Midterm Reviewer Week 7 To 9 1
Midterm Reviewer Week 7 To 9 1
Midterm Reviewer Week 7 To 9 1
Cerebellum- “little brain” referring to pattern of grooves and Neural Plate - outermost of which thickens and flattens to form
bulges on the cerebellar surface, which reflects the external a feature along the back of the embryo.
appearance of the cerebrum. Responsible for balance and
Broadens and Folds - to form the liquid-filled neural tube,
posture.
which will become the brain and spinal cord.
• cerebellar peduncles – cerebellum is connected to the
Brain - starts to develop at about four weeks as a bulb at the
brainstem immediately in front of it by pairs of thick, short,
upper end of the neural tube, while the lower part begins to
stalk like extensions.
form the spinal cord.
Cerebral Cortex- thin grayish covering of each cerebral
Main Sections of the Brain
hemisphere.
Cerebral Cortex - are visible within seven weeks. Over the next
• gyri – characteristics pattern of bulges.
weeks, the brain grows, develops, and becomes more complex.
• sulci- shallower grooves.
3 WEEKS- Within three weeks of conception, the neural tube is
• fissures- deeper ones. well developed along the back of the embryo, and the
prominence that will develop into the forebrain is clearly
Thalamus – processes and sends on sensory information to
defined.
higher brain areas.
5 WEEKS- The future forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain can be
Pons- crossroads area consisting many of nerve fibers.
seen clearly by five weeks, and rudimentary eye and ear buds
Medulla- regulates vital functions such as heartbeat and emerge. The optic nerve, retina, and iris start to form.
respiration.
7 WEEKS- The embryo is around 3/4in (2cm) long, and the
Corpus Callosum- main link between left and right cerebra bulges that will become the brain stem, cerebellum, and
hemispheres is a highway of more than 200 million nerve fiber. cerebrum are now clearly visible. The cranial and sensory
nerves also start to develop.
Hypothalamus – situated under the thalamus, as its name
implies “hypo” means “under”, the sugar cube sized, important 11 WEEKS- The cerebrum enlarges, and the eyes and ears
functions, temperature control and basic behavioral drives. mature, moving into position. The fetus’s head is still large
relative to the body. The hindbrain divides into the cerebellum
Pituitary Gland – master gland of hormonal or endocrine and the brain stem.
systems hangs by a stalk from hypothalamus above.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CORTEX – The cerebral cortex develops
Dura Mater and Arachnoid – outer two meninges are the tough from the forebrain, one of three vesicles formed from the
strong dura mater attached to the inside of the skull, and the neural tube. The frontal lobes form first, followed by the
blood rich arachnoid. parietal then temporal and occipital lobes.
KEY FOR EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT Neural Crest – becomes peripheral nervous system.
Forebrain (Prosencephalon) Neural Tube – becomes brain.
Midbrain (Mesencephalon) NERVE GROWTH AND PRUNING - one-sixth of the brain
develops before birth.
Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)
Growth Rate in the first three years of life is phenomenal. Most
Spinal Cord
of the growth, however, is connective tissue, as pathways are
Embryonic Disk – second week of prenatal life, rapidly growing forged between neurons.
bundle of cells flattens.
Age of Three, this dense network of fibers requires “pruning”
Three Layers back, a process known as apoptosis.
Ectoderm – outer layer. Pruning - allows the preserved connections to work more
efficiently.
Mesoderm – middle layer.
NEURAL NETWORKS - A dense network of connecting fibers
Endoderm – inner layer. forms between the brain’s neurons during the first few years of
FORMATION OF THE NEURAL TUBE - key event in the life. By the
development of the nervous system.
Age of Four - these connections have been pruned back.
Neurulation – is a process and begins when the primitive spinal
Language Development – speech and some other higher
cord (notochord) sends a signal to the tissue above it to thicken,
forming the neural plate. faculties, are wired into the human brain, but appropriate
stimulation is needed to help it develop normally.
Neural Groove - when neural plate turns inward and forms a
depression. Babies- start babbling at about six months.
Folds within the groove - fuse together and then close in on Motherese – a universal adult reaction to babbling.
themselves to form the neural tube.
25 WEEKS -The hemispheres are now clearly dissected, and
Neural-fold Tissue is pinched off to form the neural crest, which some of the deeper grooves that form the bulges and valleys—
will become the peripheral nervous system. gyri and sulci—are becoming visible. The cerebellum is tucked
under the cerebrum.
FORMATION of the Neural Groove
BIRTH - cerebrum develops, and the ridges (gyri) and fissures
Ectoderm – outermost of tissue layers that thickens to (sulci) increase in complexity. At birth, a baby has as many
form neural plate. neurons as an adult: 100 billion. Most are formed in the first six
months of gestation but are not yet mature.
Endoderm – innermost of three tissue layers of an
embryo. 3 YEARS -Parts of the brain, like the prefrontal cortex, develop,
but large areas are offline as the connections between areas are
Mesoderm – middle of three tissue layers. yet to form or are yet to be coated in myelin, so signals can’t
travel along them reliably. This limits the ability of the frontal
Neural Groove – neural plate folds inward to form neural
brain to think and judge. Growth of the amygdala and
groove. hippocampus allows memories to be retained.
CLOSURE of the Neural Groove PLACES AND FACES - basic functional blueprint of the brain is in
place even at birth.
Ectoderm – will detach from rest.
Back of the Brain is already wired to receive information from
Mesoderm – layer begins to thicken.
the eye’s, even quite detailed areas are already determined.
Neural Groove – these folds on itself and starts to close PRIMED TO SEE - Brain scans of 6-month-old infants show they
up. already process faces in a different area from other images, just
like an adult
The Neural Tube Forms
Childhood and Adolescence - THE BRAIN DEVELOPS BY
Ectoderm – closes up over neural tube.
CREATING MORE AND MORE NEURAL PATHWAYS, WHICH
Notochord – becomes spinal cord. CONNECT THE VARIOUS FUNCTIONAL AREAS. THE EARLIEST
PARTS TO BECOME FULLY INTEGRATED ARE CONCERNED WITH teenagers to learn new things quickly and to adopt new habits
PERCEPTION, CLOSELY FOLLOWED BY MOTOR AREAS. and personality traits, which in turn will be changed again if
they are not advantageous. The instability of the teenage brain
THE BRAIN IN CHILDHOOD - The brain matures throughout
results in baffling changeability and a tendency towards risk-
childhood and young adulthood—the process is not complete
taking and rebellious behavior.
until a person is in their late 20s. During that time, different
areas of the brain connect, producing increasingly complex and Prefrontal Cortex is still developing, which is thought to be one
controlled behavior. reason for impulsiveness and rash decision-making. It is closely
connected to the basal ganglia.
Neurons Grow Axon- connection occurs as the threads that
reach out to other neurons. Basal Ganglia - which play an important role in motor skills.
Axons - become covered in fatty sheaths (myelin), which allow Fiber Tract that links the two hemispheres.
electrical signals to move faster and more reliably along them.
Corpus Callosum—thickens, allowing for increased information-
WINDOWS OF LEARNING - Human skills and faculties develop processing skills.
as the associated parts of the brain mature.
MENTAL HEALTH RISKS -The dramatic brain changes that occur
Timetable is under genetic control, and no amount of teaching during adolescence make teenagers particularly susceptible to
can instill in a child an ability that the brain is not ready to mental ill-health. One in five adolescents has a mental illness
acquire. Until they are about three, for instance, infants cannot that will persist into adulthood.
make moral judgments because their prefrontal cortex, where
Frontal Areas are not fully developed and not able to control
such decisions are made, is not fully “online.” When the area is
impulses consistency.
maturing, however, a child will learn the skill associated with it
easily and rapidly, given the right stimuli. If a window of Limbic System is super active in teenager, causing highly
learning is missed, the child will have difficulty acquiring the emotional responses.
skill later.
Motor Areas and Body maps in the brain may get out of synch,
MOTOR SKILLS - Physical dexterity develops fairly early as causing physical gaucheness and clumsy actions.
perception and motor areas of the brain become connected.
WORK IN PROGRESS -Many different areas of the brain undergo
JOINING UP- In order to think and behave as an adult, a changes, each causing a particular, temporary characteristic of
person’s brain needs to be “joined up.” This allows perceptions teenagers.
to be fully understood and actions to be considered.
The Adult Brain
Myelination - Connection depends on a process, during which
neuronal pathways between areas are coated with fat to allow THE BRAIN DOES NOT STOP GROWING WHEN IT REACHES
the transmission of electrical signals. MATURITY. MORE THAN ANY OTHER ORGAN, IT CONTINUES TO
REFORM ITSELF LONG INTO ADULTHOOD. NEW BRAIN CELLS
THE TEENAGE BRAIN – between puberty and early adulthood, CONTINUE TO BE CREATED, AND THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE
the human brain undergoes a dramatic restructuring. And BRAIN IS CHANGED CONSTANTLY IN RESPONSE TO LIFE
particularly vulnerable. EXPERIENCES.
Dramatic Restructuring - process is often reflected in impulsive REACHING MATURITY -Human brains are slow to reach full
and rebellious behavior, and sudden personality changes. While maturity. The prefrontal cortex is the last part to become fully
all these changes take place. active, and full myelinization, the sheathing of neuronal
connections that allows information to flow freely along them,
Personality Traits- such as risk-taking or pessimism may be
does not occur until a person is in their late 20s or early 30s.
amplified to the extent that they cause dysfunction, such as
Once the prefrontal cortex is fully online, it becomes more
heavy drug-taking, reckless or criminal behavior, intense
anxiety, or depression. In many cases, the issue passes as the active in situations that have emotional content. Whereas a
brain becomes more mature, but sometimes it signals the start teenager or child might be overwhelmed by emotion, the
prefrontal cortex inhibits emotion when necessary, allowing a
of a serious, long-term mental health problem.
more thoughtful, deliberated response.
BRAIN CHANGES
MYELIN MAKER - Oligodendrocytes are found only in the brain,
Teenage Brain - changes, in both sexes, are driven by where they coat the axons of neurons with a fatty sheath called
testosterone release. myelin
Hormone - makes neural pathways exceptionally plastic for a Corpus Callosum- fully developed allow information flow
while so connections make and break easily. This allows between hemispheres.
Prefrontal Cortex – process information. THOUGHT PROCESSES, MEMORY PROBLEMS, AND
DETERIORATING REFLEXES, WHICH CAN CAUSE PROBLEMS
Amygdala- less involved in emotional processing.
WITH BALANCE AND MOVEMENT.
Hippocampus- continues to produce new brain cells.
NATURAL DEGENERATION - In the past, it was rare for people to
AT 30 YEARS OLD -The prefrontal cortex is now fully developed, live to the age of 50 and beyond, so we have not evolved to use
allowing for improved executive functions. This also means that the brain in such advanced years. This makes the aging brain a
the brain is less reliant on the amygdala to process emotional relatively new phenomenon in human history and evolution.
information. The other areas of the brain that were still The natural degeneration of the brain and nervous system is not
developing in adolescence have now reached maturity. caused by disease, so it should not be confused with the
pathology of dementia, which is associated with a pattern of
NEUROGENESIS - It used to be thought that the number of specific brain changes.
brain cells in the adult brain was fixed early in life and that
laying down new memories and learning new things was Recent research shows that most neurons actually remain
achieved entirely by changes to existing neurons and their healthy until you die, but brain volume and size decrease 5-10
connections with one another. Neurogenesis occurs mainly in percent from the age of 20-90. There are also changes in
the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus, the brain region that is topography, with the grooves widening and tangles and plaques
centrally important for learning and memory. About one-third (small, disk-shaped growths) forming. However, the role of
of the neurons in the adult hippocampus are replaced in a these deficits is not absolutely clear. They can occur in the
person’s lifetime brains of both healthy people and sufferers of Alzheimer’s
disease.
MEMORY MAKER
MYELIN DECAY -The myelin sheath that insulates the axons of
Hippocampus- is a vital part of the brain, which is essential for neurons is vital for effective cell-to-cell communication. This
laying down and recalling memories. protein-based structure decays with age, leaving brain circuits
less efficient, leading to balance and memory problems.
Neurogenesis -which occurs in the dentate gyrus (see
opposite), helps it to encode new information. Neurogenesis is POSITIVE AGING - The brain can compensate for the effects of
measured in animals by injecting their brains with a radioactive aging, and mental function can even improve with age. Myelin
marker that attaches to dividing cells. increases in the temporal and frontal lobes in the 45–50 age
group may enable people to manage their knowledge better.
Counting the Marked Cells - when the animals die shows how
many cells have multiplied. The Brain of the Future
HIGHER FUNCTION - A person’s brain continues to mature right DISCOVER HOW THE BRAIN WORKS, THE PROSPECT OF
up until their late 20s. The main changes take place inside the CHANGING IT, ENHANCING IT, AND DEVELOPING ARTIFICIAL
“higher” functional areas of the brain, such as the BRAINS IS FAST BECOMING FACT RATHER THAN FICTION.
TECHNOLOGIES FOR MIND READING, THOUGHT CONTROL, AND
Fontal Cortex - which gradually becomes more active—pulling
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCEARE ALREADY WITH US AND ARE
together information from the rest of the brain and forming a
BECOMING MORE SOPHISTICATED EVERY DAY.
complex and holistic view of the world.
BRAIN–MACHINE INTERFACES - When a person is thinking, the
NEW MEMORIES FOR OLD -creation of new brain cells allow
brain produces electrical signals. Scientists have discovered
new information to be stored, but their arrival disrupts existing
ways in which the electrical signals can be picked up by sensors
memories because they change the wiring pattern.
and sent wirelessly to other electrical devices, making it
Memories- form in the hippocampus and are transferred to possible for a person to move or alter objects by thought alone.
long-term storage in other brain areas. After a few years, the Most research in this field is directed toward developing devices
memory is cleared from the hippocampus. Until the memory is to help people with nervous-system injuries regain the use of
fully transferred, the arrival of new cells in the hippocampus paralyzed limbs. The technology has also been picked up by
may weaken the connections encoding memories stored there. some computer-game manufacturers, who have produced
This may be why we rarely retain memories from when we games that can be played using thought power.
were very young.
MIND READING- The “picture” of neural activity created by
The Aging Brain fMRI scanning can be translated into a precise description of
what a person is seeing and, to some extent, thinking.
THE TRADITIONAL VIEW OF AGING IS THAT THE BRAIN AND THE
BODY START TO DEGENERATE. THIS IS TRUE IN THAT NEURONS ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE- Scientists have been working for
ARE LOST AND, FOR THOSE THAT REMAIN, IMPULSES ARE decades on producing intelligent nonbiological systems, and
TRANSMITTED MORE SLOWLY. THIS CAN LEAD TO SLOWING have been very successful in developing computer programs
that can equal, or sometimes outperform, the human brain. Synesthesia - Most people are aware of only a single sensation
However, it has proved difficult to develop systems that are as in response to one type of stimulus hey may “see” sounds as
flexible as the human brain, and thus able to operate in the well as hear them, or “taste” images. This sensory duplication
constantly changing environments that constitute “real” life. occurs when the neural pathway from a sense organ diverges
and carries data on one type of stimulus to a part of the brain
THE UNCANNY VALLEY - As robots are made to look more like
that normally processes another type.
humans, people find them increasingly uncomfortable. Robots
such as Sophia (see opposite), fall into what is known as the ROUTES TO SENSATION - Sense organs detect stimuli, turn the
“uncanny valley.” This is a dip in a graph relating to a machine, information into electrical signals, and transmit these two areas
which has a vertical axis measuring how comfortable people of the brain that are specialized to process specific types of
feel with it and a horizontal axis measuring how closely the sensory information into sensations such as sound, vision, taste,
machine resembles a real person. While mechanical robots do smell, touch, and pain. Some of this data is then “forwarded” to
not worry people, once a device looks human yet “not quite areas of the brain that make it conscious.
right,” a sense of uneasiness occurs
CONSCIOUS AND UNCONSCIOUS SENSATION - Our brains are
THE BIONIC EYE - People who have become blind as a bombarded with sensory information, but only a fraction of it
consequence of eye conditions (as opposed to damage to areas reaches consciousness.
of the brain associated with vision) may soon be able to see
Sensory Signals- fizzle out unnoticed. Especially “loud” or
again thanks to the development of artificial eyes. A “bionic”
important data grabs our attention, and we become conscious
eye prototype has been created, comprising a computer chip
of it.
that sits in the back of the individual’s own eye socket, which is
linked up to a tiny video camera built into a pair of glasses. Sensations- we are not conscious of may still guide our actions.
Images captured by the camera are beamed to the chip, which
translates them into electrical impulses and sends them on to BOTTOM-UP AND TOP-DOWN PROCESSING - Sensations are
the visual cortex via the optic nerve. triggered externally, by an occurrence that impacts on a sense
organ, and internally, by memory or imagination. The former is
THE BIONIC ARM - A bionic arm that is operated by the power known as “bottom-up” and the latter as “top-down” processing.
of thought alone is already in use, and future models, which are The two combine to create our experience of reality. Each
currently being developed, are likely to be more lifelike and person’s experience of a given event is different. Physiological
increasingly dextrous. differences affect bottom-up processing. One person’s color
How we Sense the World processing area in the brain may be highly sensitive, for
example, so that colors are more vibrant than average. Also, an
THE BRAIN REACHES OUT TO THE ENVIRONMENT VIA OUR individual’s own memories, knowledge, and expectations affect
SENSE ORGANS, WHICH RESPOND TO VARIOUS STIMULI SUCH top-down processing.
AS LIGHT, SOUND WAVES, AND PRESSURE. THE INFORMATION
Blind Sight- gives visual knowledge without conscious vision.
IS TRANSMITTED AS ELECTRICAL SIGNALS TO SPECIALIZED
AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX (THE OUTER LAYER OF THE Guessing Movement – is probably due to information from the
CEREBRUM) TO BE PROCESSED INTO SENSATIONS SUCH AS eyes stimulating the visual movement area directly via an
VISION, HEARING AND TOUCH. unconscious route.
MIXED SENSES -Sensory neurons respond to data from specific THE EYE
sense organs. Visual cortical neurons, for example, are most
sensitive to signals from the eyes. But this specialization is not IS AN EXTENSION OF THE BRAIN. IT CONTAINS ABOUT 125
rigid. MILLION LIGHT-SENSITIVE NERVE CELLS, KNOWN AS
PHOTORECEPTORS, WHICH GENERATE ELECTRICAL SIGNALS
Visual Neurons - have been found to respond more strongly to THAT ALLOW THE BRAIN TO FORM VISUAL IMAGES.
weak light signals if accompanied by sound, suggesting that
they are activated by data from the ears as well as the eyes. THE STRUCTURE OF THE EYE
What you see also influences what you hear.
Pupil- eyeball is a fluid-filled orb with a hole in the front,
McGurk Effect -a phenomenon if someone says “ba,” while you Retina- a sheet of nerve cells, some of which are light-sensitive,
watch someone mouthing “ga,” you hear a third sound, “da.” at the back; and a lens in between. Iris- the pupil is surrounded
This is the brain’s attempt to make sense of conflicting inputs. by pigmented fibers, and Cornea- covered by a sheet of clear
Other studies show that in people who are blind or deaf, some tissue. Sclera that merges with the tough outer surface or the
neurons that would normally process visual or auditory stimuli “white” of the eye. Optic disk- The optic nerve passes through a
are “hijacked” by the other senses. Hence, blind people hear hole in the back of the eye to enter the brain.
better and deaf people see better.
SEQUENCE OF VISION Optic Disk – point at which nerve fibers exit.
Light- asses through the cornea and enters the eye through the Optic Nerve – carries signals to visual cortex.
pupil. The iris controls how much enter by changing shape, so
Eye Muscles – eye held in socket by strong bands of muscle.
the pupil appears smaller in bright light and expands in shade.
Light Rays -then pass through the lens, which bends (refracts) CROSSING SIGNALS -The left side of the visual cortex receives
the light so it converges on the retina. If focusing on a near information from the right visual field and vice versa.
object, the lens thickens to increase refraction, but if the object
is distant, the lens needs to flatten. The light then hits the Retina Three Layers of Cells:
photoreceptors in the retina, some of which fire, sending
Synapses- each one connecting to the next via junctions
electrical signals to the brain via the optic nerve.
between neurons.
first two layers -send signals to the visual cortex in the brain,
but these cells do not respond directly to the light. Third- layer,
at the very back of the retina.
THE FOVEA
VISUAL PATHWAYS -Information from the eyes has to travel
right to the back of the brain before it starts to be turned into Central Part of the Retina allows for far sharper vision than the
conscious vision. En route, it passes through two major periphery because it contains more cones (which pick up detail
junctions, and half of it crosses from one side of the brain to the and color) than rods.
other.
Right in the Center of the Retina ivs the fovea, a tiny pitted
Optic Chiasm -Signals from the two optic nerves first converge area where cones are most densely packed. In addition to being
at a crossover junction. Fibers carrying information from the left more numerous, foveal cones can also pass on more detail,
side of each retina join up and proceed as the left optic tract, because almost everyone has a dedicated signal-sending
while fibers carrying information from the right side form the pathway to the brain.
right optic tract. Each tract ends at the lateral geniculate
nucleus, which is part of the thalamus, but their signals Light-sensitive cells elsewhere on the retina must share these
continue to the visual cortex via bands of nerve fibers, called means of output.
the optic radiation.
Blind Spot – signal carrying nerve fibers bundle together at the
THE PARTS OF THE EYE AND FUNCTION optic disk in the back of the eye to form the optic nerve.
Iris – muscular ring that alters size of pupil. The Visual Cortex
Pupil – hole in the iris that narrows in bright light or widens in THE VISUAL AREAS OF THE BRAIN ARE AT THE BACK OF THE
dim light. BRAIN; THEREFORE, INFORMATION FROM THE EYES HAS TO
TRAVEL THE FULL DEPTH OF THE SKULL BEFORE IT BEGINS TO
Cornea – transparent layer covering front of eye. BE PROCESSED INTO SIGHT. VISUAL INFORMATION CAN GUIDE
ACTIONS WITHIN ONE-FIFTH OF A SECOND, BUT IT TAKES
Lens- transparent disk that adjusts to focus light rays.
ABOUT HALF A SECOND FOR US TO SEE AN OBJECT
Conjunctiva – covering of cornea and eyelid lining. CONSCIOUSLY.
RECEPTOR ARRAYS
There are around 1,000 types of receptor cell in the nasal cavity,
but we can distinguish around 20,000 different smells so,
clearly, there is more to smell reception than “one receptor, one
AUDITORY CORTEX smell.”
The inner primary auditory cortex has areas associated with OLFACTORY RECEPTOR CELL - this colored electron micrograph
specific frequencies. The secondary and tertiary regions tune shows tiny cilia projecting from a receptor cell. Odor molecules
into more complex aspects of sound perception. bind to the cilia and activate the receptor.
SMELL THE CHEMISTRY OF SMELL
ALTHOUGH VISION HAS BECOME THE DOMINANT SENSE IN There is still much to be learned about the relationship
HUMANS, THE SENSE OF SMELL (OLFACTION) REMAINS between chemical structure and smell. Scientists have identified
IMPORTANT TO SURVIVAL BECAUSE IT CAN WARN US eight primary odors (rather like the three primary colors):
OF HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES IN OUR ENVIRONMENT. THE camphorous, fishy, malty, minty, musky, spermatic, sweaty,
SENSES OF SMELL AND TASTE ARE CLOSELY LINKED. and urinous.
TASTE Vallate - are the largest, and together form a V-shape across the
LIKE SMELL, TASTE HAS A SURVIVAL VALUE—POISONOUS rear of the tongue.
SUBSTANCES TEND TO TASTE BAD (USUALLY BITTER) WHILE
THOSE THAT ARE NOURISHING TASTE PLEASURABLE (USUALLY
SWEET OR SAVORY). TOGETHER, TASTE AND SMELL ALLOW
SUPERTASTERS
ANIMALS TO EVALUATE AND RECOGNIZE WHAT THEY EAT AND
Around a quarter of the population are “supertasters,” which
DRINK.
means they have an overall higher level of tasting ability. They
are very sensitive to a chemical called propylthiouracil (PROP),
THE EVOLUTION OF TASTE
finding it incredibly bitter. Half the remaining population find
The sense of taste enables animals, including humans, to make
PROP moderately bitter, and the final quarter cannot taste
the most of the variety of foods available to them. Many plants
it at all. Supertasters find bitter compounds such as coffee
that look tempting are toxic.
too strong. They seem to have more fungiform papillae
genes that enable us to detect (and therefore avoid) these on the tongue, which may explain the increased sensitivity.
toxins have an obvious survival value. One such gene that has
been identified affords taste sensitivity to phenylthiocarbamide TASTE AND SMELL BRAIN AREAS
(PTC), an organic compound that resembles many toxic Taste and smell are both chemical senses—receptors in the
compounds found in plants nose and mouth bind to incoming molecules, generating
electrical signals to send to the brain. Both sets of signals pass
EVOLVED TO REACT TO TASTES along the cranial nerves.
Herbivores, such as deer, with fewer bitter-taste genes than
Smell-related (olfactory) -signals travel from the nose to the
omnivores, are less selective and therefore benefit from an
olfactory bulb, then along the olfactory nerve to the olfactory
increased food supply. They can tolerate more toxins because
they have larger livers than omnivores, such as chimpanzees. cortex in the temporal lobe for processing
Pacinian and Ruffini - corpuscles respond to more intense 1FIRST ORDER TO SECOND ORDER - First-order neurons carry
pressure. data from the touch receptors of the upper thigh to the spinal
cord. Their cell bodies are found in the dorsal root ganglia of
the spinal cord. On entering the spinal cord, they connect with TYPES OF PROPRIOCEPTION
second-order neurons, most of which are located in the gray Proprioceptive information is either made conscious or
matter of the spinal cord, before traveling up the spinal cord processed unconsciously.
along the pathway known as the ascending anterior spin
Conscious proprioception usually involves some kind of cortical
thalamic tract.
processing, resulting in decision-making. This normally ends in a
2SECOND ORDER TO THIRD ORDER -From the spinal cord, the command to the muscles to perform a movement.
signal travels through the brainstem, crossing over to the other Unconsciously -sheer amount of proprioceptive input means
side of the brain. Here, the nerve fiber connects with a third- that much is processed.
order neuron in the thalamus, and the signal is relayed to the
somatosensory cortex to be processed. Nuclei in the dorsal PROPRIOCEPTION PATHWAYS
spinal column and thalamus also process sensory impulses en Conscious proprioception uses the dorsal column–medial
route. lemniscus pathway, which passes through the thalamus, and
ends in the parietal lobe of the cortex.
SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX
Touch sensations are turned into perceptions in the Unconscious Proprioception involves spinocerebellar tracts,
somatosensory cerebral cortex, which curls around the brain and ends in the cerebellum, the part of the brain at the back of
like a horseshoe. Data from the left side of the body ends on the skull involved with the control of movement.
the right side of the brain, and vice versa. Each part of the
cortex processes data from a different part of the body. It is FIELD SOBRIETY TESTS
possible to make a map of the cerebral cortex, dividing it into Proprioception is impaired when people are under the
regions that correspond to distinct body parts. Such a map was influence of alcohol or certain other drugs. The degree of
first drawn by Wilder Penfield, a renowned Canadian impairment can be tested by field sobriety tests, which have
neurosurgeon. Touch receptors are unevenly distributed across long been used by the police in cases of suspected drink-
the body. driving. Typical tests include asking someone to touch their
index finger to their nose with their eyes closed, to stand on
one leg for 30 seconds,or to walk heel-to-toe in a straight line
THE SIXTH SENSE for nine steps
PROPRIOCEPTION—FROM PROPRIO, THE LATIN FOR “SELF”—IS
SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS THE SIXTH SENSE. IT IS THE
SENSING OF BODY POSITION, MOVEMENT, AND POSTURE,
INVOLVING FEEDBACK TO THE BRAIN FROM THE BODY. PHANTOM LIMBS
HOWEVER, THIS INFORMATION IS NOT ALWAYS MADE Sensory cortex Processes input from biceps When someone has
CONSCIOUS. a part of the body amputated or removed—be it a limb, an
extremity, or an organ, such as the appendix—they sometimes
WHAT IS PROPRIOCEPTION? continue to have sensations, often including pain, in that area.
Proprioception is our sense of how our bodies are positioned
Somatosensory cortex undergoes a remapping process in which
and moving in space.
the areas near the “dead” area “take over”, so that stimuli in
awareness - is produced by part of the somatic sensory system, these areas are felt as sensations in the area that has been lost.
and involves structures called proprioceptors in the muscles, This reorganization of the cortex has been confirmed through
tendons, joints, and ligaments that monitor changes in their imaging studies.
length, tension, and pressure linked to changes in position.
Proprioceptors send impulses to the brain. Upon processing this BEFORE AMPUTATION - sensory inputs from the arm and hand
information, a decision can be made—to change position or to are connected to the appropriate region of the sensory cortex.
stop moving. The brain then sends signals back to the muscles Other parts of the body are also connected to specific,
based on the input from the proprioceptors—completing the neighboring cortical regions.
feedback cycle.
AFTER AMPUTATION
POSITIONAL SENSORS There is no sensory input from the amputated arm and hand,
Information from proprioceptors, such as muscle spindle fibers, but the pathway to the cortex remains. Input from another part
is sent to the brain for processing. There are also position of the body takes over, reshaping the sensory map, which may
sensors in the joints, load sensors within the tendons, and produce sensations.
muscle-stretch detectors, all working together to create an
image of the body’s position.
PHANTOM-LIMB-PAIN TREATMENT cord, known as the dorsal horn. The signals are then carried to
Research has shown that the development of phantom- limb the opposite side of the spinal cord before continuing to the
pain is linked to the plasticity of the sensory cortex. Trying to brain.
reverse the changes in the cortex can actually reduce the pain
sensation for the patient. For instance, use of an electric MEDULLA
prosthetic limb that is moved by signals from the patient’s As the pain signals pass through 3the medulla, a part of the
muscles was helpful. Brain scans revealed that this was linked brainstem, they trigger activity in the autonomic nervous
with reversion of the cortex to its original state, maybe by system. This results in an increase of blood pressure, heart and
replacing some of the original input. breathing rates, and sweating.
MIRROR TREATMENT When a patient’s remaining arm 4DESCENDING CONNECTIONS - Nerve fibers descending from
is shown as a mirror image and moved, it looks as though the pain-registering regions of the brain intercept the ascending
missing arm is moving. Somehow, this illusion can relieve pain signals and modify them, by triggering the release of
phantom- limb pain. analgesic chemicals in the brainstem and spine in order to
reduce pain.
FINE BALANCE
Proprioceptors in the muscles, tendons, and skin work together 5PAIN SIGNALS IN THE BRAIN - Before the pain can be
with hair cellsin the vestibule and semicircular canals consciously felt, it must be distributed to various areas of the
of the inner ear to maintain balance. A gymnast will work on all cerebral cortex, which interprets the signals as sensations
aspects of strength, movement, and body coordination to
achieve feats involving fine balance. THE CHEMISTRY OF PAIN
Natural opioid (pain relief) system- that acts in much the same
PAIN SIGNALS
way as opiate drugs, such as heroin and morphine. Natural
PAIN IS PRIMARILY A WARNING SIGNAL. IT TELLS YOU THERE IS
opioids, which include endorphins and encephalins, are
SOMETHING WRONG AND FORCES YOU TO TAKE ACTION. PAIN
produced by the thalamus and pituitary gland during stress and
USUALLY OCCURS AS A RESULT OF STIMULATION OF
pain. These substances are also produced in situations
SPECIALIZED NERVE FIBERS THAT EXTEND THROUGHOUT THE
associated with feeling a natural “high,” such as strenuous
BODY.
exercise and sexual activity.
PAIN PATHWAYS Nerve endings in the brain and throughout the body have
Pain-transmitting nerve fibers permeate almost every part of special receptors on them that bind to opiate substances. The
the body. When stimulated by an injury, they send electrical opiates then dampen the pain signals carried in those nerve
signals from the site of the stimulus to the spinal cord. The endings, thus reducing pain.
signals then cross over the cord and continue up to the brain.
This crossover means that pain from one side of the body OPIOID RECEPTORS
activates the opposite side of the brain. As they pass through This PET scan shows the concentration of opioid receptors in a
the medulla in the brainstem, pain signals trigger automatic normal brain. Red areas show where they are highest, through
bodily responses. The signals then arrive at the thalamus and yellow and green, to blue, which indicates the lowest
are distributed to various regions of the brain to be processed concentration.
DIRECT SPINAL INPUT to areas that monitor the state of the Anxiety- signals from the amygdala—pain-related or otherwise
body, direct attention, and prioritize response. —spark brain activity in a way that is associated with the
experience of pain.
CIRCUIT THROUGH cortical and limbic areas involved in
evaluation and monitoring of pain. Pain stimulus- arrives in the brain via the spinal cord, causing
levels of anxiety to become increased
DIRECT SPINAL INPUT to areas involved in automatic response
to pain, such as arousal and movement. PAIN
CIRCUIT THROUGH cortical and limbic areas that affect pain, Nocebo effect
including intensity, emotion, and pain memory. Anxiety plus pain input from the body produces a pain-related
experience that is more intense than if either factor occurred
BRAIN OVER PAIN alone. Anxiety is therefore an example of the nocebo effect—an
Part of the role of higher brain areas is to modify pain. intensification of pain due to the effects of negative thoughts,
beliefs, or expectations
Nerve signals that travel from the brain into the body interrupt
pain signals traveling up from the site of the injury before they
Placebo effect
reach the brain. This reduces the number of pain signals
The belief that an intervention such as a drug or a medical
reaching the brain and, therefore, the amount of pain felt. Also,
procedure will alleviate pain is itself able to reduce a pain
our thoughts, expectations, and emotions can all have a
experience. This is because experience is subjective so, if you
profound effect on the degree to which a person is “pained” by
think you do not feel pain, you don’t. The process by which
pain.
belief becomes fact is known as the placebo effect.