Part two (structure)

I- Structure Skills (Longman)

Types of structure questions:

a. Structure (questions 1-15) consists of fifteen sentences in which part of each sentence has been replaced with
a blank. Each sentence is followed by four answer choice. You must choose the answer that completes the
sentence in a grammatically correct way.
b. Written expressions (questions 16-40) consist of twenty-five sentence in which four words of group of words
have been underlined. You must choose the underlined word or group of words that is not correct.

General strategies for structure and written expressions:

1- Be familiar with the directions. The directions on every paper test are the same, so it is not necessary to spend
time reading the directions carefully when you take the test. You should be completed familiar with the
directions before the day of the test.
2- Begin with questions 1 through 15. Anticipate that questions 1 through 5 will be the easiest. Anticipate that
questions 11 through 15 will be the most difficult. Do not spend too much time on questions 11 through 15.
There will be easier questions that come later.
3- Continue with questions 16 through 40. Anticipate that questions 16 through 20 will be the easiest. Anticipate
that questions 36-40 will be the most difficult.
4- If you have time, return to questions 11-15.
5- Guess to complete the section before time is up. There is no penalty for guessing, so it can only increase your
score to guess the answers to questions that do not have time to complete.
6- Never leave any answers blank on your answer sheet.

A- Part A: The structure questions (15 question per 9 minutes)

(1)- Sentences with one clause

Skill 1: be sure the sentence has a subject and a verb.

subject and verb

A sentence in English must have at least one subject and one verb

Skill 2: be careful of objects of propositions.

objectives of prepositions
A preposition is followed by a noun, pronoun, gerund or noun clause that is called an object of the preposition. if a word is an object
of a preposition, it is not the subject

Skill 3: be careful of appositives.

Appositives
An appositives is a noun that comes before or after another noun and is generally set from the noun with commas. If
a word is an Appositives, it is not the subject. The following Appositives structures are both possible in English.
Tom , a really good mechanic , is fixing the car
S, APP, V,
a really good mechanic , Tom is fixing the car
APP, S, V,
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Skill 4: be careful of present participles.

present participles
A present participle is the –ing form of the verb. The present participles can be (1) part of the verb or (2) an
adjective. It is part of the verb when is accompanied by some form of the verb be. It is an adjective when it is not
accompanied by some form of the verb be.
1- The boy is standing in the corner.
2- The boy standing in the corner was naughty.

Skill 5: be careful of past participles.

past participles
A past participle often ends in –ed, but there are also many irregular past participles. For many verbs including –
adverbs, the simple past and past participles are the same and can be easily confused. the –ed form of the verb can
be (1) the simple past ,(2) the past participles of a verb , or (3) an adjective .
1- She painted this picture. 2- She has painted this picture.
3- The picture painted by Karen is now in a museum.

(2)- Sentences with multiple clauses

Skill 6: use coordinate connectors correctly.

coordinate connectors
And But Or SO Yet
S. V. coordinate connectors S V
She laughed, But she wanted to cry
Skill 7: Use adverb time and cause connectors correctly.

Adverb time and cause connectors

Time Cause
After As soon As once when As now that
As before since whenever Because since
As long as by the time until while Inasmuch as
S. V. Adverb connector S. V.
Teresa went inside because it was raining
Adverb connector S. V. S. V.
Because it was raining Teresa went inside
Skill 8: use adverb connectors correctly.

Other adverb connectors

Condition Contrast Manner Place
If Although As Where
In case Even though In that Wherever
Provided Though
Providing While
Unless Whereas
Whether
S. V. adverb connector S V
Bob went to school even though he felt sick
adverb connector S. V. S V
even though Bob went to school he felt sick
NOTE: a comma is often used in the middle of the sentence with a contrast connector

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 The smith arrived at 2:00 , while the Jones family arrived an hour later
(3)- More Sentences with multiple clauses
Skill 9: use noun clause connectors correctly.

noun clause connectors

* what, when, where, why, how * whatever, whenever * whether, if * that
S v noun clause object s v
I know what you did
noun clause object S v v
what you did was wrong

Skill 10: use noun clause connectors/subjects correctly.

noun clause connectors/subjects

Who what which Whoever whatever whichever
I know what happened
What happened was great

Skill 11: use adjective clause connectors correctly.

adjective clause connectors

Whom Which That
For people For things For people or things
I liked the book which you recommended
The book which you recommended was interesting

Skill 12: use adjective clause connectors/subjects correctly.

adjective clause connectors/subjects

Who Which That
For people For things For people or things
She needs a secretary who types fast
A sectary who types fast invaluable

(4)- Sentences with reduced clauses

Skill 13: use reduced adjectives clause correctly.

reduced adjectives clause

With a be-verb in the adjective clause reduced adjectives clause (who-which-that) (be)
With no be-verb in the adjective clause reduced adjectives clause ( who-which-that) (verb+ing)

Skill 14: use reduced adverb clause correctly.

reduced adverb clause

With a be-verb in the adverb clause We omit ( subject) + (be)
With no be-verb in the adverb clause We omit ( subject) only (verb + ING)
Time Condition Contrast Place
Reduce in active After before If unless whether Although though
since while
Reduce in passive Once until If unless whether Although though Where
when wherever
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 whenever

(5)- Sentences with inverted subjects and verbs

Skill 15: invert the subject and verb with question words.

invert the subject and verb with question words

Who what when where why how
When the question word introduces a question, the subject and verb are inverted.
What are they?
When the question word connects two clauses, the subject and verb that follow are not inverted
I know what they are.

Skill 16: invert the subject and verb with place expressions.

invert the subject and verb with place expressions

When a place expression at the front of the sentence is necessary to complete the sentence, the subject and verb that
follow are inverted.
In the classroom were some old desks.
When a place expression at the front of the sentence contains extra information that is not needed to complete the
sentence, the subject and verb that follow are not inverted.
In the classroom I studied very hard

Skill 17: invert the subject and verb with negatives.

invert the subject and verb with negatives

No not never neither nor
Barely hardly only rarely scarcely seldom
When a negative expression appears in front of a subject and a verb (at the beginning of a sentence or in the middle of a
sentence) the subject and verb are inverted.
Rarely were they so happy

Skill 18: invert the subject and verb with conditionals.

invert the subject and verb with conditionals

Had should were
When the verb in the conditional clause is had, should or were, it is possible to omit if and invert subject and verb
(Omitted if) were he here , he would help
It is also possible to keep if. Then the subject and verb are not inverted.
If he were here , he would help

Skill 19: invert the subject and verb with comparisons.

invert the subject and verb with comparisons

The subject and verb may inert after a comparison. The following structure are both possible.
S v comparison s v
We were more prepared than the others performers were.
S v comparison v s
We were more prepared than were the others performers .
Note: a subject-verb inversion after a comparison sounds rather formal.

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B- Part B: The written expression questions (25 question per 16 minutes)

Very important notes:

1- First look at the underline words or group of words. You want to see if you can spot which of the four answers
choices is not correct.
2- If you have been unable to find the error by looking only at the four underlined expressions, then read the
complete sentence. Often an underlined expression is incorrect because of something in another part of the
sentence.

(1)- Problems with subjects/verb agreement

Skill 20: make verbs agree after prepositional phrases.

Subjects/verbs agreement with prepositional phrases

S (prepositional phrase) v
When a prepositional phrase comes between the subject and the verb, be sure that the verb agrees with the subject

Skill 21: make verbs agree after expressions of quantity.

Subjects/verbs agreement after expressions of quantity

( ALL MOST SOME HALF)of the (Object) v
When an expression of quantity is the subject, the verb agrees with the object.

Skill 22: make inverted verbs agree.

Subjects/verbs agreement after inverted verbs

( Question Negative Place Condition (If) Comparison) v s
After question words, negative expressions, place expression, conditions without if, and comparisons, the verb agrees
with the subject, which may after the verb.

Skill 23: make verbs agree after certain words.

Subjects/verbs agreement after certain words

These words or expressions are grammatically singular, so they take singular verbs:
Anybody everybody nobody somebody each (+NOUN)
Anyone everyone no one someone every (+NOUN)
Anything everything nothing something

(2)- Problems with parallel structure

Skill 24: use parallel structure with coordinate conjunctions.

parallel structure with coordinate conjunctions

(same structure) (AND)(same structure)
(BUT)
(OR)
(same structure) , (same structure) (AND) (same structure)
(BUT)
(OR)

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Skill 25: use parallel structure with paired conjunctions

parallel structure with paired conjunctions

(BOTH) (same structure) (AND) (same structure)
(EITHER) (OR)
(NEITHER) (NOR)
(NOT ONLY) (BUT ALSO)

Skill 26: use parallel structure with comparisons

parallel structure with comparisons

(same structure) (more ….. then) (same structure)
(-er …… than)
(less …… than)
(as ….. as)
(The same ……. As)
(similar ……… to)

(3)- Problems with comparatives and superlatives

Skill 27: form comparatives and superlatives correctly.

The form comparatives and superlatives correctly

Comparative More (long adjective) + than
Short adjective –er + than
Superlative The most (long adjective) maybe in,of,that
Short adjective -est

Skill 28: use comparatives and superlatives correctly.

The uses comparatives and superlatives

The comparative is used to compare two equal things.
The superlative is used to show which one of many is in some way the most outstanding.

Skill 29: use the irregular –er, -er structure correctly.

The -er structure

The -er (same structure) , the -er (same structure
more more
This type of sentence may or may not include a verb.

(4)- Problems with the form of the verb

Base form Present Present participle Past Past participle

Walk Walk (S) Walking Walked Walked
Hear Hear (S) Hearing Heard Heard
Cook Cook (S) Cooking Cooked Cooked
Sing Sing (S) Singing Sang Sung
Come Come (S) Coming Came come
Begin Begin (S) Beginning Began begun

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Skill 30: after have, use the past participle.

After have, use the past participle

Have , has , had + Past Participle

Skill 31: after Be using the present participle or the past participle.

Verbs forms after Be

Be + (1) present participle
(2) past participle

Skill 32: after will, would, or other modals, sue the base form of the verb.

Verbs forms after modals

Modal + base form of the verb

(5)- Problems with the use of the verb

Skill 33: know when to use the past with present. (√)

Skill 34: Uses have and had correctly.

Using have (+ p.p) and had (+ p.p)correctly

Tense Form Meaning Use
Present prefect Have + past participle Past up to now Now with a past tense
Past perfect Had + past participle Before past up to past Not with a present tense
Except when the time expression since is part of the sentence

Skill 35: use the correct with time expressions.

Using correct tenses with time expressions

Past perfect Simple past Present perfect
By (1920) (two years) ago Since (1920)
Last year lately
In (1920)

Skill 36: use the correct tense with will and would.

Using correct tenses with will and would

Verb Meaning Use
Will After the present Do not use with past
Would After the past Do not use with present
Note: there is a different modal would that is used to make polite requests. This type of world is often used with the
present tense.
I would like to know if you have a pencil that I could borrow

(6)- Problems with passive verbs

Skill 37: use the correct form of the passive.

The form of the passive

BE + past participle (by) object

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Skill 38: recognize active and passive meanings. (√)

(7)- Problems with nouns

Skill 39: use the correct singular or plural nouns.

Key words for singular or plural nouns

For singular nouns Each Every Single One A
For plural nouns Both Two Many Several Various

Skill 40: distinguish countable and uncountable nouns.

Key words for countable and uncountable nouns

For countable nouns Many Number Few Fewer
For uncountable nouns Much Amount Little Less

Skill 41: recognize irregular plural of nouns.

Irregular plurals
Vowel change Man / men foot / feet goose / geese
Woman / women tooth / teeth mouse / mice
Add –en Child / children ox / oxen
Same as singular Deer / deer salmon / salmon trout / trout
Fish / fish sheep / sheep
-is…..-Es Analysis / analyses diagnosis / diagnoses synthesis / syntheses
Axis / axes hypothesis / hypotheses thesis / theses
Crisis / crises parenthesis / parentheses
Ends in –A Bacterium / bacteria datum / data criterion / criteria
Curriculum / curricula phenomenon / phenomena
-Us…… -I Alumnus / alumni fungus / fungi stimulus / stimuli
Bacillus / bacilli nucleus / nuclei syllabus / syllabi
Cactus / cacti radius / radii

Skill 42: distinguish the person from the thing.

Person or thing
It is common to confuse a person with a thing in written expression questions on the TOEFL test

(8)- Problems with pronouns

Skill 43: distinguish subject and object pronoun. (√)

Skill 44: distinguish possessive adjective and pronouns. (√)

Skill 45: cheek pronoun reference for agreement. (√)

(9)- Problems with adjectives and adverbs

Skill 46: use basic adjectives and adverbs correctly. (√)

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Skill 47: use adjectives after linking verbs.

adjectives and adverbs after linking verbs

Subject + (regular verb) + (adverb)
A regular verb is followed by an adverb. The adverb describes the verb.
Subject + (linking verb) + (adjectives)
A linking verb is followed by adjective. The adjective describes the subject.
Subject + (linking verb) + adverb + adjective
It is possible that a linking verb is followed by an adverb and an adjective. The adverb describes the adjective, the
adjective describes the subject.
Linking verbs appear feel seem
Be look smell
Become prove taste

Skill 48: position adjectives and adverbs correctly.

The position adjectives and adverbs

Adjectives A one word adjective comes before the noun it describes. It does not come directly after.
Adverbs An adverb can appear in many positions. It cannot be used between a verb and its object

(10)- More problems with adjectives

Skill 49: recognize –LY adjectives.

–LY adjectives
Costly likely daily quarterly northerly early lively hourly weekly easterly
Friendly lonely monthly yearly southerly kindly manly nightly lovely westerly

Skill 50: use predicate adjectives correctly.

Predicate adjectives
predicate adjectives Forms used in front of a noun
Alike Like, similar
alive Live, living
alone Lone
afraid frightened
asleep sleeping
A predicate adjective appears after a linking verb such as be. It cannot appear directly in front of the noun that it
describes.

Skill 51: use –ED and –ING adjectives correctly.

–ED and –ING adjectives

Type Meaning Use Example
-ING Active It does the action of the verb. The happily playing children
(the children ply)
-ED Passive It receives the action of the verb The frequently played record
(someone plays the record)

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(11)- Problems with articles

Skill 52: use articles with singular nouns. (√)

Skill 53: distinguish A and An. (√)

Skill 54: make articles agree with nouns. (√)

Skill 55: distinguish specific and general ideas.

specific and general ideas

Article Meaning Uses
A or An General idea Use when there are many and you do not know which one it is.
Use when there are many and you do not care which one it is.
The Specific idea Use when it is the only one.
Use when there are many and you know which one it is.

(12)- Problems with propositions

Skill 56: recognize incorrect prepositions. (√)

Skill 57: recognize when prepositions have been omitted.(√)

(13)- Problems with usage

Skill 58: distinguish make and do. (√)

Skill 59: distinguish like, alike and unlike.

like, alike and unlike

Grammar Meaning Use
Like Adjective Similar As an adjective, like is used before a noun.
Alike Adjective Similar As an adjective, alike is used after a linking verb.
Like Preposition Similar Both Prepositions are followed by objects. They can both be used
Unlike Preposition different in many positions, including at the beginning of the sentence.

Skill 60: distinguish other, another, and others.

Singular Plural
Indefinite I have another book (ADJ) I have other books. (ADJ)
I have another. (PRO) I have others. (PRO)
Definite I have the other book. (ADJ) I have the other books. (ADJ)
I have the other. (PRO) I have the others. (PRO)

II- List of irregular verbs

Infinitive Present Past Past participle Present participle Arabic

Abide Abide(S) Abided Abided Abiding ‫يبقي‬
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 Arise Arise(S) Arose Arisen Arising ‫ينهض‬
Awake Awake(S) Awoke/Awaked Awaked/Awoken Awaking ‫يستيقظ‬
Be Am-Is-Are Was-Were Been Being ‫يكون‬
Bear Bear(S) Bore Borne Bearing ‫يعطي‬
Beat Beat(S) Beat Beaten Beating ‫يضرب‬
Become Become(S) Became Become Becoming ‫يصبح‬
Begin Begin(S) Began Begun Beginning ‫يبدأ‬
Bite Bite(S) Bit Bitten Biting ‫يعض‬
Break Break(S) Broke Broken Breaking ‫يكسر‬
Bet Bet(S) Betted bet Betting ‫يراهن‬
Blow Blow(S) Blew Blown Blowing ‫يصفر‬
Bring Bring(S) Brought Brought Bringing ‫يحضر‬
Build Build(S) Built Built Building ‫يبني‬
Buy Buy(S) Bought Bought Buying ‫يشتري‬
Catch Catch(S) Caught Caught Catching ‫يمسك‬
Choose Choose(S) Chose Chosen Choosing ‫يختار‬
Come Come(S) Came Come Coming ‫ياتي‬
Cost Cost(S) Cost Cost Costing ‫يثمن‬
Cut Cut(S) Cut Cut Cutting ‫يقص‬
Do Do(ES) Did Done Doing ‫يفعل‬
Dig Dig(S) Dug Dug Digging ‫يحفر‬
Drink Drink(S) Drank Drunk Drinking ‫يشرب‬
Draw Draw(S) Drew Drawn Drawing ‫يرسم‬
Drive Drive(S) Drove Driven Driving ‫يقود‬
Eat Eat(S) Ate Eaten Eating ‫ياكل‬
Fall Fall(S) Fell Fallen Falling ‫يسقط‬
Feed Feed(S) Fed Fed Feeding ‫يطعم‬
Fight Fight(S) Fought Fought Fighting ‫يقاتل‬
Feel Feel(S) Felt Felt Feeling ‫يشعر‬
Find Find(S) Found found Finding ‫يجد‬
Fit Fit(S) Fit Fit Fitting ‫يناسب‬
Fly Fly(S) Flew Flown Flying ‫يطير‬
Forget Forget(S) Forgot Forgotten Forgetting ‫ينسي‬
Forgive Forgive(S) Forgave Forgiven Forgiving ‫يسامح‬
Freeze Freeze(S) Froze Frozen Freezing ‫يثلج‬
Get Get(S) Got Gotten Getting ‫يجد‬
Give Give(S) Gave Given Giving ‫يعطي‬
Go Go(S) Went Gone Going ‫يذهب‬
Grow Grow(S) Grew Grown Growing ‫ينمو‬
Have Has Had Had Having ‫يمتلك‬
Hear Hear(S) Heard Heard Hearing ‫يسمع‬
Hide Hide(S) Hid Hidden Hiding ‫يخفي‬
Hit Hit(S) Hit Hit Hitting ‫يضرب‬
Hold Hold(S) Held Held Holding ‫ينتظر‬
Hurt Hurt(S) Hurt Hurt Hurting ‫يجرح‬
Know Know(S) Knew Known Knowing ‫يعرف‬
Keep Keep(S) Kept Kept Keeping ‫يحفظ‬
Infinitive Infinitive Past Past participle Infinitive Arabic
Lead Lead(S) Led Led Leading ‫يقود‬
Leave Leave(S) Left Left Leaving ‫يترك‬

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 Lend Lend(S) Lent Lent Lending ‫يسلف‬
Let Let(S) Let Let Letting ‫يدع‬
Lose Lose(S) Lost Lost Losing ‫يخسر‬
Make Make(S) Made Made Making ‫يصنع‬
Mean Mean(S) Meant Meant Meaning ‫يقصد‬
Meet Meet(S) Met Met Meeting ‫يقابل‬
Pay Pay(S) Paid Paid Paying ‫يدفع‬
Prove Prove(S) Proved Proven Proving ‫يبرهن‬
Put Put(S) Put Put Putting ‫يضع‬
Quit Quit(S) Quitted quit Quitting ‫يخرج‬
Read Read(S) Read Read Reading ‫يقرا‬
Ring Ring(S) Rang Rung Ringing ‫يرن‬
Rise Rise(S) Rose Risen Rising ‫ينهض‬
Ride Ride(S) Rode Ridden Riding ‫يقود‬
Run Run(S) Ran Run Running ‫يجري‬
Say Say(S) Said Said Saying ‫يقول‬
See See(S) Saw Seen Seeing ‫يري‬
Sell Sell(S) Sold Sold Selling ‫يبيع‬
send send(S) Sent Sent Sending ‫يرسل‬
Shoot Shoot(S) Shot Shot Shooting ‫يقذف‬
Show Show(S) Showed Shown Showing ‫يشاهد‬
Shut Shut(S) Shut Shut Shutting ‫يغلق‬
Sing Sing(S) Sang Sung Singing ‫يغني‬
Sink Sink(S) Sank Sunk Sinking ‫يغرق‬
Sit Sit(S) Sat Sat Sitting ‫يجلس‬
Sleep Sleep(S) Slept Slept Sleeping ‫ينام‬
Speak Speak(S) Spoke Spoken Speaking ‫يتكلم‬
Spend Spend(S) Spent spent Spending ‫ينفق‬
Still Still(S) Stood Stood Stilling ‫يبقي‬
Steal Steal(S) Stole Stolen Stealing ‫ ينسب‬/ ‫يسرق‬
Swim Swim(S) Swam Swum Swimming ‫يسبح‬
Take Take(S) Took Taken Taking ‫ياخذ‬
Teach Teach(S) Taught Taught Teaching ‫يعلم‬
Tear Tear(S) Tore Torn Tearing ‫يدمع‬
Tell Tell(S) Told Told Telling ‫يخبر‬
Think Think(S) Thought Thought Thinking ‫يعتقد‬
Throw Throw(S) Threw Thrown Throwing ‫يقذف‬
Undo Undo(ES) Undid Undone Undoing ‫يبطل‬
Wear Wear(S) Wore Worn Wearing ‫يرتدي‬
Win Win(S) Won Won Wining ‫يفوز‬
Wake Wake(S) Woke Woken Waking ‫يصحو‬
Wet Wet(S) Wetted Wetted Wetting ‫يبلل‬
Wind Wind(S) Wound Wound Winding ‫يلف‬
Withdraw Withdraw(S) Withdrew Withdrawn Withdrawing ‫يسترجع‬
Withhold Withhold(S) Withheld Withheld Withholding ‫يكبح‬
Withstand Withstand(S) Withstood Withstood Withstanding ‫يقاوم‬
Wring Wring(S) Wrung Wrung Wringing ‫ينتزع‬
write write(S) Wrote Written writing ‫يكتب‬

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III- List of irregular Plural Forms

Singular Plural Alternate pl. Arabic mean. Singular Plural Alternate pl. Arabic mean.
Addendum Addenda ‫اضافة‬ Adieu Adieus Adieux ‫الوداع‬
Alga Algae ‫الطحلب‬ Alto Altos ‫األلتو‬
Alumna Alumnae ‫الخريجون‬ Alumnus Alumni ‫الخريج‬
Analysis Analyses ‫التحليل‬ Antelope Antelopes Antelope ‫الظبي‬
Apex Apexes Apices ‫القمة‬ Appendix Appendixes Appendices ‫الملحق‬
Aquarium Aquariums Aquaria ‫حوضالسمك‬ Archipelago Archipelagos Archipelagoes ‫األرخبيل‬
Automaton Automatons Automata ‫اإلنساناآللي‬ Axis Axes ‫المحور‬
Bacillus Bacilli ‫العصوي‬ Bacterium Bacteria ‫البكتيريا‬
Banjo Banjoes Banjos ‫البانجو‬ Basis Bases ‫القاعدة‬
Buffalo Buffalos Buffaloes ‫الجاموس‬ Bureau Bureaus Bureaux ‫المكتب‬
Cactus Cacti Cactuses ‫الص ّبار‬ Calf Calves ‫العجل‬
Cargo Cargoes Cargos ‫الشحن‬ Cello Cellos ‫التشيلو‬
Chamois Chamois Chamoix ‫الشمواة‬ Chassis Chassis ‫الهيكل‬
Cherub Cherubs Cherubim ‫المالك‬ Child Children ‫الطفل‬
Codex Codices ‫المخطوطة‬ Commando Commandos Commandoes ‫المغوار‬
Concerto Concertos Concerti ‫القطعةالموسيقية‬ Contralto Contraltos ‫كونترالتو‬
Corpus Corpora ‫المجموعة‬ Crisis Crises Criterions ‫األزمة‬
Datum Data Datums ‫الحقيقة‬ Deer Deer ‫األيِّل‬
Diagnosis Diagnoses ‫التشخيص‬ Dwarf Dwarfs Dwarves ‫القزم‬
Dynamo Dynamos ‫المو ّلد‬ Elf Elves ‫جنى‬
Embryo Embryos ‫الجنين‬ Faux pas Faux pas ‫الهفوة‬
Fish Fish Fishes ‫السمك‬ Flounder Flounder Flounders ‫سمكموسى‬
Focus Focuses Foci ‫البؤرة‬ Foot Feet ‫القدم‬
Formula Formulas Formulae ‫الصيغة‬ Fungus Fungi Funguses ‫الفطر‬
Ganglion Ganglia Ganglions ‫العقدة‬ Genesis Geneses ‫التكوين‬
Genus Genera ‫الجنس‬ Goose Geese Gooses ّ
‫األوزة‬
Half Halves ‫ِصف‬ ْ ‫الن‬ Halo Halos Haloes ‫الهالة‬
Herring Herrings Herring ‫الرنغة‬ Hoof Hoofs Hooves ‫الحافر‬
Hypothesis Hypotheses ‫الفرضية‬ Index Indexes Indices ‫الدليل‬
Kibbutz Kibbutzim ‫الكيبوتز‬ Kilo Kilos ‫الكيلو‬
Knife Knives ‫السكين‬ Lady Ladies ‫السيدة‬
Larva Larvae ‫اليرقة‬ Leaf Leaves ‫الورقة‬
Libretto Librettos ‫نصكلماتاألوبرا‬ Life Lives ‫الحياة‬
Loaf Loaves ‫الرغيف‬ Locus Loci ‫المكان‬
Louse Lice ‫القملة‬ Man Men ‫الرجل‬
Matrix Matrices Matrixes ‫المصفوفة‬ Medium Mediums Media ‫الوسط‬
Money Moneys Monies ‫المال‬ Moose Moose ‫األيّل‬
Motto Mottoes Mottos ‫الشعار‬ Mouse Mice ‫الفأر‬
Nemesis Nemeses ‫العدو‬ Ovum Ova ‫البيضة‬
Ox Oxen Oxes ‫الثور‬ Quiz Quizzes ‫اإلختبار‬
Scarf Scarfs Scarves ‫الوشاح‬ Self Selves ‫النفس‬
Series Series ‫السلسلة‬ Sheaf Sheaves ‫الحزمة‬
Sheep Sheep ‫الخِراف‬ Shelf Shelves ّّ‫الرف‬
Silo Silos ‫المستودع‬ Solo Solos ‫العزفالمنفرد‬
Soprano Sopranos ‫السوبرانو‬ Standby Standbys ‫البديل‬
Swiss Swiss ‫السويسريون‬ Syllabus Syllabuses Syllabi ‫المنهجالدراسي‬
Tango Tangos ‫التانجو‬ Thesis Theses ‫اإلطروحة‬
Thief Thieves ّّ
‫اللص‬ Tobacco Tobaccos ‫التبغ‬
Tooth Teeth ّّ‫السن‬ Trout Trout Troutes ‫السلمون‬
Ultimatum Ultimatums Ultimate ‫اإلنذارالنهائي‬ Volcano Volcanoes Volcanos ‫البركان‬

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 Vortex Vortexes Vortices ‫الدوامة‬
ّ Wharf Wharves Wharfs ‫رصيفالمرفأ‬
Wife Wives ‫الزوجة‬ Wolf Wolves ‫ذئب‬
Woman Women ‫اإلمرأة‬ Zero Zeros Zeroes ‫صفر‬
IV- Prepositions

Prepositions
About Behind Except On Under
Above Below For Onto Underneath
Across Beneath From Outside Unlike
After Beside In Over Until
Against Between Inside Past Up
Along Beyond Into Since Upon
Among By Like Through Versus
Around Despite Near Throughout With
As Down Of To Within
At During Off Toward without

Prepositions of Time: at, on, and in

We use at to designate specific times.
The train is due at 12:15 p.m.

We use on to designate days and dates.

My brother is coming on Monday.
We're having a party on the Fourth of July.

We use in for nonspecific times during a day, a month, a season, or a year.

She likes to jog in the morning.
It's too cold in winter to run outside.
He started the job in 1971.
He's going to quit in August.

Prepositions of Place: at, on, and in

We use at for specific addresses.
Grammar English lives at 55 Boretz Road in Durham.

We use on to designate names of streets, avenues, etc.

Her house is on Boretz Road.

And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and continents).
She lives in Durham.
Durham is in Windham County.
Windham County is in Connecticut.
Prepositions of Location: in, at, and on and No PrepositionIN
IN AT ON NO PREPOSITION
(the) bed* class* the bed* downstairs
the bedroom home the ceiling downtown
the car the library* the floor inside
(the) class* the office the horse outside
the library* school* the plane upstairs
school* work the train uptown
* You may sometimes use different prepositions for these locations.

Prepositions of Movement: to and No Preposition

We use to in order to express movement toward a place.

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 They were driving to work together.
She's going to the dentist's office this morning.
Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express movement. These are simply variant spellings of the same word; use
whichever sounds better to you.
We're moving toward the light.
This is a big step towards the project's completion.
With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we use no preposition.
Grandma went upstairs
Grandpa went home.
They both went outside.
Prepositions of Time: for and since
We use for when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years).
He held his breath for seven minutes.
She's lived there for seven years.
The British and Irish have been quarreling for seven centuries.

We use since with a specific date or time.

He's worked here since 1970.
She's been sitting in the waiting room since two-thirty.
Prepositions with Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs.
Prepositions are sometimes so firmly wedded to other words that they have practically become one word. (In fact, in other
languages, such as German, they would have become one word.) This occurs in three categories: nouns, adjectives, and verbs.

NOUNS and PREPOSITIONS

approval of fondness for need for
awareness of grasp of participation in
belief in hatred of reason for
concern for hope for respect for
confusion about interest in success in
desire for love of understanding of

ADJECTIVES and PREPOSITIONS

afraid of fond of proud of
angry at happy about similar to
aware of interested in sorry for
capable of jealous of sure of
careless about made of tired of
familiar with married to worried about

VERBS and PREPOSITIONS

apologize for give up prepare for
ask about grow up study for
ask for look for talk about
belong to look forward to think about
bring up look up trust in
care for make up work for
find out pay for worry about

A combination of verb and preposition is called a phrasal verb. The word that is joined to the verb is then called a particle. Please
refer to the brief section we have prepared on phrasal verbs for an explanation.
Idiomatic Expressions with Prepositions
Agree to a proposal, with a person, on a price, in principle
Argue about a matter, with a person, for or against a proposition
Compare to show likenesses, with to show differences (sometimes similarities)
Correspond to a thing, with a person
Differ from an unlike thing, with a person
Live at an address, in a house or city, on a street, with other people

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V- Word ending – Formation

Words endings
1- Noun (thing) ending (-ism ,- nce ,- ness ,-ion ,-ment ,-ty ,-age ,-ship)

Word Noun Meaning Word Noun Meaning

Member Membership ‫عالقة‬ Kind Kindness ‫ حنان‬/ ‫كرم‬
Real Realty ‫حقيقة‬ Move Movement ‫حركة‬
Human Humanity ‫انسانية‬ Elect Election ‫انتخاب‬
Break Breakage ‫كسر‬ Intelligent Intelligence ‫ذكاء‬
Alcohol Alcohol ‫ادمان الخمر‬ Permanent Permanentness ‫دوام‬
Mile Mileage ‫تعويض ميلي‬ Confuse Confusion ‫ارتباك‬
Leader Leadership ‫قيادة‬ Sudden Suddenness ‫مفاجاة‬
Improve Improvement ‫تحسين‬ Equal Equality ‫مساواة‬
Social Sociality ‫مخالطة‬ Excellent Excellence ‫امتياز‬
Beau Beauty ‫جمال‬ Marry Marriage ‫زواج‬
2- Noun (persons) ending (-er , -or , -ist , -cian)

Word Noun Meaning Word Noun Meaning

Teach Teacher ‫مدرس‬ Type Typist ‫كاتب‬
Beauty Beautician ‫مجمل‬ Ideal Idealist ‫مثالي‬
Invent Inventor ‫مخترع‬ Clinic Clinician ‫طبيب سرير‬
Special Specialist ‫اختصاصي‬ Ranch Rancher ‫مربي ماشية‬
Perfection Professor ‫بروف‬ Program Programmer ‫مبرمج‬
Electricity Electrician ‫كهربائي‬ Invest Investor ‫مانح‬
Build Builder ‫باني‬ Advice Adviser ‫ناصح‬
Mathematics Mathematical ‫رياضي‬ Natural Naturalist ‫طبيعي‬
3- Adjective endings (-ent ,-ant, -ful, -ic, -less, -ive, -ous, -al, -able, -ible)

Word adjective Meaning Word adjective Meaning

Heart Heartless ‫جبان‬ Nature Natural ‫فطري‬
Athlete Athletic ‫رياضي‬ Mystery Mystic ‫سري صوفي‬
Help Helpful ‫مساعد‬ Impress Impressible ‫حساس‬
Intelligence Intelligent ‫ذكي‬ Comfort Comfortable ‫مريح‬
Courage Courageous ‫شجاع‬ Use Useful ‫نافع‬
Enthusiasm Enthusiastic ‫متعصب‬ Motion Motionless ‫ساكن‬
Tradition Traditional ‫تقليدي‬ Change Changeable ‫متقلب‬
Permanence Permanent ‫دائم باق‬ Attract Attractive ‫جذاب‬
4- Verb endings (-en , -ate , -ize , -ife)

Word Verb Meaning Word Verb Meaning

dark Darken ‫يظلم‬ Final Finalize ‫ينجز‬
Just Justify ‫يمالء‬ Separation Separate ‫يفصل‬
Short Shorten ‫يقصر‬ Intense Intensify ‫يقوي‬
Investigation Investigate ‫يتقصي‬ Industrial Industrialize ‫يصنع‬
Different Differentiate ‫يميز‬ Identity Identify ‫يماثل‬
Light Lighten ‫يضيئ‬ Glamour Glamorize ‫يسحر‬
Person Personate ‫يمثل‬ Sweet Sweeten ‫يلطف‬
Liberal Liberate ‫يحرر‬ Demonstration demonstrate ‫يبرهن‬
Soft Soften ‫يلين‬ People Populate ‫يحتل‬
Memory Memorize ‫يحفظ‬ Note notify ‫يعلم‬
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 5- Adverb ending (-ly)

Word Adverb Meaning Word Adverb Meaning

Final Finally ‫اخيرا‬ Careful Carefully ‫بحرص‬
Obvious Obviously ‫بوضوح‬ Recent Recently ‫موخرا‬
Strong Strongly ‫شديد‬ Perfect Perfectly ‫على نحو تام‬
Fearful Fearfully ‫مخيف‬ Quick Quickly ‫بسرعة‬
Complete Completely ‫باكتمال‬ Eager Eagerly ‫بشغف‬
Absolute Absolutely ‫بدون شك‬ Correct Correctly ‫بنحو صحيح‬
Sudden Suddenly ‫فجاءة‬ Doubtful Doubtfully ‫بشك‬
Regular Regularly ‫بانتظام‬ Great Greatly ‫بعظمة‬

Formation

Tense Tense Active passive

Present simple am/is/are+p.p He writes many letters Many letters are written
Past simple was/were+p.p He wrote many letters Many letters were written
Present perfect have/has+been+p.p He has written many letters Many letters have been written
Past perfect had+been+p.p He had written many letters Many letters had been written
Modal+inf Modal+be+p.p He would write many letters Many letters would be written
He should write many letters Many letters should be written
Would+have+p.p would+have+p.p He would have written many letters Many letters would have been written
Present cont. am/is/are+being+p.p He is writing many letters Many letters are being written
Past cont. was/were+being+p.p He was writing many letters Many letters were being written
Future simple will+be+p.p He will write many letters Many letters will be written
Will+have+p.p will+have+been+p.p He will have written many letters Many letters will have been written
Be+going to+inf Be+going to+be+p.p He is going to write many letters Many letters are going to be written

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