised: breaks up to pass out of vagina
- If ovum is fertilised: starts to divide. The new cells travel down fallopian tube to uterus (womb)
and attach to endometrium (uterus lining)- zygote will develop into an embryo

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:

Prostate glands produces semen, provides sperm cells with nutrients

Sperm duct sperm passes through here to be mixed with fluids produced by glands, before
being passed into urethra for ejection
 Urethra tube running down centre of penis, can carry urine or semen, ring of muscle
prevents the two mixing
Testis produces sperm (male gamete), testosterone
(Contained in a bag of skin {scrotum})

Scrotum sac supporting testis outside body to regulate sperm kept at a slightly lower temp
than body

Penis passes: urine out of body from bladder, semen into vagina during sexual
intercourse

MENSTRUAL CYCLE:
Average length of menstrual cycle  28 days
STAGE 1 {day 1-4}  period of bleeding (breakdown of uterus lining), menstruation
STAGE 2 {days 4-14}  lining starts to build up
STAGE 3 {day 14}  ovulation: an egg/ovum is released from ovary
STAGE 4 {day 14-28}  maintaining uterus lining, so if a zygote attaches to uterus lining it can have a
blood supply to continue its growth as an embryo
- If fertilization doesn’t take place, the cycle repeats

HORMONE FUNCTION
Oestrogen - produced in ovaries
- stimulates uterus to develop lining (to replace the one lost
during menstruation)
- stimulates release of LH
Progesterone - Produced in ovaries by the remains of the follicle after
ovulation
- maintains lining during the second half of cycle (when
progesterone levels fall, lining breaks down)
- inhibits release of LH and FSH
FSH- follicle stimulating hormone (P2) - produced in pituitary gland
- stimulates egg maturation in the follicles of an ovary
- stimulates follicles in ovaries to produce oestrogen
- oestrogen then inhibits the release of FSH
LH- luteinising hormone (P2) - produced in pituitary gland
- stimulates release of an egg at day 14 (ovulation)
- results in formation of corpus luteum

HOW THE HORMONES INTERACT WITH EACH OTHER:

 Oestrogen  stimulates release of LH, inhibits

release of FSH
 Progesterone  inhibits release of FSH, LH
 FSH  stimulates production of oestrogen
Puberty is when the body begins to release hormones which promote sexual characteristics
SECONDARY SEXUAL CHARACTERISTICS
CAUSED BY OESTROGEN IN WOMEN CAUSED BY TESTOSTRONE IN MEN
- extra hair underarms, pubic area - extra hair on face and body
- widening of hips - muscles to develop, voice deepens
- breast development - penis and testicles enlarge
- ovum release, periods - sperm production
PREGNANCY:
Zygote  mitosis  embryo

Mitosis is a type of cell division used to increase the number of cells by making 2 identical cells using 1
- Cell has to make a copy of all the DNA first, so that when the cell divides, there is the same
amount of DNA in each cell

An embryo forms a structure called the placenta, which attaches to the uterus wall
- Umbilical cord joins the foetus to the placenta
- The amniotic sac contains amniotic fluid, acting as a shock absorber to protect the baby in the
uterus

Placenta  nutrients (glucose, amino acids, vitamins,

mineral ions), antibodies, oxygen diffuse from the
mother’s blood into the foetus’ blood; carbon dioxide,
urea diffuse from the blood of the baby’s to the
mothers
- Reason as to why pregnant women are told
not to smoke/ drink bc it can affect the
baby’s growth (nicotine/tar)
- Placenta is adapted by having a large surface
area and thin wall for efficient diffusion
- Acts as a barrier to toxins and pathogens but
not all are stopped

An embryo is the early stages of development; after 8

weeks (when baby has human features) it is called a
foetus

b) INHERTANCE
Cell  nucleus  chromosome  DNA  gene

The genome is the entire DNA of an organism

A gene is a short section of DNA; each separate gene code for a particular
protein/sequence of amino acids
- Proteins control most processes in the body & determine inherited
characteristics
- Examples of possible proteins which could be coded: enzymes, hormones

DNA, RNA AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS(P2) …

DNA: molecule of inheritance existing in all of our cells (not rbc)
 Stands for deoxyribonucleic acid
- Contains deoxyribose sugars
 Double stranded helix, made from 2 strands coiled around each other
  Polynucleotide, DNA is made up of many different molecules called nucleotides joined to make a
long strand
 Each nucleotide is made up of 1 sugar molecule, 1 phosphate group (forms backbone), and one of
the four different organic bases:
- Adenine (A) - Cytosine (C) - Guanine (G) - Thymine (T)
- Complementary base pairing, only certain bases can join together: A+T, C+G
 Hydrogen bonds between each base hold them together for stability, bases are made up of
nitrogen

RNA: another version of genetic material

 Stands for ribonucleic acid
 Single-stranded, contains the sugar ribose
 Can enter and leave the nucleus
 No thymine base, replaced with a base pair only found in RNA called Uracil (U)
- Uracil pairs with adenine, complementary base pairings become A+U, C+G
 Polynucleotide
 Different types, e.g. messenger RNA (mRNA)

DNA RNA
- double stranded helix - single stranded helix
- phosphate strands/backbone - phosphate strand
- nitrogen bases, A, C, T, G - nitrogen bases, A, C, U, G
- complementary base pairing - complementary base pairing
- deoxyribose sugars - ribose sugars
- polynucleotide - polynucleotide
- longer than RNA - shorter than DNA

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS:
DNA controls production of proteins:
 Proteins are made up of a chain of molecules- amino acids
- Each different protein has its own order/number of amino acids
- Amino acids fold up to give each protein their unique shape and size, why enzymes have active
sites with specific shapes
 The order of bases in a gene decides order of amino acids in a protein
 Each amino acid is coded for by a sequence of three bases in the gene- codon/base triplets
- Some codons can code for the same amino acid
DNA also contains non-coding regions, where they don’t code for any amino acid

DNA used to make proteins through protein synthesis:

 Specific section of DNA (gene) copied inside nucleus – transcription
 Copy brought as a message to ribosome in cytoplasm for translation
 Translation- protein is made based on the code from the copy

RNA polymerase  unwinds DNA at gene site

mRNA  messenger single-strand copy of gene
RNA nucleotides  forms complimentary bases with gene
Ribosome  where mRNA has to travel to
TRANSCRIPTION- COPYING THE GENE:
 DNA is unwound at gene site using enzyme RNA polymerase
 A single stranded copy of gene is made
- Free RNA nucleotides form complementary pairings with exposed gene, forming a single strand
 Complete single strand is called mRNA
 mRNA can leave the nucleus, heads towards ribosome
 DNA reforms its double helix
TRANSLATION
 mRNA enters cytoplasm, binds to ribosome
- meanwhile, another type of RNA called tRNA (transfer RNA) floats near cytoplasm
tRNA contains its own codons, called anticodons
 this is bc they may from complementary pairings with the triplet codons on the mRNA
- e.g. the UGG anticodon on tRNA may bind with the ACC codon on the mRNA

 a tRNA binds where complementary pairings are available

- once tRNA binds, an amino acid is dropped at the ribosome
 another tRNA does the same; its amino acid is added in a chain to the first
 this continues until the mRNA is finished
- stop codon finished the amino acid chain
 now, a chain of amino acids is formed + released from ribosome
 the new chain is called a polypeptide chain, and can fold into a protein

SUMMARY OF TRANSLATION:
1) mRNA strand binds to a ribosome in cytoplasm after leaving nucleus
2) A tRNa in cytoplasm binds its anticodon to the triplet codon at the start of the mRNA strand
3) The tRNA releases an amino that binds to the ribosome, and returns back to cytoplasm
4) The next tRNA binds to the next triplet codon on the mRNA strand, releases an amino acid- this
amino acid binds to the previous one
5) Continues until the mRNA strand is reached
6) Ribosome releases the chain of amino acids which is now a polypeptide chain

GENETIC INHERITANCE:
Alleles are different versions of a gene e.g. there are different alleles that code for brown eyes than blue
 Humans have 2 alleles for each gene, as they inherit one from each parent
 Genotype: alleles an organism has for a certain characteristic
- Genotype with 2 alleles of the same type: homozygous e.g. AA/aa
- Genotype with 2 alleles different to one another: heterozygous e.g. Aa

In the nucleus of a cell, the DNA double helix supercoils to form chromosomes
 Only visible during cell division
 Ordinary human body cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total)
- Diploid number
- One chromosome inherited from each parent
- Each chromosome pair is called a homologous pair
 The 23rd pair of chromosomes are sex chromosomes
- Females: sex chromosome are the same, homozygous genotype (XX)
- Males: sex chromosome are different, heterozygous genotype (XY)

KEY TERM DEFINITION

Gamete Sex cells
 Chromosome Thread like structures of DNA, carry genetic info as genes, in nucleus
Gene Short lengths of DNA found in chromosomes which code for specific proteins
Allele Different versions of a particular gene
Dominant A dominant allele is always expressed, even when only one copy is present –
only needs to be inherited by one parent to show up in phenotype
Recessive A recessive allele is only expressed if two copies are present (no dominant)-
needs to be inherited by both parents to show up in phenotype
Homozygous 2 alleles of a gene are the same
Heterozygous 2 alleles of a gene are different
Genotype Combination of alleles that control each characteristic
Phenotype Observable characteristics of an organism (e.g. can be seen by looking, or found
through testing like eye colour or blood type)

An individual could be homozygous dominant (two copies of the dominant allele)

An individual could be homozygous recessive (two copies of the recessive allele)

Pure breeding  if 2 individuals who are both identically homozygous for a particular characteristic breed,
hey will produce offspring with the exact same genotype and phenotype

CODOMINANCE (P2) …
Codominance happens when both alleles within a genotype are expressed- neither allele is recessive so
characteristics for both are shown e.g. blood type AB

Characteristics controlled by more than one gene are described as being polygenic:
 Polygenic characteristics have phenotypes that can show a wide range of combos in features
- Inheritance of these polygenic characteristic is called polygenic inheritance
- Difficult to show in a diagram bc of wide range of combinations
 Example: eye colour, even though brown eyes are dominant to blue eyes, there are other eye
colours like green and hazel
- This is bc of eye colour being controlled by multiple genes, thus there are several different
phenotypes

GENETIC DIAGRAMS:
MONOHYBRID CROSSES-
Monohybrid inheritance is the inheritance of characteristics controlled by a single gene
 Can be determined using a Punnett square
- Shows the possible combinations of alleles that could be produced in the offspring

Dominant alleles = shown by capital letters; recessive alleles = shown through lowercase

CONSTRUCTING PUNNETT SQUARES:

1) Determine parental genotypes
2) Select letter with clear variation of upper to lower case
3) Split the alleles for each parent, add to the Punnett square around the outside
4) Fill out middle squares to work out possible genetic combinations in offspring
Completing a Punnett square allows to predict the different probability if monohybrid crosses
F1 GENERATION: (offspring formed from breeding parent organisms)
F2 GENERATION: produced when the offspring of the F1 generation (pure-breeding parents) are allowed to
interbreed

FAMILY PEDIGREES-
Usually used to trace pattern of inheritance of a specific characteristic through generations of a family,
used to work out the probability someone will inherit the genetic disorder
 Males are indicated by squares; females are indicated by circles
Sex is determined by an entire chromosome pair
 Males have the pair XY
 Females have the pair XX

Because men are the only who can pass the Y chromosome, he is responsible for determining the sex of
the child
- All eggs have one X chromosome, but sperm can have either an X or Y chromosome
- So, sex determination depends on whether the sperm that fertilises the egg carries an X or Y

MITOSIS:
Mitosis is the nuclear division which gives rise to genetically identical cells
 Used for growth (e.g. production of new cells for an embryo), repair of damaged tissues,
replacement of cells, asexual reproduction, cloning

Most body cells have two copies of each chromosome (are diploid). When these cells divide, their
chromosomes double beforehand (duplication), ensuring that when the cell splits into two, each new
daughter cell still has two copies of each chromosome (still diploid)
PROCESS:
1) DNA is replicated- forms X shaped chromosomes as each ‘arm’ of the chromosome is an exact
duplicate of the other
- Nuclear membrane breaks down
2) Chromosomes line up along the centre of the cell, cell fibres pull them apart, the two arms of each
chromosome go to opposite ends of the cell
3) Membranes form around each set of the sets of chromosomes, later become nuclei of these cells
4) Cytoplasm divides- CYTOKINESIS
5) Results in two new cells containing the exact same DNA- genetically identical

MEIOSIS:
Meiosis is the nuclear division which gives rise to cells that are genetically different
 Used in sexual reproduction to produce gametes
- Gametes are haploid; only have 23 chromosomes
- The number of chromosomes (46) must be halved when gametes are formed, happens during
meiosis
 An embryo inherits features from both parents bc it receives a mixture of chromosomes from the
mum and dad
- The chromosomes decide these features
 Fertilisation of gametes is random, produces genetic variation in offspring

PROCESS:
Division 1:
1) Cell duplicates its DNA – one arm of each X- shaped chromosome is an exact copy of the other arm.
2) In the first division, the chromosomes line up in pairs in the center of the cell – one chromosome in
each pair came from the organism’s mother and father.
3) The pairs are then pulled apart, so each new cell only has one copy of each chromosome – some
chromosomes from each parent go into each new cell.
4) Each new cell will have a mixture of the mother’s and father’s chromosomes – this creates genetic
variation in the offspring.

Division 2:
1) In the second division, the chromosomes line up in the center of the cell again, this time with each
arm on opposite sides – the arms of the chromosomes are pulled apart.
2) You get four haploid gametes – each gamete only has a single set of chromosomes, and the
gametes are all genetically different.

Meiosis increases genetic variation of offspring.

 It produces variation by forming new combos of maternal and paternal chromosomes every time a
gamete is made, so when gametes fuse randomly at fertilisation, each offspring will be different
from any others

MEIOSIS MITOSIS
- Four cells produced (daughter cells) - two cells produced (daughter cells)
- daughter cells are haploid - daughter cells are diploid
- daughter cells are genetically different from each - daughter cells are genetically identical to each
other + parent cell other + parent cell
- two cell division occur - one cell division occurs
VARIATION:
Phenotypic variation can be caused in three main ways
 Genetic  controlled entirely by genes
 Environmental  caused entirely by the environment an organism lives in
 Both

GENETIC:
 Meiosis creates genetic variation between gametes produced by an individual
- Each gamete carries substantially different alleles; random fusion of gametes at fertilization
creates genetic variation between zygotes
 Examples of genetic variation:
- Blood group
- Eye colour
- Gender
- Whether earlobes are fixed/free

ENVIRONMENTAL:
 Considers external factors an organism lives in
- Climate  plants in shade grow taller to reach light
- Diet  eating too much means weight gain
- Accidents  falling over can leave scars
- Culture
- Lifestyle
Environmental variation is much greater in plants bc they’re affected by sunlight, moisture, temperature,
mineral content in soil

GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSES:

 Continuous variation (many small degrees of difference for a characteristic between individuals,
usually arranged in order and can be measured on a scale) is usually caused bc of a combo of
genetic and environmental causes:
- Health cancer and heart disease can be genetic, but lifestyle also affects the risk e.g. smoking,
or eating junk
- Appearance  height is genetic, but diet affects whether a person reaches their maximum
potential
 Discontinuous variation is where there are distinct differences for a characteristic e.g. blood group,
gender
MUTATIONS:
Mutations are rare, random changes occurring in the sequence of DNA bases in a gene or a chromosome
 can be inherited
 occur continuously
 as DNA base sequences determine the sequence pf amino acids that make up a protein, mutations
in a gene could lead to a change in the protein the gene codes for
 most mutations don’t alter the protein/only alter it slightly so its appearance and function remain
unchanged

HOW CHANGES IN DNA CAN AFFECT PHENOTYPE BY ALTERATION OF SEQUENCE OF AMINO

ACIDS IN A PROTEIN (P2) …
As DNA base sequences determine the sequence pf amino acids that make up a protein, mutations in a
gene could lead to a change in the protein the gene codes for, producing a genetic variant
- enzymes are proteins which need an active site with a very specific shape to work properly.
Mutation in the gene coding for an enzyme could change the active site’s shape- altering its
function. A mutation could also stop the production of the enzyme altogether
 Most have no effect on phenotype
- are neutral (most mutations occur in unimportant DNA). Have no effect if occurs in recessive
alleles
 Some have small effect on phenotype
- when change in amino acids only has a slight effect on proteins structure, individual’s
characteristics are only altered slightly
 Very rarely will have a significant effect on phenotype
- if a change results in a very different protein which can no longer carry out its function, these
can be harmful (cancer) or beneficial (antibiotic resistance in bacteria)
 Mutations can happen spontaneously – when a chromosome doesn’t copy itself properly. Risk can
be increased by exposure to
- ionizing radiation (gamma, x-ray, ultra-violet rays),
- chemical mutagens and carcinogens (chemicals in tobacco)

DARWINS THEORY OF EVOLUTION BY NATURAL SELECTION:

Theory of evolution: life began as simple organisms from which more complex organisms evolved (rather
than popping into existence)

Natural selection = survival of the fittest:

 Individuals in a species show a wide range of variation caused by differences in genes
 Individuals with characteristics most suited to the environment have a higher chance of survival
and more chances to reproduce
- these characteristics are passed to their offspring at a higher rate than those with
characteristics less suited to survival, the next generation will have the better alleles which
home characteristics for better survival
 Over many generations, these beneficial characteristics become more common in the
population and the species changes (the species evolves)
 This idea of natural selection became known as ‘survival of the fittest’

Variations caused solely by the environment are not involved in natural selection bc only genetic variations
are passed down to the next generation and influence evolution of a species
ANTIBIOTICS AND BACTERIA
Antibiotics are chemical substances made by certain fungi or bacteria that affect the working of bacterial
cells, either by disrupting their structure or function or by preventing them from reproducing
- effective against bacteria, not against viruses
- target processes and structures specific to bacterial (prokaryotic) cells; as such they do not
generally harm animal cells
However, since their discovery and widespread use, antibiotics have
been overused and antibiotic resistance has developed in many different types of bacterial species
 A random mutation in bacteria may give them resistance to an antibiotic
 If an organism is infected with bacteria and some bacterium of them have resistance, they are
likely to survive treatment with antibiotics
 The population of the resistant bacteria will increase
 If the resistant strain is causing a serious infection then another antibiotic will be needed

Antibiotics do not affect viruses

 Viruses cannot be treated with antibiotics
- bc antibiotics work by disrupting cell functions such as respiration, breaking down the structure
of the cell in some way
- viruses do not carry out any cell functions, do not have cell walls, cell membranes or any cell
organelles as viruses infect and utilize the machinery of animal cells to reproduce, which are not
affected by antibiotics.
 Thus, the action of antibiotics doesn’t affect them