ABSTRACT

This will be help us to

get minimal score in
TEP and improve our
skills in English.

ade kristanti
UNIVERSITAS NEGERI SU

HAND OUT BASIC ENGLISH

By Ade Luh Febiolaa Kristanti_053
 CHAPTER 1
PART OF SPEECH
Dalam susunan sebuah kalimat bahasa inggris terdapat bagian. Mereka disebut “parts of
speech”. Berikut merupakan pembagianya.

no Part of Function Example words Example sentence

speech
1. Verb Action/state (kt kerja) (to) be, have, do, I have two red pens.
like, work, sing, can,
must.
2. Noun Thing/person (kt benda) Pen, dog, work, I come from London.
music, town,
teacher, London,
John.
3. Adjective Describes a noun (kt a/an, the, 69, some, Let me tell you about my
benda deskripsi/ kt sifat) good, big, red, well, interesting place to eat
interesting. dinner.
4. Adverb Describe a verb, Quickly, silently, Sofi can song clearly.
adjective/adverb (kt well, badly, very,
keterangan) really.
5. Pronoun Replace a noun (kt ganti) I, You, he, she, some. Amir is friendly. He is my
friend.
6. Preposition Links a noun to another To, at, after, on, but. Please check the remote on
word (kt depan) the table.
7. Conjunction Joins And, but, when. I have pet. They are cat, dog,
clauses/sentence/word and rabbit.
(kt penghubung)
8. Interjection Short exclamation, Oh!, ouch!, hi!, well Hi! How are you?
sometimes inserted into a
sentence (kt seru)

Example :

som book
I Have and pen
e s
pronou
verb adj noun conj noun
n

my cute and beautiful sister sings beautifully on the Stage

pronoun adj conj adj noun verb adv prep adj noun
Tetapi ada berberapa kata yang bisa lebih dari 1 fungsi, untuk menganalisis bentuk part of speech kita
harus paham dan mengerti terlebih dahulu makna dari sebuah kalimat tersebut. Berikut meupakan
contoh kata yang dapat memiliki 2 fungsi.

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 Word Part of speech Example
Noun My work is hard.
Work
Verb She work in elementary school.
Conjunction I can come to your house, but she can’t.
But
Preposition Everyone came but Marry
Adjective Is Cintya well ?
well Adverb I can speak English well.
Interjection Well! That’s Cheap!
Noun We ate in the afternoon.
Afternoon
Noun acting as adjective We had afternoon tea.

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 CHAPTER 2
Singular-Plural Forms
Count-Noncount
Singular Plural
Boat Boats
House Houses
Cat Cats
River Rivers
A singular noun ending by-s is a plural.

Singular Plural
Bus Buses
Wish Wishes
Pitch Pitches
Box Boxes
A singular noun ending in s,x,z,ch,sh makes the plural by adding-es.

Singular Plural
Penny Pennies
Spy Spies
Baby Babies
City Cities
Daisy Daisies
A singular noun ending in a consonant and then y makes the plural by dropping the y and adding-ies

Irregular nouns

There are some irregular noun plurals. The most common ones are listed below

Singular Plural Singular Plural

Woman Women Loaf Loaves
Man Men Potato Potatoes
Child Children Tomato Tomatoes
Tooth Teeth Cactus Cacti
Foot Feet Focus Foci
Person People Fungus Fungi
Leaf Leaves Nucleus Nuclei
Mouse Mice Syllabus Syllabi/syllabuses
Goose Geese Analysis Analyses
Half Halves Diagnosis Diagnoses
Knife Knives Oasis Oases
Wife Wives Thesis Theses
Life Lives Crisis Crises
Criterion Criteria
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 Elf Elves
Some nouns have the same form in the singular and the plural.

Singular Plural
Sheep Sheep
Fish Fish
Deer Deer
Species Species
Aircraft Aircraft

Irregular verb/noun agreement

Some nouns have a plural form but take a singular verb.

Plural nouns used with a singular verb Sentence

News The news is at 7.00 a.m.
Athletics Athletics is good for young people.
Linguistics Linguistics is the study of language.
Darts Darts is a popular game in England.
Billiards Billiards is played all over the world.

Some nouns have fixed plural form and take a plural verb. They are not used in the singular, or they
have a different meaning in the singular. Nouns like this include: trousers, jeans, glasses, savings, thanks,
steps, stairs, customs, congratulations, tropics, wages, spectacles, outskirts, goods, wits, etc.

Plural noun with plural verb Sentence

Trousers My trousers are too tight.
Jeans Her jeans are black.
glasses Those glasses are his.

Exercises:

Choose the correct form of the verb in the following sentence.

1. Anything (is/are) better than going to another movie tonight.

2. A pair of jeans (was/were) in the washing machine this morning.
3. The committee (has/have) already reached a decision.
4. The jury (is/are) trying to reach a decision.
5. Everybody who (has/have) a fever must go home immediately.

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 CHAPTER 3
Word Order
Word order adalah aturan menyusun kata-kata agar menjadi kalimat sempurna.
Polanya adalah : S + Verb + Object + Adv of Manner + Adv of Place + Adv of Time
Contoh :
Our teacher spoke to us very rudely in the class yesterday.
S V O Manner Place Time
Catatan :
A. Adverb of time bisa disimpan di awal kalimat, bisa juga disimpan di akhir kalimat.
o Yesterday I visited her.
o I visited her yesterday.
B. Adverb of place selalu disimpan di akhir kalimat.
o I read a book in the library.
C. Adverb of manner dalam intransitive verb (kata kerja yang tidak menghendaki objek).
o I slept soundly.
o He studies hard.
D. Adverb of manner dalam transitive verb (kata kerja yang menghendaki objek).
o He speaks English well.
o She sings a song melodiously.
Adverb of manner dengan akhiran -ly yang digunakan dengan transitive verb dapat ditempatkan
setelah subjek maupun di akhir.
o I had completely forgotten it.
o I had forgotten it completely.
E. Adverb of frequency ditempatkan sebelum kata kerja atau sesudah auxiliary verb.
o I always come late.
o He always at home on Sunday.
Exercises:
1. The bills are folded in an origami style in a ______.
A. three-dimensionals frame
B. three-dimensional frame
C. three-dimensional-frame
D. three-frames dimensional

2. Those football matches will be ______ on television tonight.

A. internationally broadcasting
B. broadcasted international
C. internationally broadcasted
D. broadcasting international

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3. The Whitney Boomerang is the first ______ which exceeds all crash testing requirements.
A. two seater aircraft
B. two-seater aircraft
C. two seaters aircraft
D. two-sealers aircraft

4. There will be ______ in this town next two days.

A. an essential five days convention
B. an essential-five-day convention
C. an essential-five-days convention
D. essential five days convention

5. Not only ______ the best student in his school, but he also receives a scholarship.
A. Markus becomes
B. did Markus become
C. does Markus become
D. Markus becoming

6. She woke up ______ this morning because of studying hard in the previous night.
A. late
B. lately
C. lattest
D. later
7. Not only _____ a good thing; he did the right thing.
A. Did Sam do
B. Will Sam do
C. Sam did
D. Sam do

8. Thomas Alfa Edison invented _____.

A. electric lights
B. the electric lights
C. an electric lights
D. electric light

9. ______, Airlangga University has a well-respected medical school.

A. As university
B. As Public university
C. As the university
D. As a Public university

10. There are only 90 questions in this test, _____?

A. did there

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 B. didn’t there
C. don’t there
D. aren’t there

CAHPTER 4
Determiners
Determiners are words such as the, my, this, some, twenty, each, any, which are used before nouns.

The countryside Some paper This old sofa

My father Five green chairs Each person

Determiners include the following common types:

Articles : a/an, the
Demonstrative : this, that, these, those
Possessives : my, your, his, her, its, our, their, x’s (possessive’s)
Quantifiers : (a) few, fewer, (a) little, many, much, more, most, some, any, etc.
Numbers : one, two, three, etc.

Here is a list of the determiners included in this Hand out. Many of them have individual entries

(a) Few, fewer,

Every Most That
fewest

(a) Little Half Much The

(an) other her my their

a/an his neither these

all its no This

any Jim’s, Anna’s, etc. One, two, three, etc. those

both least our What

each less several Which

either many some Whose

enough more such your

Sometimes we don’t use a determiner before the noun. We call this ‘zero determiner’.

Dogs love biscuits.

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What do determiners do?

Determiners have two main functions: referring and quantifying.

Referring

‘Referring’ means showing us who or what the noun is pointing to or talking about. The most common
types of determiners which we use for referring are articles, possessive and demonstratives:

A: where is the newspaper?

B: it id on the sofa. ( the means the noun refers to something the speaker and listener both
know or are familiar with)

A: have you seen my MP3 player anywhere?

B: yes. It is on the kitchen table. (my refers to something which belongs to the speaker, the
refers to something the speaker and listener can both identify because they both know or
shake knowledge about it.)

Quantifying

‘quantifying’ means showing how much of something there is, or how many:

Five people were arrested during an anti-war demonstration in London today.

There are some letters here for you. ( some means a non-specific, small number or quantity of
something.)

Do you have enough flour to make the bread. (enough means a quantity that is sufficient or
adequate for something).

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 CHAPTER 5
Reflexive and Emphatic Pronoun
Reflexive Pronoun

is used to express an action that is unconscious (reflex movement). also used to emphasize (to
emphasize) the meaning of the word.

Sub Pronouns Comp/Obj Possessive Possessive Reflective

Pronouns Adjective Pronouns Pronouns
I Me My Mine Myself
You You Your Yours Yourself/Yourselves
We Us Our Ours Ourselves
They Them Their Theirs Themselves
He Him His His Himself
She Her Her Hers Herself
It It Its Its Itself
Examples:

- When I was cutting bread, I cut myself.

- She looks at herself in the looking glass.
- I myself go to the office.
- He himself made the boat.
- He made the boat itself.

Exercises:

1. She would like to live in Indonesia, ______ it never snows.

A. when
B. where
C. that
D. which
2. The man is an engineer. His wife had a birthday party yesterday.
The best combination of the two sentences is ______.
A. The wife who is an engineer had a birthday party yesterday
B. The wife who had a birthday party yesterday is an engineer
C. The man whose wife had a birthday party yesterday is an engineer
D. The man whose wife is an engineer had a birthday party yesterday

3. Tari : Why do you admire Mother Teresa so much?

Susi : Don’t you know that she was the woman ______.
A. that she didn’t recognize me

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 B. who dedicated her life to the poor
C. whom the governor met at the party
D. of which house was very expensive

4. A friend of mine ______ father is the manager of a company helped me to get a job.
A. whose
B. whom
C. which
D. who

5. Eko : “Which is your mother, Lily?”

Lily : “There she is; the one ______ is coming here.”
A. who
B. whom
C. which
D. whose

6. Mary introduced me to her former lecturer _____ she married after she had graduated.
A. of whom
B. whose
C. of which
D. whom

7. Angiosperms inhabit relatively diverse environments and may be found _____ higher plants can
survive.
A. There
B. Wherever
C. Somewhere
D. Then

8. _____ hardiness, daylilies can be cultivated particularly easily.

A. Their
B. Since their
C. It is their
D. Because of their

9. The spiral threads of a spider’s web have sticky substance on them _____ insects.
A. Traps
B. Trap its
C. Which traps
D. Which it traps

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10. The Good Earth, _____ is a novel set in China.
A. Which by Pearl Buck
B. Which was written by Pearl Buck
C. Was written by Pearl Buck
D. Pearl Buck being the one who wrote it

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 CHAPTER 6
MODALS
Modal adalah kata kerja bantu atau auxiliary verb atau helping verb, yang terdiri dari : shall, should, will,
would, can, could, may, might, must, ought to, need, dare, dan used to.
Kata-kata tersebut ditempatkan sebelum kata kerja (verb) atau sesudah subjek.
1. Modal Shall
Dipakai untuk:
1) Menyatakan future dengan subjek I atau we
Contoh: I shall leave for America tomorrow.
2) Janji
Contoh : You shall have a motorbike.
3) Ancaman
Contoh : You shall be punished if you do that.
2. Modal Should
Dipakai untuk:
1) Bentuk lampau dari shall, jika berada pada anak kalimat
2) Mengandung arti “seharusnya” dalam bentuk present
3) Mengandung arti “sebaiknya” (suggestion)
o I said that I should leave.
o You should obey your parents.
o If you are tired, you should take a rest.
3. Modal Will
Dipakai untuk :
1) Bentuk future
Contoh : I will go to Jakarta tomorrow.
2) Menyatakan janji
Contoh : I will come to your house if it doesn’t rain.
3) Polite request
Contoh : Will you open the window please!
4. Modal Would
Dipakai untuk :
1) Bentuk past dari will jika berada pada anak kalimat
Contoh :
o He says he will come.
o He said he would come.
2) Polite request
o Would you open the door, please?
3) Menunjukkan keinginan want jika beriringan dengan like (would like = want)
o Would you like a cup of tea? = Do you want a cup of tea?
5. Modal Can
Mengandung arti :

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 1) Ability dalam bentuk present
Contoh : I can speak English.
2) Permission
Contoh : Can I go out?
6. Modal Could
Mengandung arti :
1) Bentuk lampau dari can jika berada pada anak kalimat.
Contoh : I said that I could go with you.
2) Ability dalam bentuk lampau.
Contoh : When I was young I could play tennis well.
3) Permission (izin yang lebih halus dari can)
Contoh : Could I borrow your pen?
7. Modal May
Mengandung arti :
1) Permission (izin)
Contoh : May I go home now? (Bolehkah…..)
2) Possibility (kemungkinan)
Contoh : He may came late (mungkin)
8. Modal Might
Mengandung arti :
1) Bentuk lampau dari may jika berada pada anak kalimat.
Contoh : He said that he might go home (boleh)
2) Probability (kemungkinan)
Contoh : She might be late (mungkin)
9. Modal Must
Mengandung arti :
1) Harus
Contoh : You must study hard.
2) Pasti
Contoh : Andi bought a new car, he must be rich.
10.Modal Need
Dapat dipakai :
1) Sebagai kata kerja biasa
Contoh : Do you need a new book?
2) Sebagai kata kerja bantu
Contoh : Need to go to soon?
11.Modal PERFECT (Subject + Modal + Have + Verb 3 + Object etc.)
1) Misal :
I could have lifted the box just now.
= Saya bisa mengangkat peti itu (tetapi tidak saya lakukan).
Artinya suatu kemampuan di waktu lampau yang tidak dikerjakan.
2) Misal :
He might have gone by train early this morning.
= Mungkin dia pergi dengan kereta api tadi pagi.
Artinya suatu kemungkinan di waktu lampau.
3) Misal :
It must have rained last night.

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 = Pasti tadi malam hujan (terbukti dengan jalan yang basah, misalnya).
Suatu kesimpulan atau kepastian di waktu lampau.
4) Misal :
I would have returned your bicycle.
= Saya ingin mengembalikan sepedamu (tetapi tidak bisa).
Suatu keinginan yang tidak terpenuhi.
5) Misal :
I should have given some money.
= Seharusnya saya memberi dia uang (tetapi tidak saya lakukan).
Suatu keharusan yang tidak terpenuhi.

Exercises:
1. Look at this street, it is very muddy, it ______ have rained heavily last night.
A. will
B. would
C. could
D. must

2. The child ate up all the meal we had served. He ______ very hungry.
A. will have been
B. could have been
C. must have been
D. would have been

3. Alfred visited some countries in Asia, Europe and America. He bought luxurious things for his wife and
children. He ______ a lot of money.
A. could have
B. would have
C. ought have
D. must have had

4. Berta : “Can I have your report soon?”

Jono : “Sure, I ______ it before you go to the meeting.
A. will finished
B. will have finished
C. am going to finish
D. am finishing

5. Dina : Roni, that is the most popular book nowadays.

Roni : Oh yes. It must have been written by a distinguished professor.
From the dialogue we know that indeed a distinguished professor ______ that book.
A. wrote
B. would write
C. should write
D. planned to write

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6. Mom and Dad just left for the airport twenty minutes ago, so they _____ there yet.
A. can’t have gotten
B. shouldn’t have gotten
C. had better have gotten
D. could have gotten

7. Although research scientists had hoped that the new drug interferon _____ to be a cure for cancer, its
applications now appear to be more limited.
A. prove
B. had proven
C. would prove
D. will prove

8. Henry will not able to attend the meeting tonight because _____
A. he must to teach a class
B. he will be teaching a class
C. of he will teach a class
D. he will have teaching a class

9. The Theory of Continental Drift assumes that there _____ long-term climatic changes in many areas
during the past.
A. must have been
B. must be
C. must have
D. must

10. The man standing over there asked me whether he _____ the flowers from my garden.
A. took
B. might take
C. ought to take
D. would take

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 CHAPTER 7
Causative
Digunakan dalam kalimat yang mengandung pengertian bahwa subjek dalam kalimat ini tidak
melakukan suatu pekerjaan. Pola causative ada yang berbentuk aktif dan ada yang berbentuk pasif. Kata
kerja yang digunakan pada pola ini adalah have dan get.

Keterangan :
Have, has, dan had pada kalimat causative bukan sebagai auxillary verbs tetapi berfungsi sebagai verba
yang artinya “menyuruh”. Selain have dan variasi bentuknya, pada kalimat causative jenis ini juga
terkadang menggunakan make atau made.
Pola I : S + have/has/had + O [Person] + infinitive
Causative “have” dalam bentuk aktif :
o I have someone clean my room.
o He had someone clean my room.
o She has him repair her car.

Pola II : S + have/has/had + O [Thing] + V3

Causative “have” dalam bentuk pasif :
o I have my room cleaned by someone.
o He had my room cleaned by someone.
o She has him to repair her car.

Pola III : S + get + O [Person] + to infinitive

Causative “get” dalam bentuk aktif :
o I get someone to clean my room.
o She got him to repair her car.

Pola IV : S + get + O [Thing] + V3

Causative “get” dalam bentuk pasif :
o I get my room cleaned by someone.
o She got her car repaired by him.

Kesimpulan :

Pada pembentukannya, kalimat causative dengan have atau get pada bentuk pasif polanya sama, tetapi
pada bentuk aktif berbeda.

Exercises:

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1. Susi made Andi ______ his sandals before he went into her house.
A. takes off
B. take off
C. took off
D. taken off
2. Ani : What a nice dress! Did you make it yourself?
Ati : Oh, I got it made.
The underlined sentence means ______.
A. Ati bought the dress
B. Ati made the dress herself
C. Ati had to make her dress
D. Someone made Ati’s dress

3. “Mahmud had the oil of his car changed yesterday” means ______.
A. “He changed the oil of his car”
B. “He had to change the oil of his car”
C. “Someone changed the oil of his car”
D. “He would have changed the oil of his car”

4. Dedi : “Arya, how do you inspect in our new criminals?”

Arya : “I had the special agent _______”
A. investigate
B. investigated
C. to investigate.
D. investigates

5. Agung : Send this letter today.

Secretary : Yes, Sir.
From the dialogue we know that Agung will have the letter ______.
A. deliver
B. delivered
C. to deliver
D. to be delivering

6. The old man wants to get his son _____ him to another city as he is not strong enough to do it by
himself.
A. Driven
B. Drive
C. To drive
D. To be driven

7. The manager was not able to finish this job by himself as he was too busy taking care other work, so
he asked me, his assistant, _____ the job.
A. Finish
B. To finish
C. Finished

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 D. Would finish

8. Arifa had his teacher phoned for he had got stomachache.

It means that _____
A. Arifa called his teacher by himself
B. Arifa calls his own teacher via telephone.
C. Arifa made his teacher call him
D. Arifa asked someone else to call his teacher

9. Because the couple are too busy to prepare their wedding, they _____.
A. Have organized everything for their wedding party
B. Want to organize everything by themselves
C. Have the wedding organized
D. Want to organize their own wedding party

10. The owner of the shop let the beggar _____ in front of their shop.
A. Begged
B. To beg
C. To be begged
D. Beg

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 CHAPTER 8
Subjunctive
The English subjunctive is a special, relatively rare verb form that expresses something desired or
imagined.

We use the subjunctive mainly when talking about events that are not certain to happen. For example,
we use the subjunctive when talking about events that somebody:

 Wants to happen
 Anticipates will happen
 Imagines happening

Base subjunctive

Form of base subjunctive

The form of the base subjunctive is extremely simple. For all verbs and all persons, the form is the base
of the verb, for example: be, have, do, go, sing, work.

The base subjunctive does not use any other forms (goes,sings,works).

This table shows the base subjunctive in all persons, using the verbs be, work, and sing as examples:

Base-subjunctive
be work Sing
Note
I be work Sing
You be work Sing That the subjunctive does not change at all
He, she, it be work Sing according to person (I, you, he, etc).
We be work Sing
You be work Sing
They be work Sing

Use of base subjunctive

In certain that clauses

The base subjunctive is typically used that clauses after two structures:

1. Suggest-verb (or noun) + that

 Advise, ask, command, demand, desire, insist, order, prefer, propose, recommend,
request, suggest
 Command, demand, order, proposal, recommendation, request, suggestion
2. Advisable/anxious-adjective + that

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  Advisable, best, crucial, desirable, essential, imperative, important, necessary,
unthinkable, urgent, vital
 Adamant, anxious, determined, eager, keen

Look at these sentence which include examples of the above:

Main clause That clause

Suggest-verb With subjunctive

He Suggests that you Be Present at the meeting

The board Recommen that he join The company

d

He Requested That The car park not Be Locked at night

Main clause That clause

Suggest-noun With subjunctive

They made a Suggestion that We be Early.

He made a Proposal That The company Buy More land.

The president has order That The secretary resign Next month.
issued an

Main clause That clause

Advisable-adjective With subjunctive

It is advisable that She Rest For a week.

It was Essential That The army Advance Rapidly

After the landing, Vital that Every Not use A radio

it will be soldier

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 Main clause That clause

Anxious-adjective With subjunctive

Tara is anxious that you return Soon.

They are keen That He not be Hurt.

We were determine that it remain Secret.

d

Notice above:

 The position of not when creating negation

 That the main clause can be any tense

Look at some more examples, which include that clauses in negative and continuous form:

 The judges order that he stay the execution.

 We have made a request that we not be disturbed.
 It is important that a car be waiting when we arrive.
 The manager was eager that his visitor see the new building.
 The board of directors recommended that he not be dismissed.
 Have you seen my suggestion that work hours be reduced?

Be after if

we sometimes use subjunctive be after if/whether, though this is rather formal, especially in british
English

If that be (not) The case I intend to the report the

matter.
Whether he be Prepared or not

Fixed expressions

Note the following fixed expressions with the subjunctive:

 Bless you!
 God bless America!
 God save the Queen.
 Long live the President!

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  Heaven forbid!
 Heaven help us!

Were-subjunctive

Form of were-subjunctive

Were-subjunctive
Note
Be That the subjunctive does not change according to person (I,
you, he, etc).
I were

You were

He, she, it were

We were

You were

They were

Use of were-subjunctive

In the following examples, you can see that we sometimes use the were-subjunctive (instead of was)
after:

 If
 As if
 Wish
 Suppose

Formal with were Informal with was

I would go if I were younger I would go if I was younger

If he were not so mean, he would buy one. If he wasn’t so mean, he would buy one.

I’d tell her if I were you. We don’t normally say “if I was you” even in
colloquial language.

It’s not as if I were ugly. It’s not as if I was ugly.

She acts as if she were the Queen. She acts as if she was the Queen.

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 I wish I weren’t so slow! I wish I wasn’t so slow!

I wish the computer were working. I wish the computer was working.

Suppose she were here. What would you say? Suppose she was here. What would you say?

Exercises:

1. I wish that I … a doctor now.

a. am
b. was
c were
d. are

2. Diana acts as if she … a ghost.

a. see
b. had seen
c saw
d. would have

3. Jessy shops many expensive bags as though she … a lot of money now.

a. has
b. had
c. had had
d. have

4. Riana sings a song as though she … a singer.

a. is
b. was
c. were
d. would be

5. If only he … A year ago, he would pass the exam.

a. studies
b. studied
c. had studied
d. would study

6. Dina looked so shoked as though she … a gangster just now.

a. see
b. sees

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c. had seen
d. would see

7. If only I … in the USA since a year ago. I would have spoken English fluently.

a. am
b. was
c. had been
d. would be

8. I wish it … rain yesterday, but.

a. was
b. would rain
c. didn’t
d. were

9. I really love her, I wish I … her tonight.

a. can meet
b. could meet
c. had met
d. meet

10. She looks so happy as if she … the prize later.

a. got
b. had gotten
c. would get
d. gets

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 CHAPTER 9
Tenses
Simple Present Tense
Pola kalimat : Subject + Infinitive (Verb1) + Object
Untuk menyatakan :
1. Kebiasaan sehari-hari :
o I have breakfast at 7.00.
o I get up early in the morning.
2. Pekerjaan yang sering dilakukan :
o I always visit my grandmother.
o He often comes late.
3. Kebenaran umum :
o The earth goes round the sun.
o The river Amazon flows into the Pasific Ocean.
4. Suatu pernyataan pada saat sekarang :
o I love him.
o He likes coffee.
o John is a clever boy.

Catatan :
Jika kata kerja dalam bentuk present ini digabungkan dengan subjek orang ketiga tunggal → ditambah
akhiran -s. Ada beberapa aturan dalam mencantumkan akhiran -s ini, yaitu :
1. Untuk kata kerja pada umumnya, ditambahkan -s. Contoh :
o Play >> plays
o Eat >> eats
o Run >> runs
2. Untuk kata kerja yang berakhiran -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -z, dan -o, tambahkan -es. Contoh :
o Catch >> catches
o Miss >> misses
o Fix >> fixes
o Go >> goes
3. Untuk kata kerja yang berakhiran konsonan +y, -y diganti dengan -ies. Contoh :
o Fly >> flies
o Cry >> cries
o Hurry >> hurries

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Beberapa adverb of time yang sering digunakan → every day, every week, today, tonight, this week, dan
lain-lain.
Selain itu adverb of frequency atau kata keterangan yang menerangkan “seberapa sering”, → often,
always, generally, usually, seldom, sometimes, dan lain-lain.

Present Continuous Tense

Pola kalimat : Subject + Be (is/am/are) + [Verb1 + ing] + Object
o John is reading a book.
o I am watching a movie now.
o They are playing football.
Untuk menyatakan suatu kejadian yang sedang berlangsung pada saat sekarang.
Keterangan waktu yang dipakai → now, at present, at this moment, dan lain-lain.
Salah satu ciri bentuk continuous adalah penggunaan akhiran -ing pada kata kerjanya. Ada aturan dalam
penggunaan -ing ini, yaitu :
1. Untuk kata kerja pada umumnya, cukup tambahkan -ing. Contoh :
o Watch >> watching
o Fly >> flying
o Eat >> eating
o Go >> going
2. Untuk kata kerja yang berakhiran -e, maka -e harus dihilangkan sebelum -ing. Contoh :
o Love >> loving
o Save >> saving
o Argue >> arguing
o Rise >> rising
3. Untu kata kerja yang berakhiran -ee, -e tidak perlu dihilangkan. Cukup ditambahkan -ing. Contoh :
o Agree >> agreeing
o See >> seeing
4. Untuk kata kerja yang berakhiran dengan satu huruf vocal dan satu huruf konsonan, maka
konsonannya didobel sebelum ditambahkan -ing. Contoh :
o Sit >> sitting
o Run >> running
o Kidnap >> kidnapping
o Get >> getting

Beberapa kata kerja yang tidak dipakai dalam bentuk present continuous :
1. Verbs of sense atau kata kerja yang berkaitan dengan indra. Contohnya see, hear, smell, notice,
recognize.
2. Verbs of emotion atau kata kerja yang berkaitan dengan emosi. Contohnya desire, refuse, forgive,
wish, care, hate, adore, like, dislike.
3. Verbs of thinking ata kata kerja yang berkaitan dengan pemikiran. Contohnya feel, realize,
understand, know, mean, suppose, believe, expect, remember, recollect, forget, trust, mind.
4. Verbs of possessing ata kata kerja yang berkaitan dengan kepemilikan. Contohnya own, owe, belong,
posses.
5. Kata-kata kerja lainnya, termasuk seem, appear, contain, consist, keep, concern.

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Present Perfect Tense
Pola kalimat : Subject + Have/Has + Verb3 + Object
o My father has just gone home.
o Jerry has never eaten strawberries before.
o We have just finished watching the game.

Untuk menyatakan suatu kejadian yang telah selesai dilakukan dan hasil pekerjaan itu dapat dilihat pada
saat sekarang.
Juga digunakan ketika kita membicarakan sesuatu kejadian yang dimulai dikerjakan pada masa lampau
dan hingga sekarang masih berlangsung.
Kata keterangan yang sering digunakan → for, since, today, recently, lately, already, just now, yet, so far,
dan lain-lain

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

Pola kalimat : Subject + Have/has + Been + [Verb1 + ing] + Object
o I have been working on the paper for three hours.
o Sam has been waiting for you since this morning.
o We have been living in this town since 1997.

Untuk menyatakan suatu kejadian yang dikerjakan di waktu lampau dan sampai sekarang masih
berlangsung.
Kata keterangan yang sering digunakan adalah : since, for.

Simple Past Tense

Pola kalimat : Subject + Verb2 + Object
o They went to the zoo.
o Jimmy ate all the apples on the bowl.
o I saw my uncle at the festival.
Jika kalimatnya tidak menggunakan kata kerja, maka pola kalimatnya adalah :
Subject + Be (was/were) + Complements
o I was here last night.
o Ken was a football player before the accident.
o They were late this morning.

Untuk menyatakan suatu kejadian yang terjadi di masa lampau.

Kata keterangan waktu → last, ago, yesterday, just now, last year, two days ago, dan lain-lain. Selain itu
pada kalimat simple past tense sering digunakan kata used to, untuk menyatakan suatu kebiasaan di
waktu lampau yang sekarang tidak dilakukan lagi.
Contoh : When I was young I used to go school on foot.

Past Continuous Tense

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Pola kalimat : Subject + Be (was/were) + [Verb1 + ing] + Object
Bentuk kalimat ini digunakan untuk menyatakan :
1. Dua kejadian yang terjadi di waktu lampau. Satu kejadian sedang berlangsung sewaktu kejadian yang
lain terjadi.
Contoh :
I was watching TV when he phoned me.
(Saya sedang menonton TV saat ia menelepon.)
2. Dua kejadian yang terjadi secara bersamaan di waktu lampau.
Contoh :
While my father was reading a newspaper, my mother was cooking in the kitchen.
(Saat ayahku sedang membaca koran, ibuku sedang memasak di dapur.)

Past Perfect Tense

Pola kalimat : Subject + Had + Verb3 + Object
Bentuk kalimat ini digunakan untuk menyatakan dua kejadian yang terjadi di waktu lampau, dimana satu
kejadian sudah selesai dikerjakan sewaktu kejadian yang lain terjadi.
o She had just come after he got there.
(Dia [perempuan] baru saja tiba setelah si laki-laki datang ke sana.)
o I had finished my work when the letter came.
(Aku telah menyelesaikan tugasku saat suratnya datang.)
Kata keterangan yang biasa dipakai → before, after, as soon as, just, already.

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Pola kalimat : Subject + Had + Been + [Verb1 + ing] + Object
Untuk menyatakan berapa lama suatu kejadian berlangsung sebelum kejadian lainnya terjadi.
o They had been playing foot ball for two hours when there was a terrible storm.
o I had been living in Bandung for three years when the war broke out.

Bandingkan :
o How long have you been waiting?
(Berapa lama kamu menunggu?)
o How long had you been waiting when the bus finally came?
(Berapa lama kamu menunggu sampai akhirnya bis datang?)

Simple Future Tense

Pola kalimat : Subject + Shall/Will + Verb1 + Object
Digunakan jika kita membicarakan suatu kejadian yang akan terjadi. Keterangan waktu → tomorrow,
next week, next year, soon, dan lain-lain.
o He will be here tonight.
o We shall (or we will) probably go to Los angeles in June.
Catatan : to be going to = akan
Bandingkan :

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o Do you think Tom will get the job?
o We are going to be late.
Kesimpulannya adalah, pemakaian will bisa jadi hanya sekadar perkiraan tetapi to be going to sudah
pasti akan dilaksanakan.

Future Continuous Tense

Pola kalimat : Subject + Shall/Will + Be + [Verb1 + ing] + Object
Untuk menyatakan suatu rencana yang sudah pasti akan dilaksanakan.
Don’t come to my house at 3 o’clock in the afternoon, because I’ll be playing tennis.
(Jangan datang ke rumahku jam 3 sore, karena saya akan sedang bermain tennis.)

Future Perfect Tense

Pola kalimat : Subject + Shall/Will + Have + Verb3 + Object
Untuk menyatakan suatu rencana yang sudah pasti selesai dikerjakan pada waktu tertentu di masa yang
akan datang.
X : May I borrow your book tomorrow?
Y : Sure. I’m sure I will have finished reading it by then
Contoh lainnya :
o I will have bought a new car, when you come here again next week.
o By the time I come back from London, I hope Tina will have grown up.

Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Pola kalimat : Subject + Shall/Will + Be + [Verb1 + ing] + Object
Digunakan jika membicarakan berapa lama suatu kejadian berlangsung sampai dengan waktu yang telah
ditentukan di waktu yang akan datang.
o Betty will have been playing tennis for 7 hours by the end of this day.
o The Brows will have been living in this new house for 18 months next September.

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Exercises:

1. Sari ______ to school with her friends at 06.30 a.m. tomorrow.

A. walks
B. is going to walk
C. will be walking
D. will have walked

2. ______ discussed before the director proposed it.

A. The economic crisis had been
B. The economic crisis being
C. The economic crisis has already been
D. The economic crisis is already

3. She ______ at me when she saw me at the airport.

A. waves
B. waved
C. is waving
D. has waved

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4. Berta : “Can I have your report soon?”
Jono : “Sure, I ______ it before you go to the meeting.
A. will finished
B. will have finished
C. am going to finish
D. am finishing

5. “When do you plan to get married?”

“After ______ school”.
A. I finish
B. I finished
C. I am finishing
D. I have been finished

6. Mother ______ the food by the time the children come home.
A. cooked
B. will cook
C. has cooked
D. will have cooked

7. The children are watching TV now because they ______ their homework.
A. are doing
B. had done
C. have done
D. were doing

8. I ______ the street when it began to rain.

A. am walking down
B. have walked down
C. have been walking down

9. The team ______ along the river-bank when they, accidentally, found a big cave.
A. were walking
B. are walking
C. will walk
D. walked

10. Dian and Harris hardly ever join our class discussion, ______?
A. did they
B. didn’t they
C. don’t they
D. do they

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 CHAPTER 10
Passive Voice
Passive Voice atau Kalimat pasif adalah kalimat yang objek dari kalimat aktifnya menjadi subjek pada
kalimat pasif.
Pola kalimatnya : Subject + to be + past participle
1. Simple Present :
Aktif : He drinks a cup of coffee.
Pasif : A cup of coffee is drunk (by him).
2. Simple Past :
Aktif : He drank a cup off coffee.
Pasif : A cup of coffee was drunk (by him).
3. Simple Future :
Aktif : I will visit my grandmother.
Pasif : My grandmother will be visited (by me).
4. Present Continuous :
Aktif : I am writing a letter.
Pasif : A letter is being written (by me).
5. Present Perfect :
Aktif : I have done my homework.
Pasif : My homework has been done (by me).
6. Present Perfect Continuous :
Aktif : I have been studying English.
Pasif : English has been being studied (by me).
7. Modals : Subject + modals + be + V3
Aktif : I can finish my work on time.
Pasif : My work can be finished on time (by me).
Contoh kalimat pasif dalam pola negatif :
1. He doesn’t clean his rooms. [aktif]
His rooms are not cleaned (by him). [pasif]
2. I haven’t done my work. [by him]. [aktif]
My work has not been done by me. [pasif]
Contoh kalimat pasif dalam pola interogatif :
1. Doesn’t she buy some foods? [aktif]
Aren’t some foods bought by her? [pasif]
2. Did he sell his car? [aktif]
Was his car sold by him? [pasif]
Bila kalimat aktif terdiri dari induk kalimat dan anak kalimat, yang dipasifkan bisa pada induk kalimatnya,
bisa juga pada anak kalimatnya.
Contoh :
1. He says that Andi is a clever student [aktif]
2. It is said that Andi is a clever student [pasif]
3. Andi is said to be a clever student [pasif]

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Exercises:
1. ‘’The boys have been told the good news.” It means ______.
A. The good news was told to the boys.
B. Somebody has told the boys the good news.
C. The good news has been told by the boys.
D. The boys have told the good news.

2. The meeting was supposed to be held yesterday, but it has been ______ to next Thursday.
A. taken off
B. worn off
C. put off
D. called off

3. The proposal ______ discussed when I called the office this morning.
A. was being
B. been
C. being
D. have been

4. Black, red, and even bright pink diamonds _____

A. Occasionally to find

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 B. Occasionally found
C. Have occasionally been found
D. Have occasionally found

5. Many books _____, but one of the best is “How to Win Friends and Influence People” by Dale
Carniegie.
A. Have written about success
B. Written about success
C. Have been written about success
D. About successful

6. _____ were first viewed through telescope by Galileo.

A. Jupiter has four moons
B. Jupiter’s four moons
C. Jupiter surrounded by four moons
D. Surrounded by four moons, Jupiter

7. In November of 1863, the city of Atlanta _____ during Sherman’s famous “March to the Sea”.
A. Was completely burned
B. Completely was burned
C. It was burned completely
D. Completely burned it

8. The Supreme Court does not hear a case unless _____, except those involving foreign ambassadors.
A. A trial
B. Already tried
C. It already trying
D. It has already been tried

9. _____ occasions for congratulations.

A. Birthdays that usually considered
B. Usually considering birthdays
C. Birthdays are usually considered
D. That considered birthdays usually

10. Electron storage rings………..;in investigations of the structure of materials.

A. They are used
B. That are used
C. Used
D. Are used

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 CHAPTER 11
Subject Verb-agreement
Subject-verb agreement, also called “subject-verb concord” refers to matching the subject and verb of a
sentence in tense, aspect, and mood (abbreviated as TAM), which translates to number, person, and
gender.

English doesn’t use grammatical gender (expect for pronouns), and only the verb be changes based on
whether it’s first, second, or third person. That means most English subject-verb agreement is about
quantity : I the subject is singular, the verb must be singular, I the subject is plural, the verb must be
plural.

Even this can get confusing, though, because talking in the first-person singular (“ I climb the fence”)
uses the same verb format as talking in the first-person plural (“we climb the fence”). Aside from the
verb be, subject-verb agreement in English adapts verb to the third-person singular (“it climbs the
fence”)

Here’s a quick reminder of how to conjugate be in the singular and plural of each person:

singular Plural
First person (I) am (We) are
Second person (you) are (You) are
Third person (he/she/it) is (they) are

Exercises:

Underline the subject (or compound subject) and then identify the verb that agrees with it.

Everyone in the telecom focus group (has/have) experienced problems with cell phones.

1. Your friendship over the years and your support (has/have) meant a great deal to us.
2. Hamilton Family Center, a shelter for teenage runaways in San Francisco, (offers/offer) a wide
variety of services.
3. The main source of income for Trinidad (is/are) oil and pitch.
4. The chances of your being promoted (is/are) excellent.
5. There (was/were) a Pokémon card stuck to the refrigerator.
6. Neither the professor nor his assistants (was/were) able to solve the mystery of the eerie glow
in the laboratory.
7. Many hours at the driving range (has/have) led us to design golf balls with GPS locators in them.
8. Discovered in the soil of our city garden (was/were) a button dating from the Civil War dating
from the turn of the century.
9. Every year, during the midsummer festival, the smoke of village bonfires (fills/fill) the sky.
10. The story performers (was/were) surrounded by children and adults eager to see magical tales.

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 CHAPTER 12
Gerund and Infinitive
1. Gerund
Gerund is a verb as the subject/object/predicate/noun modifier of a clause and after a
preposition. There are many verb that must follow by gerund.

Acknowledge Admit Advise Anticipate Avoid Begin Celebrate

Discus
Celebrate Consider Continue Deny Dislike Endure
s
Enjoy Finish Forget Give Up Hate Help Practice
Prefer Recommended Regret Remember Start Stop Teach
Understand
Must followed by agent
Verb + agent + gerund

 Hear
 Watch
 See

Examples:

1) My friend hate working with him.

2) I just finished reading a book about flowers.
3) We heard him singing the song.
4) I saw the man walking on the sidewalk last night.
2. Infinitive
Infinitive is a verb that must be add to + verb as a subject/complement and after an adjective.

Afford Agree Appear Beg Choose Decide Expect

Fail Help * Hesitate Hope Learn Manage Mean
Offer Plan Prepare Pretend Promise Refuse Want
Would Would
Wish Would Like
Love Prefer
Examples:

1) I have something to do.

2) Do you need a man to help you?
3) John is happy to help Mary.
4) He came to see that he was wrong.
5) I don’t know how to thank you.

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Exercises:
1. Since Marlo is a presenter, he is used to ______ in front of the spectators.
A. speak
B. speaks
C. speaking
D. spoke

2. The environmental group hopes ______ the forest to its original condition by the end of the decade.
A. to restore
B. having restored
C. to be restored
D. to have been restored

3. ______ a new language can be very interesting.

A. Learn
B. Learned
C. Learning
D. To learning

4. At New Year’s Eve ______ continued until early in the morning.

A. to sing and to dance
B. they sing and dance
C. singing and dancing
D. song and dance

5. After attending the wedding party, Dona continued ______ the meal and having dinner with her
family.
A. heating
B. to heat
C. heat
D. heats

6. The new employees are furious ______ the news about their delaying salary.
A. receiving
B. received
C. to receive
D. receive

7. While ______ to buy the concert ticket, the man with the beard stole the young lady’s purse.
A. he queuing
B. he queues
C. queuing

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 D. queued

8. We decided to stay home because Sita wasn’t very keen on ______ out in the rain.
A. go
B. goes
C. went
D. going

9. Response: I used to, but I resigned my membership.

The sentence that could generate the response indicated:
A. Won’t you belong to the English club?
B. Wouldn’t you have belonged to the English club?
C. Didn’t you use to belong to the English Club?
D. Wouldn’t you belong to the English club?

10. Henry Ford revolutionized production management by _____ into small steps on a moving line.
A. breaking down auto assembly
B. broken down auto assembly
C. he broke down auto assembly
D. auto assembly breaking down

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 CHAPTER 13
Adjective Clause & Adjective Phrase
Adjective clauses are dependent clauses that give information about nouns. They allow you to combine
two sentences into one by using relative pronouns (who, whom, whose, where, when, which, that, and
why) as connectors.

WHO (used for people as subjects) My friend missed the lecture. + She borrowed Sam’s notes to review.
→ My friend who missed the lecture borrowed Sam’s notes to review.

WHOM (used for people as objects) The candidate won by a landslide. + Many people admire him. →
The candidate whom many people admire won by a landslide.

WHOSE (used to indicate possession) I admire Professor Brooks. + His books were stolen. → I admire
Professor Brooks, whose books were stolen.

THAT (use for people, place, and things introduces information necessary to explain a noun) I met a
man on the bus today. + He works at the World Bank. → The man that I met on the bus today
works at the World Bank.

WHICH (used for places, things introduces extra information about an already specific noun) My new
car needs very little gas. + It was a gift from my son. → My new car, which was a gift from my son,
needs very little gas. NOTE: When an adjective clause provides extra information, it is set off by
commas.

WHEN and WHERE (used to replace in which, on which, etc. not which) July 25 was sad for me. + I left
home on that day. → July 25, when I left home, was sad for me. I have always wanted to visit the
big house. + Julio lives in that house. → I have always wanted to visit the big house where Julio
lives.

WHY (usually introduces a noun clause) My cousin ran away. + I don’t know why. → I don’t know why
my cousin ran away.

Exercises:

Combine the following sentences into one using an adjective clause.

1. Students do well on tests if they are prepared beforehand. Some students are anxious.

2. A research paper on environmental problems received an award. I wrote the paper.

3. My driveway is in front of my house. I park four cars there.

4. The Industrial Revolution changed the way people make things. It began in England.

5. Recently, a large airplane had a serious accident. It was carrying too many passengers.

6. British Petroleum received criticism because of the oil spill in the Gulf. It is known as BP.

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7. The dress was long, black, and beautiful. Mary wore it.

8. On my vacation, I met a boy. My father disliked him.

9. Jacob is a student in my biology class. His father is the ambassador from Kenya. The class meets twice
a week.

Complete the following sentences with an adjective clause.

1. I’ll never forget the time when ______________________________________________

2. I gave up my seat on the bus to a woman whose ________________________________

3. The person whom __________________________________________ suddenly fainted.

4. Everyone criticized my opinion, which _______________________________________

5. Often, people who ____________________________________ end up being successful.

6. Many people find Maryland, where ___________________________________, exciting

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 CHAPTER 14
Noun clause
Noun clauses include a subject and a verb but function as nouns. (adjective clauses and adverb clauses
function as adjectives and adverbs, respectively). Noun clauses are dependent clauses and cannot
function alone as a complete sentence. To work properly in English grammar, noun clauses must be part
of a larger sentence to form a complete thought. For example, in the sentence “ she liked that he was
always on time”, the noun clause “that he always on time” cannot stand alone.

We can replace a noun clause with a noun or a pronoun. Consider this sentence: “ did you hear what the
announcer said?” we can replace the noun phrase “what the announcer said” with “it” or “that”- as in, “
did you hear that?” noun clauses often include one of the “wh-“ words, such as “who”, “what, “when”,
“where”, and “why” and the related words “whatever”, “whenever”, and “whomever”. Other question
words such as “if”, ”how”, and “that” are also common in noun clauses.

4 types of noun clauses

Noun clauses are highly versatile. They can function as subject, objects of prepositions, direct objects,
indirect objects, and predicate nouns.

1. “I want to know what all the fuss is about”.“ what all the fuse is about”, is the noun clauses
and functions in the sentence as the direct object of verb “know”. The subject is the pronoun
“I”.
2. “she will listen to whatever you recommend”. In this sentence, “whatever you recommend” is
the noun clause and functions as a direct object.
3. “I hope we are going to wherever the source of the river is” in this sentence, “wherever the
source of the river is” is a noun clause that functions as the object of preposition “to”.
4. “the parachutist’s only flaw was that she balked when given the signal to jump”. The noun
clause “that she balked when given the signal to jump” functions in this sentence as a subject
complement.

Exercises:

Identifying Noun Clauses.

Underline the noun clause in each sentence.

Example: I know what the answer is.

1. Do you know who is the governor of Ohio?

2. Susan thinks that she will get the job at Martin's Store.
3. Whoever phoned us didn't let the phone ring long enough.
4. Andy promised that he'd be on time for the party.
5. Whether or not she should go camping worried Jane.
6. Mr. Sims mentioned that he'd be late for the meeting.

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7. Whoever sent us this letter should have signed his or her name.
8. Who your ancestors were makes no difference to me.
9. Mr. Barnes swore that he would tell the truth.
10. That anyone else could be doing the same experiments never occurred to him

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 CHAPTER 15
Adverb clause
An adverb clause is a dependent clause that describe a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. An adverb
clause tells when, where, how, why, to what extent, or under what conditions something happened.

We will not have school today because it snowed last night.

Until it stops raining, we will stay inside.
When your father gets here, we will go.

An adverb clause begins with a subordinating conjunction.

Some common (but not all) subordinating conjunction
After Even though That
Although How Though
As If Unless
As if In order that Until
As far as Once When
As long as Provided (that) Whenever
As soon as Rather than Where
As though Since Wherever
Because So long as Whether
Before So (that) While
Even if Than Why

We will not have school today because it snowed last night.

Until it stops raining, we will stay inside.
When your father gets here, we will go.

 Commas with adverb clauses

When an adverb clause is at the beginning of the sentence, it is an introductory clause and needs a
comma separating it rom the independent clause. If the adverb clause comes after the independent
clause, the conjunction is enough to hold the two clauses together.
We will not have school today because it snowed last night.
Because it snowed last night, we will not have school today.
 Locating adverb clauses
Adverb clauses modifying verbs can move around the sentence.
I missed the bus because my alarm didn’t go off. Because my alarm didn’t go off, I missed the
bus. (the dependent clause because my alarm didn’t go off modifies the verb missed. The
dependent clause is adverbial because it tells why you missed the bus).
Whenever it rains, my little sister loves to jump in the puddles. My little sister loves to jump in
the puddles whenever it rains. (the dependent clause whenever it rains modifies the verb
loves. The dependent clause is adverbial because it tells when your little sister jumps in the
puddles).

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 Adverb clauses modifying adjectives or adverbs must come after the word modified.

Playing football is dangerous if you don’t have the right equipment.

We walked to class quickly as if we were going to be late.
 Elliptical adverb clauses have missing words that are understood.
When finished this building we be the tallest in the city.
When [it is] finished this building will be the tallest in the city.
Exercises:
Identify and underline the subordinate conjunctions. Remember: The subordinate conjunctions can be
at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence.
1. While the cat's away, the mice will play.
2. A lie travels around the world while truth is putting her boots on.
3. Where there is love, I will be there.
4. Memory is deceptive because it is colored by today's events.
5. Never look down on anybody unless you're helping him up.
6. You have to kiss a lot of toads before you find a handsome prince.
7. Whenever you find yourself on the side of the majority, it is time to pause and reflect.
8. Life happens when you are making other plans.
9. As soon as you forbid something, you make it extraordinarily appealing.
10. Everything is funny as long as it's happening to somebody else.

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 CHAPTER 16
Parallel structure
Parallel structure adds both clout and clarity to your writing. When you use parallel structure, you
increase the readability of your writing by creating word patterns readers can follow easily.

Parallel structure (also called parallelism) is the repetition of a chosen grammatical form within a
sentence. By making each compared item or idea in your sentence follow the same grammatical pattern,
you create a parallel construction.

Example:
Not Parallel:
Ellen likes hiking, the rodeo, and to take afternoon naps.
Parallel:
Ellen likes hiking, attending the rodeo, and taking afternoon naps.
OR
Ellen likes to hike, attend the rodeo, and take afternoon naps.
Using parallel structure
 With coordinating conjunctions
When you connect two or more clauses or phrases with a coordinating conjunction (for, and,
nor, but, or, yet, or so), use parallel structure.
Example:
Not Parallel:
My best friend took me dancing and to a show.
Parallel:
My best friend took me to a dance and a show.
 With correlative conjunctions
When you connect two clauses or phrases with a correlative conjunction (not only…but also,
either…or, neither…nor, if…then, etc.), use parallel structure.
Example:
Not Parallel:
My dog not only likes to play fetch, but also chase cars.
Parallel:
My dog not only likes to play fetch, but he also likes to chase cars.
OR
My dog likes not only to play fetch, but also to chase cars.
 With phrases or clauses of comparison
When you connect two clauses or phrases with a word of comparison, such as than or as, use
parallel structure.
Example:
Not Parallel:
I would rather pay for my education than financial aid.

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 Parallel:
I would rather pay for my education than receive financial aid.
 With lists
When you are comparing items in a list, use parallel structure.
Example:
Not Parallel:
John Taylor Gatto criticizes public schools because they are compulsory, funded by the
government, and destroy students' humanity.
Parallel:
John Taylor Gatto criticizes public schools because they are compulsory, government
funded, and normalizing.
OR
John Taylor Gatto criticizes public schools because they require students to attend,
receive money from the government, and destroy students' humanity.
Exercises:
Read the following example sentences and revise any that do not use parallel structure. Remember that
there are many ways to revise a sentence to reflect parallel structure; if possible, rewrite each incorrect
sentence in more than one way.
Some helpful hints on how to revise sentences for parallel structure:
1. Figure out what parts of the sentence are being compared.
2. Decide whether they are parallel, i.e. arranged or constructed in the same way.
3. If they are not, make them parallel by making the grammatical construction the same in each part.

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 CHAPTER 17
Conditional Sentence
The modal will, would, can, and could often appear in conditional sentence. Usually conditional sentence
contain the word if. There are two types of conditionals: the real (factual and habitual) and the unreal
(contrary to fact or hypothetical). The real, or “future possible” as it is sometimes called, is used when
the speaker expresses an action or situation which usually occurs, or will occur if the circumstances in
the main clause are met.

Conditional sentence type

 Type 0
Conditional Sentence Type 0 or Zero conditional is a Conditional Sentence that is used to make a
conditional sentence that always occurs.
If + simple present, simple present
Example: if you mix yellow and blue, you get green.
 Type 1
Conditional sentence type 1, or future conditional to express that something can probably
happen in the future.
If + simple present, simple future
Example : if I have much money, I will buy your house.
 Type 2
Conditional sentence Type 2 or present conditional is a conditional that cannot happen now.

Note: all subject used were as a tobe.

If + simple past, simple past future

Example: if we didn’t study, we could go out tonight.
 Type 3
Conditional Type 3 refers to conditions that were impossible in the past and possible outcomes
in the past. These sentences are completely unrealistic suppositions because it is too late to do
so now and the results are no longer possible.
If + past perfect, past future perfect
Example: if we had known that you were there, we would have written you a letter.

Exercises:

Choose the correct answer.

1. If the students _____ late to submit the scholarship application to the board, they will not be listed as
candidates.
A. be

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 B. are
C. were
D. have

2. If your brother ______ here, he ______ us with this works.

A. is - would help
B. was - will help
C. were - will help
D. were - would help

3. Aldo : Did you attend the meeting last Monday?

Fery : I would if I had been invited.
The underlined utterance means ______.
A. Fery didn’t attend the meeting
B. Fery plans to attend the meeting
C. Fery knew about the meeting and he attended the meeting
D. Fery was not invited to the meeting but he came

4. You _____ the job if you were not late to the interview.
A. would get
B. would be gotten
C. would have gotten
D. would have been gotten

5. We would get the tickets, ______

A. Weren’t there so much rush at the cinema
B. Because there were so much rush at the cinema
C. There were not so much rush at the cinema
D. Although there were so much rush at the cinema

6. Fortunately you assisted to push the car. If you hadn’t helped him, he ______ with you.
A. will get angry
B. would have gotten angry
C. should angry
D. would get angry

7. If Rani were not busy at the moment, she would go out with me, said Maria.
From Maria’s utterance we know that Rani ______ with her.
A. goes
B. went
C. didn’t go
D. doesn’t go

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8. ______ her shyness, she would have become a great teacher.
A. She had overcome
B. If had she overcome
C. If she overcame
D. If she would overcome
9. If we don’t hurry, the meeting ______ by the time we get there.
A. would have started
B. will have started
C. will be started
D. will start

10. If I had a lot of time, I would study German.

From this sentence we know that _____.
A. I have a lot of time, so I study German
B. I studied German because I had a lot of time
C. I want to study German because I have a lot of time
D. I would like to study German, but I don’t have much time

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 CHAPTER 18
Comparison
Comparations indicate degrees of difference with adjectives and adverbs, and may be equal or unequal.

1. Equal comparison
An equal comparation indicates that the two entities are (or are not, if negative) exactly the
same. The following rule generally applies to this type of comparation.

Subject + verb + as + adj/adv + as + noun/pronoun

Examples:
- My book is as interesting as yours.
- John sings as well as his sister.
- They are as lucky as we.

The same idea can also be conveyed in another way.

Subject + verb + the same + noun + as + noun/pronoun

Example:
- My house is the same height as his.
2. Unequal comparison
This type of comparative implies that the entities are comparable in a greater or lesser degree.
The following rules generally apply to this type of comparative.

1. Add -er to the adjective base of most one- and two-syllable

adjectives. (thick-thicker, cold-colder, quiet- quieter).
2. Use the form more + adjective for most three-syllable adjectives.
(more beautiful, more important, more believable).
3. Use the form more + adjective for adjectives ending in the following
shuffle: -ed, -fid, -ing, -ish, and -ous. (more hated, more useful, more
boring).
4. Double the final consonant of one-syllable adjectives which end a
single consonant (except w,x, and z) and are preceded by a single
vowel. (big-bigger, red-redder, hot-hotter)
5. When an adjective ends in a consonant + y, change they to I and add
er. (happy-happier, dry-drier)

Subject + verb + unequal comparation + than + noun/pronoun

Examples :

- Today is hotter than yesterday.

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 - John’s grades are higher than his sister’s.
- He speaks Spanish more fluently than I.
3. Illogical comparison
An illogical comparison is one in which unlike entities have been compared. Be sure that the
items being compared are the same. These forms can be divided into three categories:
possessive, that of, and those of.
Examples:
- John’s car runs better than Marry’s.
(Marry’s = Marry’s car )
- Classes in the university are more difficult then those in the college.
(those in = the classes in)
- My sewing machine is better than Jane’s.
(Jane’s = Jane’s sewing machine)
4. Irregular comparatives dan superlatives
A few adjectives and adverbs have irregular forms for the comparative and superlative.

Adjective/adverb Comparative Superlative

Farther Farthest
far
Further Furthest
little Less Least
Much
more most
Many
Good
Better Best
Well
Bad
worse
Badly Worst
Examples:
- I fell much better today than I did last week.
- He has less time now than he had before.
- This magazine is better than that one.

Exercises 1:

Supply the correct form of the adjectives and adverbs in parentheses. Let as and than be your clues. Add
any other words that may be necessary.

1. John and his friends left ……………..(soon) as the professor had finished his lecture.
2. His job is …………..(important) than his friend’s.
3. He plays the guitar…………..(well) as Andreas Segovia.
4. A new house is much…………..(expensive) than a older one.
5. Bill’s descriptions are……………..(colorful) than his wife’s.

Exercises 2:

Supply than, as, and from in each of the following sentence.

1. The Empire State Building is taller ……………. The statue of Liberty.

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 2. California is farther from New York ……………. Pennsylvania.
3. Sam wears the same shirt…………….. his teammates.
4. No animal is so big ……………… King Kong.
5. Dave paints much more realistically………………. His professor.

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