Basic
Basic
Basic
DAY 1
Pronunciation: /i:/ and /І/
Grammar:
Types Of Word
Nouns
Pronouns
A. Pronunciation
/i:/ sound
-Mouth wide
-Tongue forward and higher
-Make a long sound
Long E Sound:
-Lips relaxed
-Tongue in central area of mouth
-Make a short sound
Practice:
bin bean did deed
chip cheap fill feel
his he’s fit feet
it eat grin green
sit seat hit heat
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B. Grammar
I. Word Classes
1. NOUN
A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.
man... Butte College... house... happiness
A noun is a word for a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns are often used with an article
(the, a, an), but not always. Proper nouns always start with a capital letter; common nouns do
not. Nouns can be singular or plural, concrete or abstract. Nouns show possession by
adding 's. Nouns can function in different roles within a sentence; for example, a noun can be a
subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, or object of a preposition.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
2. PRONOUN
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.
She... we... they... it
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun. A pronoun is usually substituted for a specific
noun, which is called its antecedent. In the sentence above, the antecedent for the pronoun she is the
girl. Pronouns are further defined by type: personal pronouns refer to specific persons or things;
possessive pronouns indicate ownership; reflexive pronouns are used to emphasize another noun or
pronoun; relative pronouns introduce a subordinate clause; and demonstrative pronouns identify,
point to, or refer to nouns.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
3. VERB
A verb expresses action or being.
jump... is... write... become
The verb in a sentence expresses action or being. There is a main verb and sometimes one or
more helping verbs. ("She can sing." Sing is the main verb; can is the helping verb.) A verb must
agree with its subject in number (both are singular or both are plural). Verbs also take different forms
to express tense.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
4. ADJECTIVE
An adjective modifies or describes a noun or pronoun.
pretty... old... blue... smart
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An adjective is a word used to modify or describe a noun or a pronoun. It usually answers the
question of which one, what kind, or how many. (Articles [a, an, the] are usually classified as
adjectives.)
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
5. ADVERB
An adverb modifies or describes a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
gently... extremely... carefully... well
An adverb describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, but never a noun. It
usually answers the questions of when, where, how, why, under what conditions, or to what
degree. Adverbs often end in -ly.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
6. PREPOSITION
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying
another word in the sentence.
by... with.... about... until
(by the tree, with our friends, about the book, until tomorrow)
A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying another
word in the sentence. Therefore a preposition is always part of a prepositional phrase. The
prepositional phrase almost always functions as an adjective or as an adverb. The following list
includes the most common prepositions:
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly disappeared.
Oh my!
7. CONJUNCTION
A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses.
and... but... or... while... because
A conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses, and indicates the relationship between the
elements joined. Coordinating conjunctions connect grammatically equal elements: and, but, or, nor,
for, so, yet. Subordinating conjunctions connect clauses that are not equal: because, although, while,
since, etc. There are other types of conjunctions as well.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!
8. INTERJECTION
An interjection is a word used to express emotion.Oh!... Wow!... Oops!
An interjection is a word used to express emotion. It is often followed by an exclamation point.
The young girl brought me a very long letter from the teacher, and then she quickly
disappeared. Oh my!
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II. Nouns
A noun is a word that names something, such as a person, place, thing, or idea. In a sentence,
nouns can play the role of subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, object
complement, appositive, or adjective.
1. Classification
a. Countable nouns
Countable nouns are nouns which can be counted, even if the number might be extraordinarily high
(like counting all the people in the world). Countable nouns can be used with a/an, the, some, any, a
Here is a cat.
Uncountable nouns are nouns that come in a state or quantity which is impossible to count; liquids
are uncountable, as are things that act like liquids (sand, air). They are always considered to be
singular, and can be used with some, any, a little, and much.
uncountable noun.
2. The functions
Noun as subject of verb
The subject (in bold) can be a person, place, thing or idea. It performs an act or shows a state of
being as expressed by the verb. The subject is easily recognized as it usually comes at the beginning
of a sentence and is followed by a verb.
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Examples:
o The man stepped on my toes.
Examples:
Examples:
Examples:
Examples:
o Winning the lottery jackpot was his biggest dream.
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Examples:
A noun must be in the singular form when used as an adjective as shown above. There are, however,
some exceptions: sports club, a goods train, a sales conference.
Nouns acting as adjectives are combined with the nouns that they modify to form a single word.
3. Changing Number
As Rule 1:
Example:
Singular Plural
Pencil Pencils
Cow Cows
House Houses
Dog Dogs
Mobile Mobiles
Rule 2:
If there exist s, sh, ch, x and z in the end, “es” gets to be used.
Examples:
Singular Plural
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Bus Buses
Dish Dishes
Branch Branches
Fox Foxes
Fez Fezes
Rule 3:
Monarch Monarchs
Patriarch Patriarchs
Matriarch Matriarchs
Stomach Stomachs
Hierarch Hierarchs
Part 1: when there’s a “y” in the end and a Consonant before that “y”, “i” substitutes it and an
“es” thereafter.
Example:
Singular Plural
Story Stories
Hobby Hobbies
Army Armies
Fly Flies
Baby Babies
Part 2: but if there’s a vowel ahead of that “y”, no need to change it, only “s” to add.
Example
Singular Plural
Donkey Donkeys
Toy Toys
Day Days
Joy Joys
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Play Plays
Rule 4:
“v” replaces f or fe and then adds an “es” to finish it.
Example:
Singular Plural
thief Thieves
Wife Wives
Knife Knives
Wolf Wolves
Leaf Leaves
Part 1: “es” to be added if the noun is finished by “o” and a consonant places ahead.
Example:
singular Plural
Hero Heroes
Mango Mangoes
Zero Zeroes
Potato Potatoes
Echo Echoes
Part 2: but when there’s a vowel before that “o”, only “s” is enough.
Example
Singular Plural
Cuckoo Cuckoos
Bamboo Bamboos
Studio Studios
Portfolio Portfolios
Cameo Cameos
Exception 1: though there’s an “o” and a consonant ahead of it, some nouns use only “s”.
Example:
Singular Plural
Photo Photos
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Piano Pianos
Radio Radios
Canto Cantos
Memo Memos
Exception 2: for some, “s” and “es” both are correct.
Singular Plural
Mosquito Mosquitos/mosquitoes
Commando Commandos/commandoes
Portico Porticos/porticoes
Calico Calicos/calicoes
Memento Mementos/mementoes
Rule 5:
Example:
Singular Plural
Man Men
Woman Women
Foot Feet
Mouse Mice
Tooth Teeth
Rule 6:
Some require en, ren and ne to add at last.
Example:
Singular plural
Ox Oxen
Child Children
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Fisherman Fishermen
Workman Workmen
Boatman Boatmen
Man-of-war Men-of-war
Salesman salesmen
Part 2: but when “man” is just a part of the word, or it refers to any ethnic group, race or civilian,
there comes “s”.
Singular Plural
Mussalman Mussalmans
Brahman Brahmans
German Germans
Norman Normans
Rule 7:
Example:
singular plural
Handful Handfuls
Mouthful mouthfuls
Spoonful Spoonfuls
armful Armfuls
cupful cupfuls
Part 1: If compound noun contains several words, “s” comes to join with the main part of that
noun.
Example:
Singular Plural
Brother-in-law Brothers-in-law
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Passers-by Passers-by
Step-brother Step-brothers
Commander-in-chief Commanders-in-chief
Maid-servant Maid-servants
Part 2: in some cases,“s”comes in every part to make it so.
Example:
Singular Plural
Lord-justice Lords-justices
Man-servant Men-servants
Woman-servant Women-servants
Rule 8:
Besides, adding “s” only in the end gets it done for few.
Example:
Singular Plural
Book-shelf Book-shelves
Book-case Book-cases
Major-general Major-generals
Poet-laurete Poet-lauretes
Forget-me-not Forget-me-nots
Rule 9:
Example:
Furniture
Scenery
Issue
Bread
expenditure
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III. Pronouns
Pronouns are small words that take the place of a noun. We can use a pronoun instead of a noun.
Pronouns are words like: he, you, ours, themselves, some, each... If we didn't have pronouns,
we would have to repeat a lot of nouns. We would have to say things like:
Do you like the manager? I don't like the manager. The manager's not friendly.
Do you like the manager? I don't like him. He's not friendly.
A pronoun is a small word with a big job. In fact, a pronoun can take the place of an entire noun
phrase. In this way, pronouns help us use fewer words and avoid repetition.
1. Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns represent specific people or things. We use them depending on:
Examples (in each pair, the first sentence shows a subject pronoun, the second an object pronoun):
2. Demonstrative Pronouns
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That is beautiful.
Look at that!
Those were the days!
Can you see those?
TIP
Do not confuse demonstrative pronouns with demonstrative adjectives. They are identical, but a
demonstrative pronoun stands alone, while a demonstrative adjective qualifies a noun.
That smells. (demonstrative pronoun)
That book is good. (demonstrative adjective + noun)
Normally we use demonstrative pronouns for things only. But we can use them for people when the
person is identified. Look at these examples:
3. Possessive Pronouns
Below are the possessive pronouns, followed by some example sentences. Notice that each
possessive pronoun can:
be subject or object
refer to a singular or plural antecedent
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female hers
I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't find yours. (object = your
key)
My flowers are dying. Yours are lovely. (subject = Your flowers)
All the essays were good but his was the best. (subject = his essay)
John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her passport)
John found his clothes but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her clothes)
4. Reflexive Pronouns
reflexive (adj.) [grammar]: reflecting back on the subject, like a mirror
We use a reflexive pronoun when we want to refer back to the subject of the sentence or clause.
Reflexive pronouns end in "-self" (singular) or "-selves" (plural).
reflexive pronoun
singular myself
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reflexive pronoun
yourself
himself, herself, itsel
f
plural ourselves
yourselves
themselves
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They cannot look after the babies. They cannot look after themselves.
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DAY 2
A. Pronunciation
/Ʊ/ sound
-Lips: rounded
-Tongue part: back
-Tongue height: fairly high
-Duration: short
/u:/ sound
-Lips: rounded
-Tongue part: fully back (further back than -/ʊ/)
-Tongue height: very high (higher than /ʊ/)
-Duration: long
Practice
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I hate to tell you, but the cat has pooed on the rug.
That was delicious chicken. What’s for pud?
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B. Grammar
I. Quantifiers
A quantifier is a word or phrase which is used before a noun to indicate the amount or
quantity:
'Some', 'many', 'a lot of' and 'a few' are examples of quantifiers.
Quantifiers can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns.
Examples:
There are some books on the desk
He's got only a few dollars.
How much money have you got?
There is a large quantity of fish in this river.
He's got more friends than his sister.
Common quantifiers
With Uncountable Nouns
much
a little/little/very little *
a bit (of)
a great deal of A + ADJ +DEAL/ AMOUNT/ QUANTITY +OF + NOUN
a large amount of
a large quantity of
many
a few/few/very few **
a number (of)
several A+ ADJ +NUMBER/ MAJORITY + OF+ NOUN
a large number of
a great number of
a majority of
With Both
all
enough
more/most
less/least
no/none
not any
some
any
a lot of
lots of
plenty of
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* NOTE
** NOTE
a. It as dummy subject
The pronoun it is used as a dummy subject in references to time, weather, and dates. The
dummy it doesn’t refer to anything specific but is still needed to fill the slot of subject in a
sentence.
Examples
It’s sunny outside—the perfect day for a picnic.
It is 3 a.m., and I’m wide awake.
It’s the third of December today.
Where I come from, it is cold in summer and colder in winter.
It is also used as a dummy subject to refer to situations or a set of circumstances.
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Examples
It’s five miles to the nearest hospital.
It’s no trouble at all. It is + ADJ + that + clause
It’s a strange world we live in. It was incredibly happy that I passed that exam.
It is + adj + to + verb
It seems as though we wasted our time.
It is truly odd to do that.
It’s getting dark, and we should go home.
It’s the perfect day for a picnic.
The pronoun it can be used to refer to a real subject that appears later in the sentence.
Positioning the subject at the end rather than start of a sentence helps place end-focus on the
subject.
EXAMPLES
It is important to be happy in your own body .
The real subject in this sentence is “to be happy in your own body.” We could also say, “To
be happy in your own body is important,” but that would sound oddly formal.
It is unfortunate that you missed the train .
It’s wonderful that you found each other .
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III. Possessive
When we want to show that something belongs to somebody or something, we usually add an
apostrophe + s ('s) to a singular noun and an apostrophe (') to a plural noun, for example:
Notice that the number of balls does not matter. The structure is influenced by the possessor and not
the possessed.
one boy
the boy's ball the boy's balls
the man next door's mother (the mother of the man next door)
the Queen of England's poodles (the poodles of the Queen of England)
Although we can use of to show possession, it is more usual to use possessive 's. The following
phrases have the same meaning, but #2 is more usual and natural:
1. the boyfriend of my sister
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2. my sister's boyfriend
Proper Nouns (Names)
When a name ends in s, we usually treat it like any other singular noun, and add 's:
But it is possible (especially with older, classical names) to just add the apostrophe ':
Some nouns have irregular plural forms without s (man → men). To show possession, we
usually add 's to the plural form of these nouns:
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DAY 3
A. Pronunciation
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C.Grammar
I. Adjective
An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. It "describes" or "modifies" a noun
1. Descriptive Adjectives
Descriptive adjectives are the most common of the various types of adjectives. Descriptive
adjectives are generally what you'd envision when imagining a word modifying a noun. This type of
adjective describes a noun by expressing a quality or attribute.
She’s such a competent cashier.
He hurt her feelings when he labeled her as an annoying sister.
2. Demonstrative Adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives point to which noun or pronoun you’re speaking about. There are
four demonstrative adjectives in the English language: this, that, these, and those. Adjectives
typically (but not always) come before the noun they’re modifying. Demonstrative adjectives are
always positioned directly in front of the noun they are modifying.
Would you like this bicycle?
That car used to be mine.
I don’t want these accolades.
Those shoes are gorgeous.
3. Indefinite Adjectives
Indefinite adjectives describe nouns or pronouns in a non-specific way. These adjectives
point to non-specific items. The indefinite adjectives include few, many, no, several, and some.
Few people get this far.
Do you have many openings?
There are no books in this library.
I reviewed several sources.
4. Quantitative Adjectives
Quantitative adjectives describe the quantity of something. They do more than modify a noun
or pronoun. They also answer questions like “How much?” or “How many?” This turns words like
“one” or “two” into adjectives. Any quantity that’s providing further information about a noun
constitutes a quantitative noun.
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II. ADVERBS
1. Adverb Form
There are some basic rules about spelling for -ly adverbs. See the table below:
But not all words that end in -ly are adverbs. The following -ly words, for example, are all
adjectives:
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2. Classification
a. Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of Manner tell us the manner or way in which something happens. They answer the
question "how?". Adverbs of Manner mainly modify verbs.
b. Adverbs of Place
Adverbs of Place tell us the place where something happens. They answer the question
"where?". Adverbs of Place mainly modify verbs.
about indoors
above inside
abroad near
anywhere nearby
away off
back on
backwards (also backward) out
behind outside
below over
down there
downstairs towards
east (etc) under
elsewhere up
far upstairs
here where
in
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c. Adverbs of Time
Adverbs of Time tell us something about the time that something happens. Adverbs of Time
mainly modify verbs.
They deliver the newspaper daily. (How often do they deliver the newspaper?)
We sometimes watch a movie. (How often do we watch a movie?)
frequency (definite)
annually
daily
fortnightly
hourly
monthly
nightly
quarterly
weekly
yearly
frequency (indefinite)
always
constantly
ever
frequently
generally
infrequently
never
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normally
occasionally
often
rarely
regularly
seldom
sometimes
regularly
usually
d. Adverbs of Degree
Adverbs of Degree tell us the degree or extent to which something happens. They answer the
question "how much?" or "to what degree?". Adverbs of Degree can modify verbs, adjectives and
other adverbs.
She entirely agrees with him. (How much does she agree with him?)
Mary is very beautiful. (To what degree is Mary beautiful? How beautiful is Mary?)
He drove quite dangerously. (To what degree did he drive dangerously? How dangerously
did he drive?)
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e. Adverbs of Frequency
Adverbs of Frequency are adverbs of time that answer the question "How frequently?" or "How
often?". They tell us how often something happens. Here are some examples:
You probably see a difference between a) and b) above. With words like daily we know exactly how
often. The words in a) describe definite frequency. On the other hand, words like often give us an
idea about frequency but they don't tell us exactly. The words in b) describe indefinite frequency.
We separate them into two groups because they normally go in different positions in the sentence.
Examples:
Adverbs of definite frequency, like all adverbs of definite time, typically go in END position. Look
at these examples:
Sometimes, usually for reasons of emphasis or style, some adverbs of definite frequency may go at
the FRONT, for example:
Every day, more than five thousand people die on our roads.
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Adverbs of indefinite frequency mainly go in MID position in the sentence. They go before the main
verb (except the main verb "to be"):
Occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently and usually can also go at the beginning or end of a
sentence:
Rarely and seldom can also go at the end of a sentence (often with "very"):
Common suffixes
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DAY 4
A. Pronunciation
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B.Grammar
I. Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word like and, but, although, because. Conjunctions have an important function
because they join other words and phrases together. Without conjunctions, we could only make very,
very simple sentences.
1. Introduction to Conjunctions
and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so although, because, since, unless
2. Form Conjunctions
a. single word
for example: and, but, because, although
b. compound (often ending with as or that)
for example: provided that, as long as, in order that
c. correlative (surrounding an adverb or adjective)
for example: so...that
3. Position
Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.
Subordinating conjunctions usually come at the beginning of the subordinate clause.
a. Coordinating Conjunctions
A coordinating conjunction joins parts of a sentence (for example words or independent clauses)
that are grammatically equal or similar. A coordinating conjunction shows that the elements it joins
are similar in importance and structure:
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There are seven coordinating conjunctions, and they are all short words of only two or three
letters:
Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.
However, if the independent clauses are short and well-balanced, a comma is not really essential:
F A N B O Y S
b. Subordinating Conjunctions
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after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when,
where, whether, while
main or subordinate or
independent clause dependent clause
subordinating
conjunction
+
Ram went swimming although it was raining.
+
Although it was raining, Ram went swimming.
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II. ARTICLES
In English there are three articles: a, an, and the. Articles are used before nouns or noun
equivalents and are a type of adjective. The definite article (the) is used before a noun to indicate that
the identity of the noun is known to the reader. The indefinite article (a, an) is used before a noun
that is general or when its identity is not known. There are certain situations in which a noun takes no
article.
a. Definite article
b. Indefinite article
c. Count nouns - refers to items that can be counted and are either singular or plural
d. Non-count nouns - refers to items that are not counted and are always singular
COUNT NON-COUNT
NOUNS NOUNS
Use the indefinite article a or an only with a singular count noun whose specific identity is
not known to the reader. Use a before nouns that begin with a consonant sound, and use an
before nouns that begin with a vowel sound.
Use the article a or an to indicate one in number (as opposed to more than one).
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Use the article a before a consonant sound, and use an before a vowel sound.
a boy, an apple
The plural form of a or an is some. Use some to indicate an unspecified, limited amount (but more
than one).
an apple, some apples
Use the definite article the with any noun (whether singular or plural, count or noncount)
when the specific identity of the noun is known to the reader, as in the following situations:
Use the article the when a particular noun has already been mentioned previously.
I ate an apple yesterday. The apple was juicy and delicious.
Use the article the when an adjective, phrase, or clause describing the noun clarifies or restricts its
identity.
The boy sitting next to me raised his hand.
Thank you for the advice you gave me.
Use the article the when the noun refers to something or someone that is unique.
the theory of relativity
the 2003 federal budget
Use no article with plural count nouns or any noncount nouns used to mean all or in
general.
Trees are beautiful in the fall. (All trees are beautiful in the fall.)
He was asking for advice. (He was asking for advice in general.)
I do not like coffee. (I do not like all coffee in general.)
When indicating an unspecified, limited amount of a count or noncount noun, use some.
My cousin was seeking some advice from a counselor (not advice in general or advice about
everything, but a limited amount of advice).
I would love some coffee right now (not coffee in general, but a limited amount of coffee).
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We might get rain tomorrow. Some rain would be good for the crops (a certain amount of rain, as
opposed to rain in general).
There are some drops of water on the table (a limited number, but more than one drop).
Noncount nouns are those which usually cannot be counted. Following are some common
examples:
◊ Certain food and drink items: bacon, beef, bread, broccoli, butter, cabbage, candy, cauliflower,
celery, cereal, cheese, chicken, chocolate, coffee, corn, cream, fish, flour, fruit, ice cream, lettuce,
meat, milk, oil, pasta, rice, salt, spinach, sugar, tea, water, wine, yogurt
◊ Certain nonfood substances: air, cement, coal, dirt, gasoline, gold, paper, petroleum, plastic, rain,
silver, snow, soap, steel, wood, wool
◊ Most abstract nouns: advice, anger, beauty, confidence, courage, employment, fun, happiness,
health, honesty, information, intelligence, knowledge, love, poverty, satisfaction, truth, wealth
◊ Other: clothing, equipment, furniture, homework, jewelry, luggage, lumber, machinery, mail,
money, news, poetry, pollution, research, scenery, traffic, transportation, violence, weather, work
Geographical names are confusing because some require the and some do not.
◊ Use the with: united countries, large regions, deserts, peninsulas, oceans, seas, gulfs, canals, rivers,
mountain ranges, groups of islands
◊ Do not use the with: streets, parks, cities, states, counties, most countries, continents, bays, single
lakes, single mountains, islands
Japan
Chico
Mt. Everest
San Francisco Bay
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She sent me a postcard from Italy (an unspecific postcard - not a letter, not an e-mail).
It's the postcard that I have in my office (one specific postcard).
Getting postcards makes me want to travel (any postcard in general).
We are going to see the Statue of Liberty this weekend (the only Statue of Liberty).
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a. Helping Verbs
I can.
People must.
The Earth will.
b. Main Verbs
Now imagine that the same stranger walks into your room and says:
I teach.
People eat.
The Earth rotates.
Do you understand something? Has this person communicated something to you? Probably yes! Not
a lot, but something. That's because these verbs are main verbs and have meaning on their own.
They tell us something. Of course, there are thousands of main verbs.
In the following table we see example sentences with helping verbs and main verbs. Notice that all of
these sentences have a main verb. Only some of them have a helping verb.
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Basic English
We must go now.
VERB
Helping verbs and main verbs can be further sub-divided, as we shall see on the following pages.
Verbs are words that describe an action or talk about something that happens. They take many
different forms depending on their subjects, the time they refer to and other ideas we want to express.
Read clear grammar explanations and example sentences to help you understand how verbs are used.
Then, put your grammar knowledge into practice by doing the exercises.
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