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National Unity
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By Tessa Tin

CONTEXT
What is National Unity?
A deeply-rooted feeling of oneness and belonging to a common society and culture
that accords the nation the highest priority among the loyalties of the men and women
who inhabit it.

What are the 3 criteria for National Unity?

Integration of ALL ethnic groups

Equity in political, economic and social terms

Political and cultural homogenity that leads to a shared identification with the state

List the policies by governments to nurture national unity

General Policies

1. Democratic/Parliamentary Processes

2. Economic Developments

3. Education and Language Policies

4. Use of National Ideologies and Symbols (ie flags, monarchy etc)

5. Use of Mass Organisations

6. Religion

7. Military Coercion and Suppression

Minority Policies

1. Assimilation into Dominant Culture

2. Forced Naturalisation

3. Multiculturalism

4. Policies towards Non-Indigenous Minorities (Chinese and Indians)

Main Determinant of Success/Failure in Policies?

RESPONSES OF MINORITIES!!!

Failure: Minorities feel alienated and causes racial segregation

exclusive

forceful/coercive

Success: Integrating differences into forging a common one

inclusive and acceptable to the population

broad based approach —> neutral and common national identity

National Unity 1
 increase equity ie standard of identity

MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR?

INCLUSIVITY (OR EXCLUSIVITY) OF GOVERNMENT POLICIES!!

(you can group some factors together or put them under each other)

promotion of national ideologies, symbols and history can go under EDUCATION

assimilation, forced naturalisation and religion can be under DISCRIMINATION OF MINORITIES

SUCCESS!!!!
DEMOCRATIC PROCESSES
MORE INCLUSIVE!!!

SINGAPORE

Controlled Democracy, allowed some opposition (NCMP Scheme) which gave greater confidence and
boost to legitimacy of PAP government, NMP Scheme, Elected Presidency

THAILAND

Trend of regular elections from 1980s onwards shows that practice of democracy became ingrained

PHILIPPINES

Political stability and continuity since 1946 until Marcos implemented martial law.

But even martial law was short-lived —> 1986 EDSA Revolution

—> Say in governance, represented in govt —> Greater political equity and homogeneity

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
MORE INCLUSIVE!!!

PHILIPPINES (UNDER RAMOS)

‘Philippines 2000’, achieved 7% GDP rates in the 1990s

MALAYSIA
achieved 8% GDP rates in the 1980s until 1997

THAILAND

The ‘Development Decade’ (Patthana, 1957-63)

Sarit introduced to government a new generation of economically liberal technocrats, encouraged

private and foreign investment, launched major rural development programmes – all to secure
legitimacy through development

Economic development fostered greater political, social, & economic equity

MULTICULTURALISM
Successfully integrated ethnic minorities —> more inclusive and accommodating

SINGAPORE

Emphasised racial harmony and commonality of SG identity through common symbols (e.g.
national flag and pledge), & common ideologies (e.g. Shared Values)

Education: English as a neutral language of instruction

Housing: Resettlement and ethnic quotas to ensure diverse and proportional mix

National Unity 2
 Group Representation Constituency (GRC) Scheme: minority representation in Parliament
—> Emphasis on building a common national identity that took into account different ethnic identities
instead of eliminating them

LAOS

Laotian government emphasised the multi-ethnic nature and commonality of Lao nationality

All nationalities termed as Lao:

Lao of the Hill (Lao Sung)

Lao of the Valley (Lao Loum)

Lao of the Slope (Loa Theung)

—> incorporated ethnic identity under umbrella of national identity

Groupings were also more broad-based, centred on the places where ethnic groups lived rather
than their ethnicities

VIETNAM

Internationalist focus of Communism -class struggle, not conflict based on ethnicity or nationality

Ho Chi Minh lived and worked with ethnic minorities during WWII

Shared goals and common experience of harsh treatment by french and Japanese

—> policies of multiculturalism and political autonomy for ethnic minority areas!!

—> successful in fostering national identity under Ho Chi Minh

Promoted greater integration of ethnic groups, and political and cultural homogeneity

More inclusive & accommodating —> These policies ensured that minorities could preserve their
unique cultural identities and have an equitable stake in society.

Further complemented by other policies such as common symbols and ideologies which reinforced
loyalty of all citizens

EDUCATION

Learning of a common language has facilitated communication and integration —> Cultural
Homogeneity

SINGAPORE

Use of English as a neutral common language of instruction —> Enabled different races to bond

INDONESIA

Promotion of Bahasa Indonesia by Suharto in public schools —> Helped to facilitate

communication among a diverse population

In 1971 —> 40.8% (ability to speak Bahasa Indonesia)

In 1980 —> 61.4%

In 1990 —> 80%

In both countries, the learning of a common language helped to facilitate communication and
integration of ethnic groups, as the diverse groups of people
could converse with one another and foster a deeper understanding of one another

Also helped to promote greater cultural homogeneity, as a national culture premised on a

common language could be fostered

National Unity 3
 Education policies have pursued and promoted greater equity in society —> conducive for national
unity

SINGAPORE

Emphasis on meritocracy —> Greater social and economic equity as people could
advance in society through merit

Emphasis on multiculturalism (seen in bilingual policy) —> Greater social equity as

multiculturalism allowed different ethnic groups to retain their cultural identity under
umbrella of national identity

SARIT'S THAILAND (except in the South)

Expansion of higher education in parts of Thailand created opportunities for

advancement in society —> Hence more social and economic equity

—> Both countries used different ways to promote social and economic equity

PROMOTION OF NATIONAL IDEOLOGIES, SYMBOLS, AND HISTORY

(can be under EDUCATION if needed!!)

In several states, national ideologies and symbols, as well as a common historical narrative, were taught in
schools to create a national identity amongst the populace from a young age.

SINGAPORE

Shared Values —> common set of beliefs such as “nation before self” helped to foster homogeneity
& shared identification with state

National Education —> Foster greater pride in SG history

National anthem, pledge-taking —> inculcation of common set of values from young age

VIETNAM

Teaching of history, such as the deeds of historical figures like Tran Hung Dao, and the usage of Ho
Chi Minh as a national symbol 'Uncle Ho' —> Fostered greater pride in country

In both countries, education was a platform for the promotion of national ideologies and symbols which
provided a common set of beliefs that strengthened cultural homogeneity

In particular, the promotion of the nation’s history helped to enhance national pride, and
identification with the state

MASS ORGANISATIONS

VIETNAM (NORTH)

Fatherland Front (1955) - collection or pro-government movements in support of the Communist

government

Goal of reaching out to a greater percentage of the Vietnamese populace and involving them in
nation-building

Successful in creating a shared appreciation of communism —> increases national unity due to shared
ideology

MINORITIES' ABILITY TO ADAPT DESPITE DISCRIMINATORY POLICIES

THAI CHINESE

Thai Chinese who eventually blended into Thai society by intermarrying with Thais and forming
formal business alliances with prominent Thai officials and businessmen.

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 All these despite the initial discrimination against them eg April 1939: Phibun introduces a law that
required all ethnic Chinese to disclaim loyalty to China, speak Thai, take on Thai names and attend
Thai schools

MALAYSIAN CHINESE

Despite the actions of the Malaysian government to introduce the New Economic Policy (1971)
which seemed to privilege the majority Malay community → the Chinese community didn’t react in a
manner which compromised national unity but instead continued on their economic prowess by using
their experience to benefit from the head start enjoyed by the Malay community by running their
businesses, hence ensuring their continued economic prominence.

FAILURE!!!!
EDUCATION —> EXCLUSIVE AND LESS ACCOMMODATING POLICIES HAD A DIVERSE IMPACT
This occurred when education policies were premised on the language and culture of the dominant ethnic
group, or when education contributed to an ethnic divide caused by other factors.

THAILAND (SOUTH)

Govt’s insistence on imposing a Thai language curriculum in Muslim South stirred discontent and
opposition (Thai language, Sarit’s ‘educational improvement” in 1961, etc)
—> Shows attempts to erode and eliminate minority cultures and identities, which failed —> Patani
United Liberation Organisation (PULO) (1967) —> opposition towards state, lack of ethnic
integration

MALAYSIA
The existence of schools that teach in different languages contributed to the division between Chinese
and Malays, and hindered communication and integration of ethnic groups

The Thai govt’s policies were more exclusive and had more adverse consequences, since it contributed
to the emergence of a separatist movement,

But both demonstrated how education policies could have a divisive impact if they did not accommodate
the multicultural natures of their societies.

→ education must be used together with other sound and inclusive policies —> national unity is a complex
and more multi-faceted and comprehensive approach is needed to spur progress towards other aspects of
national unity

MILITARY COERCION
Discriminated against certain groups and bred resentment

Stop-gap measure to suppress dissent and opposition —> Could not be sustained in the long run

Outbreak of opposition and violence, formation of separatist movements which showed clear
rejection of the govt. and the state —> Lacked shared identification with state, ethnic integration

Resulted in the outbreak of conflicts against the state —> showed a lack of integration and homogeneity

BURMA
Military Government under Ne Win vs. Ethnic Minorities

Needed in the short-run, only viable institution to maintain integrity

But military suppression of ethnic minorities failed —> ethnic insurgencies continued (Karen
National Union, Kachin Independence Army in 1961, Shan State Army in 1964)

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 In 1989, the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) undertook negotiations with
the ethnic insurgents —> recognised the failure of their
previous policies, and highlighted that non-confrontational methods were more effective

INDONESIA
Suharto vs Free Aceh Movement (GAM)

Military was used to strengthen control over Aceh

1976: Free Aceh Movement (GAM) formed —> launched insurrection against the central
government

The Indonesian government took even greater repressive measures in the 1980s, sending troops to
Aceh

Problem of secessionist movement only solved in 2005, when negotiations were developed —>
shows that the problem would not be solved as long as the approach remained military in nature

PHILIPPINES

Philippine Government vs Mindanao (MNLF) (Muslim South)

The Moros are indigenous Filipinos who are primarily Muslims and residing in the Southern
Philippines, mostly on the island of Mindanao

North Philippines: speak Tagalog & Catholics

South Philippines: speak Cebuano & Muslim (did not identify with the majority)

Mindanao is a site of a long-running insurgency by Moro groups like the Moro National
Liberation Front (MNLF) (1969) and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) (1981) —> The
Moros fought for a separate 'Bangsa Moro' (Moro Nation)

The MNLF began armed resistance against Marcos' government from 1972 to 2014

Military intervention only ended due to ceasefire signed to allow local autonomy —> failure of
military coercion which further exacerbates divide

—> demonstrates that armed force alone cannot ensure national unity —> counter-productive

—> only with actual political concessions or peaceful reforms can forge national unity

THAILAND
Thailand vs Pattani United Liberation Front (PULO)

1967: emergence of the Patani United Liberation Front (PULO) and its armed wing, Patani United
Liberation Army (PULA)

Government's response was an armed campaign (1982-83) and further armed response (1988)

Limited success due to legacy of mistrust between Thai govt and Muslim South was too
entrenched

PULO resumes use of terror tactics, even more threatening due to backdrop of global terror threat
due to religious fundamentalists

This caused the Thai govt declared state of emergency in the South and deployed security
forces to combat PULO

Until 1997, this legacy of mistrust was too deeply entrenched despite promises of eventual
development, and conflicts remained unresolved.

CONFLICT IS STILL ONGOING TODAY!!!!

—> failure to integrate the minority population using military force

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 All the governments recognised the failure of military coercion, switching to more accommodating
approaches such as peaceful negotiations in order to resolve discontent —> Shows
ineffectiveness of military coercion to build national unity

ASSIMILATION INTO DOMINANT CULTURE

Attempted to undermine minority cultures and identities

THAILAND - MUSLIM SOUTH

Used education to integrate Thai Muslims: 1961 program of ‘educational improvement’ aimed at
transforming the ‘pondoks’ into private schools for Islamic education —> in line with national
educational standards

Encouragement of Buddhist migration into Southern Thailand —> From 1961 onwards, 100,000
Buddhists settled in southern districts

—> Attempted to force minorities to assimilate into dominant majority

—> Southern Thais saw this as another government attempt to undermine their status and promote
Buddhism at the exclusion of Islam
—> Resulted in conflict —> Pattani People’s Movement, Pattani United Liberation Organisation
(PULO) 1967 —> showed clear rejection of the government and state

PHILIPPINES - MINDANAO

Government-sponsored migration to the Muslim South, establishment of the MNLF in 1971 and
insurrection —> shows lack of integration and failure of policy

—> dominance of majority over minority groups —> exemplified intolerance that was fuelled by perceived
sense of superiority —> Translated into attempts to erode, and eliminate, identities of minorities
—> Lack of integration of ethnic groups, no cultural homogeneity

FORCED NATURALISATION

INDONESIA - INDO CHINESE

1967 ‘Basic Policy for the Solution of the Chinese Problem’:

a. the closure of all but one Chinese language newspapers

b. confinement of all Chinese cultural and religious expressions to their homes

c. phasing out of Chinese-language schools

d. forced adoption of Indonesian names with a special identity card to signifying the holder's ethnic
origin.

Failed at integrating the Chinese into the majority population

→ dominance of majority over minority groups → exemplified intolerance that was fuelled by perceived
sense of superiority → Translated into attempts to erode, and eliminate, identities of minorities
→ Lack of integration of ethnic groups, no cultural homogeneity

BURMA - BURMESE INDIANS

Ne Win did not attempt to integrate the Indian minority group in Burma, and instead termed them as
'resident aliens'

From 1963 onwards, the Burmese government even placed increasing pressure on the Burmese
Indians —> in particular, discriminated against Indian and Pakistani moneylenders and middlemen —
> seen to exploit and profit from the Burmese people

As a result of discrimination and persecution, over 100,000 Indians left Burma by 1964

RELIGION

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 Some minority policies also undermined the indigenous minorities in their own countries through
discriminatory policies → further strained the relationship between the minorities and the governments

VIETNAM (SOUTH) UNDER NGO DINH DIEM

Diem's privileging of Catholicism aliented the majority Buddhist populace

The government was regarded as biased towards Catholics in public service and military promotions,
as well as in allocation of land, business favours and tax concessions

Contributed to the Buddhist Cri (1963) where monks publicly self-immolated (exacerbated by madam
Nhu's mocking of the monks as 'barbecues'

Diem's policies on religion had an adverse impact on national unity, as they created a divide amongst
the populace along religious lines

BURMA UNDER U NU

The State Religion Bill was passed by the Burmese Parliament during U Nu’s time in power.

Among other things, cow slaughtering was officially banned and beef became known as
todo tha (literally “hush hush meat”).

This had the predictable result of alienating the non-Buddhist minorities in Upper Burma and other
frontier areas, who now had even more reason to feel discriminated against in their own country.

→The Shans joined the Kachins, Karens and communists

in rebellion.

→ undermined indigenous minorities in Burma through discriminatory policies → further strained the
relationship between the minorities and the government → undermining attempts at national unity

FROM FAILURE TO SUCCESS!!!!

(THIS LOA SHOULD BUILD UPON THE MILITARY COERCION UNDER FAILURE)
However, countries which changed their approaches from exclusive to more inclusive ones became more
successful at fostering national unity, as their approaches were more intolerant and accommodating

BURMA

SLORC undertook negotiations with the ethnic insurgents from the late 1980s to early 1990s

PHILIPPINES (Mindanao)

establishment of the Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) in 1989 —> no more armed
conflict

1996: MNLF signed treaty Tripoli Agreement

INDONESIA (Aceh)

Suharto started armed tactics towards Aceh movement in 1998 → 1997 AFC revealed Suharto's
inefficiency → BJ Habibie introduced more inclusive and accommodative policies

Problem solved in 2005 after negotiations

Governments recognised the ineffectiveness and futility of using military force against minorities, and
switched to the more accommodating approach of negotiations

This more accommodating approach hence enabled the governments to become more successful at
managing the minorities

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 GOVERNMENTAL ATTITUDES!!!!!!
Whether or not efforts at nation-building succeeded or failed was dependent on government attitudes

INTOLERANT GOVERNMENT ATTITUDES:

translated into more exclusive policies which failed at nation-building

Military coercion, assimilation into dominant culture, forced naturalisation —> all attempted to
impose dominant majority’s identity on minority —> repressive, exclusive

E.g. Indonesia’s treatment of Aceh under Suharto

→ Failed to integrate ethnic groups, or build homogeneity

MORE TOLERANT GOVERNMENT ATTITUDES:

translated into more inclusive policies which were more effective

Democratic processes, economic development, multiculturalism —> accommodating,

inclusive

E.g. SG

→ Integrated ethnic groups, nurtured equity, built homogeneity

Why were these more effective?

Recognised differences amongst different groups, but sought to establish a national

identity that took into account, instead of eliminating, these communal/ethnic identities

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