Grammar Summary
Grammar Summary
Grammar Summary
a. Structure (questions 1-15) consists of fifteen sentences in which part of each sentence has been replaced with
a blank. Each sentence is followed by four answer choice. You must choose the answer that completes the
sentence in a grammatically correct way.
b. Written expressions (questions 16-40) consist of twenty-five sentence in which four words of group of words
have been underlined. You must choose the underlined word or group of words that is not correct.
1- Be familiar with the directions. The directions on every paper test are the same, so it is not necessary to spend
time reading the directions carefully when you take the test. You should be completed familiar with the
directions before the day of the test.
2- Begin with questions 1 through 15. Anticipate that questions 1 through 5 will be the easiest. Anticipate that
questions 11 through 15 will be the most difficult. Do not spend too much time on questions 11 through 15.
There will be easier questions that come later.
3- Continue with questions 16 through 40. Anticipate that questions 16 through 20 will be the easiest. Anticipate
that questions 36-40 will be the most difficult.
4- If you have time, return to questions 11-15.
5- Guess to complete the section before time is up. There is no penalty for guessing, so it can only increase your
score to guess the answers to questions that do not have time to complete.
6- Never leave any answers blank on your answer sheet.
objectives of prepositions
A preposition is followed by a noun, pronoun, gerund or noun clause that is called an object of the preposition. if a word is an object
of a preposition, it is not the subject
Appositives
An appositives is a noun that comes before or after another noun and is generally set from the noun with commas. If
a word is an Appositives, it is not the subject. The following Appositives structures are both possible in English.
Tom , a really good mechanic , is fixing the car
S, APP, V,
a really good mechanic , Tom is fixing the car
APP, S, V,
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Skill 4: be careful of present participles.
present participles
A present participle is the –ing form of the verb. The present participles can be (1) part of the verb or (2) an
adjective. It is part of the verb when is accompanied by some form of the verb be. It is an adjective when it is not
accompanied by some form of the verb be.
1- The boy is standing in the corner.
2- The boy standing in the corner was naughty.
past participles
A past participle often ends in –ed, but there are also many irregular past participles. For many verbs including –
adverbs, the simple past and past participles are the same and can be easily confused. the –ed form of the verb can
be (1) the simple past ,(2) the past participles of a verb , or (3) an adjective .
1- She painted this picture. 2- She has painted this picture.
3- The picture painted by Karen is now in a museum.
coordinate connectors
And But Or SO Yet
S. V. coordinate connectors S V
She laughed, But she wanted to cry
Skill 7: Use adverb time and cause connectors correctly.
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The smith arrived at 2:00 , while the Jones family arrived an hour later
(3)- More Sentences with multiple clauses
Skill 9: use noun clause connectors correctly.
Skill 15: invert the subject and verb with question words.
Skill 16: invert the subject and verb with place expressions.
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B- Part B: The written expression questions (25 question per 16 minutes)
1- First look at the underline words or group of words. You want to see if you can spot which of the four answers
choices is not correct.
2- If you have been unable to find the error by looking only at the four underlined expressions, then read the
complete sentence. Often an underlined expression is incorrect because of something in another part of the
sentence.
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Skill 25: use parallel structure with paired conjunctions
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Skill 30: after have, use the past participle.
Skill 31: after Be using the present participle or the past participle.
Skill 32: after will, would, or other modals, sue the base form of the verb.
Skill 33: know when to use the past with present. (√)
Skill 36: use the correct tense with will and would.
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Skill 38: recognize active and passive meanings. (√)
Irregular plurals
Vowel change Man / men foot / feet goose / geese
Woman / women tooth / teeth mouse / mice
Add –en Child / children ox / oxen
Same as singular Deer / deer salmon / salmon trout / trout
Fish / fish sheep / sheep
-is…..-Es Analysis / analyses diagnosis / diagnoses synthesis / syntheses
Axis / axes hypothesis / hypotheses thesis / theses
Crisis / crises parenthesis / parentheses
Ends in –A Bacterium / bacteria datum / data criterion / criteria
Curriculum / curricula phenomenon / phenomena
-Us…… -I Alumnus / alumni fungus / fungi stimulus / stimuli
Bacillus / bacilli nucleus / nuclei syllabus / syllabi
Cactus / cacti radius / radii
Person or thing
It is common to confuse a person with a thing in written expression questions on the TOEFL test
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Skill 47: use adjectives after linking verbs.
–LY adjectives
Costly likely daily quarterly northerly early lively hourly weekly easterly
Friendly lonely monthly yearly southerly kindly manly nightly lovely westerly
Predicate adjectives
predicate adjectives Forms used in front of a noun
Alike Like, similar
alive Live, living
alone Lone
afraid frightened
asleep sleeping
A predicate adjective appears after a linking verb such as be. It cannot appear directly in front of the noun that it
describes.
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(11)- Problems with articles
Singular Plural
Indefinite I have another book (ADJ) I have other books. (ADJ)
I have another. (PRO) I have others. (PRO)
Definite I have the other book. (ADJ) I have the other books. (ADJ)
I have the other. (PRO) I have the others. (PRO)
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Lend Lend(S) Lent Lent Lending يسلف
Let Let(S) Let Let Letting يدع
Lose Lose(S) Lost Lost Losing يخسر
Make Make(S) Made Made Making يصنع
Mean Mean(S) Meant Meant Meaning يقصد
Meet Meet(S) Met Met Meeting يقابل
Pay Pay(S) Paid Paid Paying يدفع
Prove Prove(S) Proved Proven Proving يبرهن
Put Put(S) Put Put Putting يضع
Quit Quit(S) Quitted quit Quitting يخرج
Read Read(S) Read Read Reading يقرا
Ring Ring(S) Rang Rung Ringing يرن
Rise Rise(S) Rose Risen Rising ينهض
Ride Ride(S) Rode Ridden Riding يقود
Run Run(S) Ran Run Running يجري
Say Say(S) Said Said Saying يقول
See See(S) Saw Seen Seeing يري
Sell Sell(S) Sold Sold Selling يبيع
send send(S) Sent Sent Sending يرسل
Shoot Shoot(S) Shot Shot Shooting يقذف
Show Show(S) Showed Shown Showing يشاهد
Shut Shut(S) Shut Shut Shutting يغلق
Sing Sing(S) Sang Sung Singing يغني
Sink Sink(S) Sank Sunk Sinking يغرق
Sit Sit(S) Sat Sat Sitting يجلس
Sleep Sleep(S) Slept Slept Sleeping ينام
Speak Speak(S) Spoke Spoken Speaking يتكلم
Spend Spend(S) Spent spent Spending ينفق
Still Still(S) Stood Stood Stilling يبقي
Steal Steal(S) Stole Stolen Stealing ينسب/ يسرق
Swim Swim(S) Swam Swum Swimming يسبح
Take Take(S) Took Taken Taking ياخذ
Teach Teach(S) Taught Taught Teaching يعلم
Tear Tear(S) Tore Torn Tearing يدمع
Tell Tell(S) Told Told Telling يخبر
Think Think(S) Thought Thought Thinking يعتقد
Throw Throw(S) Threw Thrown Throwing يقذف
Undo Undo(ES) Undid Undone Undoing يبطل
Wear Wear(S) Wore Worn Wearing يرتدي
Win Win(S) Won Won Wining يفوز
Wake Wake(S) Woke Woken Waking يصحو
Wet Wet(S) Wetted Wetted Wetting يبلل
Wind Wind(S) Wound Wound Winding يلف
Withdraw Withdraw(S) Withdrew Withdrawn Withdrawing يسترجع
Withhold Withhold(S) Withheld Withheld Withholding يكبح
Withstand Withstand(S) Withstood Withstood Withstanding يقاوم
Wring Wring(S) Wrung Wrung Wringing ينتزع
write write(S) Wrote Written writing يكتب
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III- List of irregular Plural Forms
Singular Plural Alternate pl. Arabic mean. Singular Plural Alternate pl. Arabic mean.
Addendum Addenda اضافة Adieu Adieus Adieux الوداع
Alga Algae الطحلب Alto Altos األلتو
Alumna Alumnae الخريجون Alumnus Alumni الخريج
Analysis Analyses التحليل Antelope Antelopes Antelope الظبي
Apex Apexes Apices القمة Appendix Appendixes Appendices الملحق
Aquarium Aquariums Aquaria حوضالسمك Archipelago Archipelagos Archipelagoes األرخبيل
Automaton Automatons Automata اإلنساناآللي Axis Axes المحور
Bacillus Bacilli العصوي Bacterium Bacteria البكتيريا
Banjo Banjoes Banjos البانجو Basis Bases القاعدة
Buffalo Buffalos Buffaloes الجاموس Bureau Bureaus Bureaux المكتب
Cactus Cacti Cactuses الص ّبار Calf Calves العجل
Cargo Cargoes Cargos الشحن Cello Cellos التشيلو
Chamois Chamois Chamoix الشمواة Chassis Chassis الهيكل
Cherub Cherubs Cherubim المالك Child Children الطفل
Codex Codices المخطوطة Commando Commandos Commandoes المغوار
Concerto Concertos Concerti القطعةالموسيقية Contralto Contraltos كونترالتو
Corpus Corpora المجموعة Crisis Crises Criterions األزمة
Datum Data Datums الحقيقة Deer Deer األيِّل
Diagnosis Diagnoses التشخيص Dwarf Dwarfs Dwarves القزم
Dynamo Dynamos المو ّلد Elf Elves جنى
Embryo Embryos الجنين Faux pas Faux pas الهفوة
Fish Fish Fishes السمك Flounder Flounder Flounders سمكموسى
Focus Focuses Foci البؤرة Foot Feet القدم
Formula Formulas Formulae الصيغة Fungus Fungi Funguses الفطر
Ganglion Ganglia Ganglions العقدة Genesis Geneses التكوين
Genus Genera الجنس Goose Geese Gooses ّ
األوزة
Half Halves ِصف ْ الن Halo Halos Haloes الهالة
Herring Herrings Herring الرنغة Hoof Hoofs Hooves الحافر
Hypothesis Hypotheses الفرضية Index Indexes Indices الدليل
Kibbutz Kibbutzim الكيبوتز Kilo Kilos الكيلو
Knife Knives السكين Lady Ladies السيدة
Larva Larvae اليرقة Leaf Leaves الورقة
Libretto Librettos نصكلماتاألوبرا Life Lives الحياة
Loaf Loaves الرغيف Locus Loci المكان
Louse Lice القملة Man Men الرجل
Matrix Matrices Matrixes المصفوفة Medium Mediums Media الوسط
Money Moneys Monies المال Moose Moose األيّل
Motto Mottoes Mottos الشعار Mouse Mice الفأر
Nemesis Nemeses العدو Ovum Ova البيضة
Ox Oxen Oxes الثور Quiz Quizzes اإلختبار
Scarf Scarfs Scarves الوشاح Self Selves النفس
Series Series السلسلة Sheaf Sheaves الحزمة
Sheep Sheep الخِراف Shelf Shelves ّّالرف
Silo Silos المستودع Solo Solos العزفالمنفرد
Soprano Sopranos السوبرانو Standby Standbys البديل
Swiss Swiss السويسريون Syllabus Syllabuses Syllabi المنهجالدراسي
Tango Tangos التانجو Thesis Theses اإلطروحة
Thief Thieves ّّ
اللص Tobacco Tobaccos التبغ
Tooth Teeth ّّالسن Trout Trout Troutes السلمون
Ultimatum Ultimatums Ultimate اإلنذارالنهائي Volcano Volcanoes Volcanos البركان
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Vortex Vortexes Vortices الدوامة
ّ Wharf Wharves Wharfs رصيفالمرفأ
Wife Wives الزوجة Wolf Wolves ذئب
Woman Women اإلمرأة Zero Zeros Zeroes صفر
IV- Prepositions
Prepositions
About Behind Except On Under
Above Below For Onto Underneath
Across Beneath From Outside Unlike
After Beside In Over Until
Against Between Inside Past Up
Along Beyond Into Since Upon
Among By Like Through Versus
Around Despite Near Throughout With
As Down Of To Within
At During Off Toward without
And we use in for the names of land-areas (towns, counties, states, countries, and continents).
She lives in Durham.
Durham is in Windham County.
Windham County is in Connecticut.
Prepositions of Location: in, at, and on and No PrepositionIN
IN AT ON NO PREPOSITION
(the) bed* class* the bed* downstairs
the bedroom home the ceiling downtown
the car the library* the floor inside
(the) class* the office the horse outside
the library* school* the plane upstairs
school* work the train uptown
* You may sometimes use different prepositions for these locations.
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They were driving to work together.
She's going to the dentist's office this morning.
Toward and towards are also helpful prepositions to express movement. These are simply variant spellings of the same word; use
whichever sounds better to you.
We're moving toward the light.
This is a big step towards the project's completion.
With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we use no preposition.
Grandma went upstairs
Grandpa went home.
They both went outside.
Prepositions of Time: for and since
We use for when we measure time (seconds, minutes, hours, days, months, years).
He held his breath for seven minutes.
She's lived there for seven years.
The British and Irish have been quarreling for seven centuries.
A combination of verb and preposition is called a phrasal verb. The word that is joined to the verb is then called a particle. Please
refer to the brief section we have prepared on phrasal verbs for an explanation.
Idiomatic Expressions with Prepositions
Agree to a proposal, with a person, on a price, in principle
Argue about a matter, with a person, for or against a proposition
Compare to show likenesses, with to show differences (sometimes similarities)
Correspond to a thing, with a person
Differ from an unlike thing, with a person
Live at an address, in a house or city, on a street, with other people
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V- Word ending – Formation
Words endings
1- Noun (thing) ending (-ism ,- nce ,- ness ,-ion ,-ment ,-ty ,-age ,-ship)
Formation
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