Subjective Well-Being (SWB) 6437 S

References Simply, SWB is the individual evaluation of

quality of life (QOL) and therefore converges
Campbell, A., Converse, P. E., & Rodgers, W. L. (1976). with the definition of QOL.
The quality of American life. New York: Russell Sage.
Cummins, R. A. (1996). The domains of life satisfaction:
An attempt to order chaos. Social Indicators Research,
38, 303–328. Description
Hagerty, M. R., & Land, K. C. (2007). Constructing sum-
mary indices of quality of life: A model for the effect
The term SWB was first introduced by Diener
of heterogeneous importance weights. Sociological
Methods and Research, 35, 455–496. (1984) as a means of identifying the field of
Lucas, R. E., Clark, A. E., Georgellis, Y., & Diener, E. psychology that attempts to understand people’s
(2003). Reexamining adaptation and the set point evaluations of their QOL, including both their
model of happiness: Reactions to changes in marital
cognitive judgments and affective reactions
status. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
84, 527–539. (Diener, Suh, & Oishi, 1997). The scientific
Sastre, M. T. M. (1999). Lay conceptions of well-being term “subjective well-being” introduced by
and rules used in well-being judgments among young, Diener (1984) is often used interchangeably
middle-aged, and elderly adults. Social Indicators
with, or in order to avoid the ambiguous meaning
Research, 47, 203–231.
of, the term “▶ happiness.” The SWB literature
covers studies that have used such diverse terms
as happiness, hedonic level, ▶ satisfaction with
Subjective Well-Being life, moral, and ▶ positive affect.
The first broad review of happiness research
▶ School-Based Interventions was conducted by Wilson (1967) and concluded
that “the happy person emerges as a young,
healthy, well-educated, well-paid, extroverted,
optimistic, worry-free, religious, married person,
Subjective Well-Being (SWB) with high ▶ self-esteem, high job moral, modest
aspirations, of either sex and of a wide range of
Carmel Proctor ▶ intelligence” (p. 294). In the decades since
Positive Psychology Research Centre, Wilson’s (1967) review, investigations into
St. Peter Port, Guernsey, UK SWB have broadened and evolved to include
not only the correlates and demographic charac-
teristics of happiness but also the underlying pro-
Synonyms cesses, interactions between internal and external
circumstances, and causal pathways through
Happiness; Hedonic level; Individual well-being; which personal and environmental factors effect S
Life satisfaction; Morality and subjective and influence how individuals perceive their
well-being; Satisfaction with life lives.
Subjective well-being has three components:
▶ life satisfaction (LS), positive affect (PA), and
Definition ▶ negative affect (NA) (Andrews & Withey,
1976). Individuals are said to have high SWB if
Subjective well-being (SWB) is the personal per- they experience LS and frequent PA (e.g., joy,
ception and experience of positive and negative optimism) and infrequent NA (e.g., sadness,
emotional responses and global and (domain) anger). Conversely, individuals are said to have
specific cognitive evaluations of satisfaction low SWB if they are dissatisfied with life, expe-
with life. It has been defined as “a person’s cog- rience little joy, and frequently feel negative
nitive and affective evaluations of his or her life” emotions such as anger or ▶ anxiety (Diener
(Diener, Lucas, & Oishi, 2002, p. 63). et al., 1997). However, positive SWB is not to
S 6438 Subjective Well-Being (SWB)

be considered synonymous with mental or psy- considerations of the independent contributions

chological health, just as the absence of psycho- of the hedonic (and cognitive) components of
pathology is not indicative of positive SWB. It is SWB (see also Bradburn, 1969; Bradburn &
possible for an individual to have high levels of Caplovitz, 1965). The hedonic component is
psychopathology and high SWB, just as it is most often viewed as the ratio of PA to NA over
possible for an individual to have low levels of time (see Fordyce, 1988) and is considered to be
psychopathology and low SWB (Greenspoon & an important component in the overall structure
Saklofske, 2001). of SWB (Larsen & Eid, 2008; Larsen & Prizmic,
As a tripartite category of phenomenon, SWB 2008). Research investigating the characteristics
is viewed as a broad area of scientific interest that of PA and NA, such as the intensity and fre-
includes global and domain specific judgments of quency of affective experience (e.g., Diener,
LS and positive and negative emotional Larsen, Levine, & Emmons, 1985; Larsen &
responses (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999). Diener, 1985), has demonstrated that it is the
The field covers the entire range of well-being frequency, not the intensity, of affective experi-
from agony to ecstasy and therefore not only ences which has the greatest impact on overall
concerns itself with the causes of depression and SWB in a person’s life over time (Larsen, Diener,
anxiety but also seeks to differentiate slight hap- & Emmons, 1985). The cognitive component
piness from moderate and extreme happiness and (i.e., LS), on the other hand, is based on overall
determine what leads to happiness over time (i.e., appraisals of QOL and thus is not typically sus-
interest is not in momentary moods or fleeting ceptible to change due to short-term emotional
emotions, but what produces long-term positive reactions to life events. Therefore, LS is consid-
SWB) (Diener et al., 1997). Subjective ered not only to the more stable component (Eid
well-being is defined by internal experience and & Diener, 2004) but also the key indicator of
measured from an individual’s own perspective positive SWB (Diener & Diener, 1995). Interest-
(i.e., self-reported), a characteristic which differ- ingly, in most populations, PA, NA, and LS are
entiates the field from clinical psychology moderately and sometimes highly correlated
(Diener et al.). (Diener, Napa-Scollon, Oishi, Dzokoto, & Suh,
According to research conducted by Lucus, 2000).
Diener, and Suh (1996), PA, NA, and LS are
separable constructs, and therefore, researchers Measurement
interested in studying SWB may wish to assess Both the affective and cognitive components of
these components separately. In general, the SWB can each be assessed via self-report. Exam-
affective components of SWB have received ples of the most common measures include the
more attention in the literature than the cognitive ▶ Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener et al.,
components (i.e., LS) (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, 1985), the ▶ Positive and Negative Affect Sched-
& Griffin, 1985; Pavot & Diener, 1993), despite ule (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988), and the
their equal importance (Gilman, Huebner, & ▶ Affect Balance Scale (Bradburn, 1969). Tech-
Laughlin, 2000). This imbalance is accounted niques for assessing the intensity and frequency
for in part by the fact that the affective compo- of PA and NA have also been developed (e.g.,
nents are based on emotional responses which, Larsen & Diener, 1985; Schimmack & Diener,
although invariably short lived and fluctuating, 1997) along with ▶ experience sampling
are representative of the nature of everyday life methods for assessing SWB in situ (Scollon,
(Gilman et al., 2000). Indeed, Diener and Kim-Prieto, & Diener, 2003). However, a more
Emmons (1985) demonstrated that trait measures comprehensive assessment of SWB requires
of PA and NA are essentially uncorrelated, and a multimethod approach (Diener, 1994; Diener
therefore, how much one experiences pleasant & Eid, 2006). Methods used in a multimethod
affect has little impact on how much they expe- approach may include, but are not limited to,
rience unpleasant affect. This research led to self-reports and peer reports; observational,
Subjective Well-Being (SWB) 6439 S
physiological, motivational, cognitive, and creative thinking (Fredrickson, 2001; Larsen &
behavioral methods; and emotion-sensitive tasks Eid, 2008). Indeed, happiness may be the ulti-
(Larsen & Prizmic-Larsen, 2006; Lucas, Diener, mate goal of being human.
& Larsen, 2003; Sandvik, Diener, & Seidlitz,
1993).
Cross-References
Determinants
There is no single determinant of SWB, but some ▶ Affect Balance Scale
conditions are necessary for high SWB such as ▶ Anxiety
positive mental health and positive relationships, ▶ Experience Sampling
but they are not in themselves sufficient to cause ▶ Happiness
happiness. Research findings suggest that person- ▶ Intelligence
ality traits (e.g., positive and negative affect) and ▶ Introvert/Introversion
temperament factors (e.g., introversion and ▶ Life Satisfaction
extroversion) account for most of the variance ▶ Mood
in SWB (Costa & McCrae, 1980; Diener, 1996; ▶ Negative Affect
Emmons & Diener, 1985). However, other deter- ▶ Positive Affect
minants include good social relations (Diener & ▶ Positive and Negative Affect Schedule
Seligman, 2002), variability due to genetic con- (PANAS)
tributions (Lykken, 1999), environment (Diener ▶ Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS),
& Seligman, 2004; Diener & Suh, 1999), an Overview
employment (Diener, Nickerson, Lucas, & ▶ Self-Esteem
Sandvik, 2002; Lucas, Clark, Georgellis, & ▶ Spain, Personal Well-Being Index;
Diener, 2004), marriage (Lucas, Clark, Application with People Aged 50 Years and
Georgellis, & Diener, 2003), age (Diener & Older
Suh, 1998), culture (Diener, Suh, Smith, &
Shao, 1995), and individual characteristics
(Diener, Diener, & Diener, 1995). References

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Bradburn, N. M., & Caplovitz, D. (1965). Reports on
above the neutral point throughout the world
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Subjective Well-Being in ASEAN 6441 S
Lykken, D. (1999). Happiness: What studies on twins Description
show us about nature, nurture, and the happiness set-
point. New York: Golden Books.
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The Overview
benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness Issues relating to ▶ subjective well-being in the
lead to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131, 803–855. five founding members of ASEAN, using data
Pavot, W., & Diener, E. (1993). Review of the satisfaction from the 2004, 2006, and 2007 AsiaBarometer
with life scale. Psychological Assessment, 5, 164–172.
Sandvik, E., Diener, E., & Seidlitz, L. (1993). Subjective surveys, will be reported and discussed here.
well-being: The convergence and stability of self- Although individual ASEAN countries may
report and non-self-report measures. Journal of Per- have studies on subjective well-being, there are
sonality, 61, 317–342. very few studies that have systematically
Schimmack, U., & Diener, E. (1997). Affect intensity:
Separating intensity and frequency in repeatedly mea- discussed these issues across various ASEAN
sured affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psy- countries. This research is timely as ASEAN
chology, 73, 1313–1329. works toward a vision of “ASEAN as a concert
Scollon, C. N., Kim-Prieto, C., & Diener, E. (2003). Expe- of Southeast Asian nations, outward looking,
rience sampling: Promises and pitfalls, strengths and
weaknesses. Journal of Happiness Studies, 4, 5–34. living in peace, stability and prosperity, bonded
Watson, D., Clark, L., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Develop- together in partnership in dynamic development
ment and validation of brief measures of positive and and in a community of caring societies”
negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Per- (ASEAN, http://www.aseansec.org/64.htm).
sonality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063–1070.
Wilson, W. R. (1967). Correlates of avowed happiness. Subjective well-being research is concerned
Psychological Bulletin, 67, 294–306. with individuals’ subjective experiences of their
lives and “the underlying assumption is that
well-being can be defined by people’s conscious
experiences – in terms of hedonic feelings or
Subjective Well-Being in ASEAN cognitive satisfaction” (Diener & Suh, 1997,
p. 191). Hence, empirical research on subjective
Siok Kuan Tambyah and Soo Jiuan Tan well-being has focused on cognitive and affective
Department of Marketing, NUS Business School, measures, including ▶ happiness, ▶ enjoyment,
National University of Singapore, Singapore ▶ satisfaction, accomplishment, and ▶ quality of
life (e.g., Cramer, Torgersen, & Kringlen, 2004;
Diener & Suh, 2000; Pichler, 2006; Shin &
Definition Rutkowski, 2003; Trzcinski & Holst, 2008). We
explored various aspects of subjective well-being
ASEAN by having the ASEAN residents evaluate how
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations happy they were, whether they were enjoying
(ASEAN) was established on August 8, 1967, in life, and if they felt a sense of achievement. To S
Bangkok by the five original member countries: gain better insights into their subjective
Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, well-being, the impact of four demographic vari-
and Thailand. It is now a 10-member organiza- ables (gender, age, education, and income) and
tion comprising the original funding members, five non-demographic variables (religiosity,
Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Lao PDR, national pride, satisfaction with the personal
Myanmar, and Vietnam. As of 2011, the life, satisfaction with the interpersonal life, and
ASEAN region has a population of about 592 satisfaction with the public life) on happiness,
million, a total land area of 4.4 million square enjoyment, and achievement was also examined.
kilometers, a combined gross domestic product
of almost US$ 1,500 billion, and a total trade Method
of about US$ 1,500 billion (Selected Basic Data Sources
ASEAN Indicators, http://www.aseansec.org/ The datasets used for the analysis were from the
stat/SummaryTable.pdf). AsiaBarometer project, a regional opinion survey