Sanet Me0803120575

Radon:
Prevalence,
Measurements,
Health
Risks a n d Control
Niren L. Nagda, Editor
ASTM Manual Series: MNL 15

ASTM Publication Code Number (PCN)
28-015094-17
1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Radon: prevalence, measurements, health risks and control/Niren L. Nagda, editor.
(ASTM manual series; MNL 15)
"ASTM publication code number (PCN) 28-015094-17."
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8031-2057-5
1. Radon--Environmental aspects. 2. Radon--Measurement.
I. Nagda, Niren Laxmichand, 1946- . II. Series.
TD885.5.R33R326 1994
363.73'8--dc20 94-11665
CIP
Copyright 9 1994 AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND MATERIALS, Philadelphia, PA.
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practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.
Printed in Philadelphia, PA
June 1994
Foreword
This publication, Radon: Prevalence, Measurements, Health Risks and Control, was
sponsored by ASTM Committee D22 on Sampling and Analysis of Atmospheres.
The editor was Niren L. Nagda of ENERGEN Consulting, Inc., Germantown, MD.
This is Manual 15 in ASTM's manual series.
~
III
Acknowledgments
The solid efforts by the authors of the chapters are clearly seen as one peruses this
book. The authors responded to the many requests from ASTM and from me to
complete their contributions for this book initiated in 1989.
The behind-the-scene efforts by the reviewers and by the ASTM staff may not be
as easy to recognize at first glance. I wish to thank Michael Brambley, Edward
Maher, Gordon Nifong, and Harry Rector, who reviewed the chapter manuscripts.
Their recommendations helped the authors and me to improve the content and
presentation.
The patience and hard work by the ASTM staff to publish this book is acknowl-
edged. Without the persistent efforts of Kathy Dernoga, Manager of Acquisition
and Review, and her staff including Monica Siperko, and David Jones, who served
as the ASTM editor, this book would not have been possible.
Finally, I am grateful to my family, who gracefully accepted the serious en-
croachment the preparation of this book had on our family and leisure time.
Niren L. Nagda
Editor
iv
Contents
Chapter 1 - - R a d o n - - A Multifaceted Environmental Problem:
An Overview
by Niren L. Nagda
Chapter 2 ~ R a d o n and the Natural Environment

by Richard G. Sextro
Chapter 3--Health Effects of Radon 33

by Jonathan M. Samet
Chapter 4 ~ M e a s u r e m e n t Methods and Instrumentation 49

by Roy C. Fortmann
Chapter 5 - - R a d o n Measurement Protocols 67

by Melinda Roca-Battista and Paul Magno
Chapter 6--Geology and Occurrence of Radon 83

by R. Randall Schumann, Linda C. S. Gundersen,
and Allan B. Tanner
Chapter 7--Concentration Patterns 97

by Michael D. Koontz
Chapter 8 - - R a d o n Control Strategies 112

by Kelly W. Leovic and Richard Roth
Chapter 9--EPA's Strategy to Reduce Risk of Radon 134

by Steve Page
Chapter 10--Current and Future Perspectives 148

by Susan L. Rose
Index 159
V
MNL15-EB/Jun. 1994
Radon--A Multifaceted
Environmental Problem: 1
An Overview
by Niren L. Nagda 1
I M P O R T A N C E OF R A D O N risk is borne by smokers who comprise approximately 30% of

the U.S. population; 24% of the risk is borne by former
DURING THE LAST TWO DECADES, it h a s b e e n well publicized smokers or 23% of the population; and the remaining 6% is
that exposure to radon causes lung cancer. Radon, a naturally shared by 47% of the population--those who have never
occurring radioactive gas, seeps into and accumulates inside smoked [11]. The EPA has also compared the number of
buildings. Elevated indoor radon concentrations have been deaths attributed to radon-induced lung cancer with other
observed in all parts of the United States [1]. A consensus of causes of deaths: drunk driving--23 400 annual deaths;
opinion on human carcinogenicity of radon has been well drowning--4600 deaths; fire and burns--4400 deaths; air
established from studies of uranium miners by national and transport accidents--1000 deaths [1, 9]. Thus, no matter how
international health organizations such as the World Health one looks at the radon issue or which estimate is chosen for
Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer radon-induced lung cancer deaths, radon is an extremely im-
(IARC) [2], the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation portant environmental health issue.
(BEIR IV) Committee of the National Academy of Sciences Radon was recognized as a potential public health threat in
[3], the International Commission on Radiological Protection the United States more than 30 years ago. Table 1 provides a
(ICRP) [4], and the National Council on Radiation Protection brief historical ( 1955 - 1985) overview o f imp ortant develop-
and Measurement (NCRP) [5]. Still, the magnitude of expo- ments relative to radon exposure indoors. To understand and
sure to and risks due to radon are not fully recognized by the effectively deal with radon, one needs to understand the phys-
general public. ics of radon, its health effects, measurement techniques and
Among sources of ionizing radiation, natural radiation protocols, the extent of its occurrence in the United States,
contributes the largest percentage to the total average annual mitigation principles and practices, and legislative and regu-
effective dose equivalent to members of the U.S. population latory actions. These areas are touched upon in the discus-
[6]. Fifty-five percent of that total is caused by radon (Fig. 1). sion below and are further expanded in subsequent chapters
Radiation from medical procedures, cosmic radiation, terres- of this book.
trial radiation, radionuclides deposited inside the human
body, and consumer products contribute the bulk of the re-
mainder. Often-feared sources of radiation such nuclear R A D O N A N D T H E NATURAL
power production and nuclear weapons testing contribute E N V I R O N M E N T [24]
well below 1%. Further, Nero [7] estimates that exposure to
radon exceeds the lifetime dose from radiation exposure to Chemically, radon is the heaviest noble gas and occurs as
the average resident of Europe and Asia from the nuclear three isotopes of atomic weight 219,220, and 222. Radon 222,
accident at Chernobyl (Fig. 2). the isotope of main concern, is produced by radioactive decay
Indoor radon is the second leading cause of lung cancer, of radium which, in turn, is a radioactive product of uranium.
next to smoking, which is estimated to cause 146 000 lung Radon has a half-life of 3.8 days and disintegrates into a
cancer deaths annually in the United States [8]. The U.S. series of solid, short-lived radioisotopes or radionuclides col-
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that the lectively referred to as radon progeny, radon daughters, or
number of lung cancer deaths per year in the United States radon decay products. A basic unit of measurement of radio-
due to residential radon exposure is approximately 13 600, activity of radon is the becquerel (Bq), which is one disinte-
with an uncertainty range of 7000 to 30 000 [9]. The esti- gration per second; the unit of picocurie (pCi) is a commonly
mates of radon risk are based on the BEIR IV committee's used unit in the United States and is equal to 3.7 x 10 .2
risk projection model as modified by the EPA and the most disintegrations per second. The concentration of radon is
recent exposure information [10,11]. Some of the major un- expressed as becquerels per cubic meter (Bq m 3) or picocur-
certainties in the estimates of radon risks are related to the ies per liter (pCi/L). Units of radon decay product concentra-
effect of smoking. Presuming multiplicative interaction be- tions, exposure, and dose are defined elsewhere [24,25].
tween radon and smoking, it is estimated that smokers and Because radium--the parent of radon--is found in all
former smokers face the greatest radon risk: 70% of radon crustal materials, radon is ubiquitous in both indoor and
outdoor air. Sources of radon include soil, water, outdoor air,
IENERGEN Consulting, Inc., 19900 Wild Cherry Lane, German- and building materials, but transport of radon-bearing gas
town, MD 20874-1016. from soil is generally the most predominant source of indoor
Copyright9 by ASTMInternational www.astm.org

2 MANUAL O N R A D O N
INTERNAL 11%
(Inside Human Body)
TERRESTRIAL
(Rocks & Soil)~
MEDICAL X rays 11%
COSMIC 8 % //" \
\
NUCLEAR MEDICINE 4%
x
\
CONSUMER PRODUCTS 3%
OTHER <1%
Occupational 0.3%
Fallout <0.3%
RADON 55% Nuclear Fuel
Cycle 0.1%
Miscellaneous 0.1%
FIG. 1-Sources of radiation exposure to the U.S. population [6].
---- - -
~, 10 = Dose to Chernobyl evacuees by outdoor conditions such as wind speed and indoor-out-
r door temperature differences. In addition, factors such as
E Occupational dose limit geology, precipitation, and the type of foundation of a struc-
u~
uJ ture influence radon availability. Because the driving forces
Iz: for radon entry can vary daily or seasonally, the dynamic
Underground uranium miners interaction of all these factors in determining indoor radon
O
0- 10 concentrations in a specific building is complex.
x
uJ
u~
_o
<
Average indoor radon HEALTH EFFECTS [25]
Lung cancer due to radon occurs as a result of the dose of
0 1 Other natural radiation alpha energy emitted by radon decay products, which is de-
livered to target cells in the lungs. Because alpha energy
wl Medical radiation deposition in the lungs cannot be directly measured, model-
0 ing is used to simulate the sequence of events from inhalation
-- 1 Chernobyl/year of radon decay products to cellular injury. Such efforts in
.J
< dosimetry, combined with animal studies, provide valuable
z 1 0 "1 insights and enable research into various aspects of the
z cause-and-effect relationship such as the effect of long-term
< -- Nuclear testing
(peak year) exposures to low levels of radon.
z
Epidemiologic studies or health studies of human popula-
.J
tions, whether specific segments of the population or the
population in general, offer another avenue for assessing
0 health effects of radon. Epidemiologic investigations, by their
m 10 .2 -7-- Nuclear power nature, have some constraints in yielding fully definitive con-
(normal operation)
clusions because multiple causes of the same health effect,
FiG. 2-Comparison of radiation doses from dif- such as cigarette smoking and radon in the case of lung
ferent sources [7], cancer, have to be carefully considered. Studies of lung can-
cer in uranium miners have consistently shown increased
lung cancer occurrence from exposure to radon decay prod-
radon, particularly in buildings with elevated concentrations. ucts. Studies of the general population are underway but are
The indoor-outdoor air exchange rate of a building is another complicated by the fact that the history of exposure to radon
factor that influences the ultimate indoor concentration, but is difficult to reconstruct, particularly for people who have
the soil-gas entry rate has a much stronger influence. Both changed residences, given the general mobility of the Ameri-
the soil-gas entry rate and the air exchange rate are affected can population.
RADON: AN OVERVIEW 3
TABLE 1--An historical overview of indoor radon-related developments 1955-1985.

Year EvenffAction
1955 The term "working level" (WL) was originally proposed at the Seven States Conference held in Salt Lake City, Utah, in
February 1955. It was considered that insufficient data were available to justify adoption of a maximum permissible
concentration for radon decay products, but an interim guide was needed. In 1957, the WL unit was adopted by the
U.S. Public Health Service, but its definition was still evolving. In 1973, the American National Standards Institute
defined one WL as any combination of radon decay products in 1 L of air that will ultimately release 1.3 • 105 MeV
of alpha energy [3].
1963 The First International Symposium on the Natural Radiation Environment was held at William Marsh Rice University,
Houston, Texas, 10-13 April 1963. Papers on radon included a review of radon migration in the ground by Tanner
[12] and a survey technique for measurement of radon by Lucas [13].
1970 The Surgeon General of the United States specified concentration guidelines for indoor radon decay products in
dwellings constructed on or with uranium mill tailings (uranium- and radium-bearing waste materials). The
recommendations were to take remedial action at levels above 0.05 WL, consider remediation for 0.01 to 0.05 WL,
and exclude remediation below 0.01 WL [14].
1971 Congressional hearings were held on the use of uranium mill tailings in construction in Colorado [15].
1972 The Grand Junction Remedial Action Program (GJRAP) was authorized to survey and remediate structures in which
uranium mill tailings from the Grand Junction uranium mill were used. Over 600 residential, commercial, or
institutional structures have been remediated under GJRAP [16].
1975 Based on preliminary findings of a study involving homes built on reclaimed land and unreclaimed land in Polk County,
Florida, an EPA report [17] concluded that "consideration should be immediately given to providing the State of
Florida with the recommendation that continued use of reclaimed land for construction of new structures be
discouraged."
1978 The Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control Act was enacted (Public Law 95-604). Title I of the act authorized the
Uranium Mill Tailings Remedial Action Program (UMTRAP) to be conducted by the U.S. Department of Energy.
Standards promulgated by EPA for conducting this remedial program specified that radon levels should not exceed
0.02 WL for existing structures. UMTRAP in Colorado has involved over 8000 contaminated properties of which 4000
require remedial action. In some cases remedial actions have been unsuccessful because of radioactivity from natural
uranium deposits [16].
1979 In May 1979, the EPA Administrator recommended to the Governor of Florida that remedial action be taken in some
existing homes and that future homes built in the region should incorporate construction techniques to resist the
entry of radon [18].
1980-1984 Various studies identified elevated radon levels in residences surveyed in the states of Maryland [19], Pennsylvania and
New Jersey [20,21], and Maine [22].
1984 In December 1984, Stanley Watras, an engineer at the Limerick Nuclear Generating Station in Pottstown, Pennsylvania,
set off portal alarms that sense radioactive contamination on workers' clothing. Subsequent investigations determined
that the radioactive materials were the decay products of radon and that the source of the radon was not at the
nuclear power plant but in the indoor air of the Watras home. Radon levels of 13.5 WL were found in his home,
greater than any indoor level ever reported in the literature [23].
1985 The EPA Administrator established the Radon Action Program in September 1985 [1]. The EPA's Radon Action Program
was designed to create a federally coordinated nonregulatory program for reducing risks due to radon through
assessment of the magnitude and distribution of radon problems, development of technologies for radon mitigation
and prevention in new and existing buildings, transfer of technologies to state and local governments and the private
sector, and communication of radon information to the public.
Risk-projection models, expressed in t e r m s of o c c u r r e n c e jectives, type of desired output, and s a m p l i n g duration. F or

of lung c a n c e r per unit of exposure and derived f r o m the example, if the m e a s u r e m e n t objective is to assess exposure
above types of studies, are used to develop estimates of excess to r a d o n in a large n u m b e r of dwellings, a m e t h o d providing
c a n c e r risk due to radon. The estimates of lung cancer deaths an a n n u a l average c o n c e n t r a t i o n of r a d o n w o u l d be a practi-
attributable to r a d o n m e n t i o n e d earlier are derived f r o m cal choice. S u c h a m e t h o d w o u l d m e e t the objective and
such models. w o u l d be easier and less costly to use t h a n that w h i c h pro-
vides a c o n t i n u o u s r e a d o u t of r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n every
hour.
MEASUREMENT METHODS AND Methods for m e a s u r i n g r a d o n and its decay products are
I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N [26] based on the detection of radioactive emissions. Such meth-
ods can include detection of alpha particles, g a m m a rays, or
Various factors need to be considered in selecting m e t h o d s less c o m m o n l y , beta rays. A variety of m e t h o d s and instru-
a nd i n s t r u m e n t s for m e a s u r e m e n t of r a d o n or r a d o n decay m en t s based on such principles is c o m m e r c i a l l y available.
products. E x a m p l e s of such factors include m e a s u r e m e n t ob- M e a s u r e m e n t s of r a d o n are useful in c o n d u c t i n g surveys of
4 MANUAL ON RADON
radon concentrations in a building, whereas measurements since the early 1970s, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
of radon decay products are useful in dosimetric studies. has developed and used protocols for measurement of radon
Devices such as alpha track detectors, activated carbon moni- and radon decay products in residences affected by uranium
tors, and passive electxet ion chambers are widely used to mill tailings. EPA has developed protocols for radon mea-
provide time-integrated measurements of radon over a pe- surements in houses, schools, and workplaces. Such proto-
riod of days (activated carbon, electrets) or months (alpha cols undergo refinements in these organizations and through
track detectors, electrets). Scintillation cells are commonly the consensus development processes of ASTM.
used for continuous monitoring or for instantaneous or grab
sampling of radon. Measurements of radon decay products
are generally more difficult and more costly and, thus, radon GEOLOGY AND OCCURRENCE [28]
decay product concentrations are often inferred from radon
concentrations and theoretical considerations. The geology of an area determines the concentrations of
Radon-flux and soil-gas measurements are useful for char- radium and radon in the rock and soil as well as the ease with
acterizing the potential for radon prior to construction, as which radon can move through them. Some rock types hav-
well as for aiding a diagnostic assessment for mitigation. The ing high radon emanation potential include carbonaceous
basic measurement techniques for radon and radon decay shales, glauconite sandstones, phosphorites, uranium-bear-
products are generally well established, and applications of ing granites, metamorphic rocks, and sheared or faulted
these measurements to help improve the understanding of rocks. The radon emanation potential of such rock types,
radon potential in soil and radon-resistant methods of con- combined with soil characteristics such as porosity, perme-
strnction are gaining increased attention in research. ability to gas movement, and moisture content, are important
As the number of measurements of radon and radon decay in determining radon potential, i.e., radon production and
products have increased, so has the need for standardization mobility.
of such measurements. Such need has become quite impor- Radon potential for a geologic province (geologically simi-
tant as the use of measurements has gone beyond research lar area) can be determined by analyzing available geologic,
studies. Recognizing this need, the ASTM D22.05 Subcom- aerial radiometric, soil radon, and indoor radon data. Very
mittee on Indoor Air has been developing standard methods, generalized geologic provinces are depicted in Fig. 3. The
practices, and guides for the measurement of radon and Coastal Plain of the southern and eastern United States has
radon decay products. the lowest potential, but localized concentrations of uranium
and radium have produced high indoor radon concentration
in certain areas of Florida, New Jersey, and Texas, for exam-
MEASUREMENT PROTOCOLS [27] ple. The Pacific Coastal Range and Sierra Nevada are ex-
pected to have low to moderate radon potential, but limited
Radon concentrations in a building vary, depending on data are available to confirm such an inference. The Appala-
where and when a measurement is made. Within the same chian region and Rocky Mountains have low to moderate
building, if the floor on which the measurement is made is in radon, but each of these areas has localized areas of high
contact with the ground, then the radon concentration for radon potential (Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, and
this floor would generally be higher than for an upper-level Virginia in the Appalachian region and Colorado and Idaho
floor, since the predominant source of elevated radon is soil in the Rocky Mountain region). In the Appalachians, the
gas. Within one floor, especially in large buildings with com- highest radon values occur in association with faults and
plex ventilation systems, concentrations can vary by location. fractures in the rock. Uranium-bearing clays in the Great
Season or even time of day can make a difference in concen- Plains region are the probable cause of high indoor radon
tration at a given location. Further, open windows or doors levels in South Dakota, Kansas, and eastern Colorado. Ele-
and outdoor conditions such as wind speed or soil moisture vated indoor radon concentrations in areas of North Dakota
can make a difference in indoor radon levels. Given all the and Minnesota are the result of high radon production
factors that can influence concentrations, development of a protential and high permeability associated with clay-rich
well-defined, predetermined series of procedures, i.e., mea- tills originating from glacial deposits which, in turn, are de-
surement protocol, prior to conducting any measurements is rived from uranium-bearing shales.
necessary.
The purpose of the measurements, choice of measurement
methods, sampling and analytical techniques, selection of C O N C E N T R A T I O N P A T T E R N S [29] 2
locations and frequency of measurements, and quality con-
trol and quality assurance procedures are some of the factors Since 1986, more than 40 states in the United States have
that need to be carefully defined in protocols. Some elements conducted systematic statewide screening surveys of indoor
of quality control procedures include calibration of instru- radon concentrations using activated carbon monitors, pri-
ments and performance checks, use of replicate and blank marily charcoal canisters. The canisters, which are typically
samples, and analysis of samples of known radon content. A used for sampling radon concentrations over two- to seven-
quality assurance program includes specifications for com- day periods under closed-house conditions during the winter,
prehensive documentation of procedures, preventive mainte-
nance, corrective actions, and delineation of responsibilities. 2The results of EPA's National Residential Radon Survey [30] were
Several measurement protocols for a variety of purposes not available when the chapter on concentration patterns was pre-
have been developed by different organizations. For example, pared.
RADON: A N O V E R V I E W 5
WA
NADIAN
MT ND
P LAT EA I
OR )
SD WI
WY
, BAS D .v / /o
MO
KY
OK
IX
Miles
, , ~, , , , 9
FIG. 3-Generalized geologic provinces [28].
tend to overestimate radon concentrations, relative to longer- in individual buildings cannot be safely deduced without
term samplers used to measure radon concentrations under conducting indoor radon measurements.
normal living conditions. Despite this bias, the results of
statewide surveys using activated carbon monitors provide
useful information on radon concentration patterns in the
United States. CONTROL STRATEGIES [31]
The statewide surveys indicate that indoor screening mea-
surements are considerably lower in southern and western The most common way for radon to enter a building is
through pressure-driven transport of soil gas. Other, but less
census regions of the country than in north-central and
prevalent, reasons for elevated indoor radon concentrations
northeast regions (Fig. 4). Iowa and North Dakota in the
include emanation of radon from well water containing ra-
north-central and Pennsylvania in the northeast have the
dium and use of uranium-contaminated construction materi-
highest average screening measurements among those states
als. Thus, much of the emphasis of radon reduction or con-
that have been surveyed. Maine, Minnesota, Nebraska, New trol is on prevention of radon entry from the soil gas into the
Hampshire, New Jersey, and Ohio are other states with high building.
averages. Consistent with geologic indicators, the states with For radon control to be effective, a proper diagnosis of
the lowest screening measurements tend to lie along the radon problems, such as radon measurements to determine
western, southern, and southeastern coasts. However, even entry routes, evaluation of construction integrity, and assess-
among sta~es with relatively low average screening results, it ment of the HVAC system, is essential. Among the methods to
is possible to find individual counties in which some fraction reduce radon entry into a building, active subslab depres-
of homes have elevated radon measurements. Spatial pat- surization (ASD) is the most widely used control method. For
terns of indoor radon concentrations within the states gener- ASD, a fan is used to create a negative pressure field in the soil
ally have been consistent with expectations from geology and under the building (Fig. 5). This negative pressure field re-
radioaerometric surveys. It should be recognized that, al- verses the flow of radon--instead of entering the building, the
though geographic areas with higher radon potential can be radon is exhausted by the fan to the outdoors. Depending on
delineated with a reasonable degree of certainty, radon levels the prevalent entry route and building construction features,
6 MANUAL ON RADON
FIG. 4-Average indoor radon screening measurement results by state and region [29].
ASD techniques include subslab depressurization, crawl- continuing under the sponsorship of the EPA and some state
space depressurization, and block-wall depressurization. agencies such as the Florida Department of Community Af-
Other approaches for reducing risk from radon exposure fairs.
are by dilution with outdoor air or by treatment to remove The ASTM Subcommittee E6.41 on Building Infiltration is
radon or radon decay products. These techniques remove developing consensus documents on standardized ap-
radon only after it enters the building, but do not prevent proaches for controlling radon in buildings. For example, a
radon entry. Ventilation reduces the radon concentration standard guide for radon control options for the design and
through dilution, but its application is limited because of the construction of new low-rise residential buildings was ap-
impracticality of increasing the ventilation rate by severalfold proved by ASTM in 1992 [ASTM Guide for Radon Control
in order to achieve a sufficient reduction in radon concentra- Options for the Design and Construction of New Low Rise
tion. Further, energy penalties associated with even moderate Residential Buildings (E 1465-92)].
increases in ventilation often make this approach unattrac-
tive. Removal by plating out of radon decay products, i.e.,
attachment of particles to surfaces, is advocated by some as a L E G I S L A T I O N A N D E P A ' S R A D O N ACTION
method for reducing risk due to radon, but that approach is P R O G R A M [32]
fraught with uncertainties associated with its actual benefit
in reducing health risks. In 1985, in response to the very high levels of radon discov-
New construction offers a variety of avenues for reducing ered in the Reading Prong area, EPA established the Radon
potential risk of elevated radon, typically at a much lower Action Program. The program was designed to address key
cost than a retrofit. These techniques focus on prevention of needs such as an assessment of the extent of the radon prob-
radon entry into the building and include changes in design lem, standardized measurement methods, cost-effective tech-
and construction of foundations, slabs, and block walls, use niques for reducing radon levels, guidelines on radon levels at
of membranes to retard the flow of soil gas, as well as provi- which reduction should be undertaken, and tools for commu-
sions for roughing in the piping and electrical components of nicating health concerns and solutions to the public. Subse-
an ASD system. Research on new construction techniques is quently, the U.S. Congress expanded EPA's program by
RADON: AN OVERVIEW 7
,j/ DEPRESSURIZATION FAN
"~"~ LOW AIR PRESSURE
i I I i i I i I I
Suhelab Oepressurization System creates low pressure
zone beneath the slab. This prevents radon-containing soil
gas from entering the building by changing the direction of
airflow. Air exhausted from under the slab is released
HIGHER AIR PRESSURE I above the roof where the elevated radon levels can dilute
(~. into the atmosphere.
,, .......... =.....
E s "OWA,RPRESSURE r
= Positive Pressure
= Negative Pressure
FIG. 5 - A c t i v e soil depressurization method to prevent radon entry into buildings [31].
enacting two pieces of legislation: (1) Superfund Amend- rounded look at the radon issue. For a complete and compre-
ments and Reauthorization Act of 1986, and (2) the Indoor hensive understanding, though, perspectives on other federal
Radon Abatement Act of 1988. Important aspects of EPA's agency programs, state programs, industry viewpoints, and
continuing research on radon include: further refining esti- public perceptions of risks need to be examined.
mates of the magnitude of the health risk posed by residential The DOE Office of Health and Environmental research has
radon exposure, assessing the interactive effects of smoking allocated a substantial funding (approximately $10 million
and radon, identifying geographic areas with the highest po- per year over the 1987-to-1992 period) to conduct a basic
tential for radon problems, and studies to determine the cost radon research program [34]. The DOE's program has made
and reliability of approaches for measuring, mitigating and significant contributions to the understanding of the indoor
preventing elevated radon levels in a variety of building types. radon problem in the areas of radon measurements, avail-
A major area of emphasis for EPA is the use of a decentralized ability, entry dynamics, and dosimetry. The DOE research
system for informing the public through state and local gov- formed the basis for an input to EPA's risk estimate of 13 600
ernment agencies, non-profit public health and consumer annual deaths. A further DOE contribution is the focus on
protection organizations and professional and business asso- using new techniques in cellular and molecular biology to
ciations. These cooperative partners can use their established answer the important questions on whether there is a thresh-
communication channels to deliver radon information to in- old for carcinogenic effect from radiation and repair of alpha
dividual members of public. Efforts to inform the public and radiation damage.
encourage action are important and will be continued by EPA Some states such as Florida, Minnesota, and New Jersey
but they will be combined with incentive programs and initi- have undertaken their own radon programs that, in certain
atives to build institutional support for building codes and aspects, go beyond the federal radon program because of
policies to require radon testing and mitigation when existing specific state needs. For example, the state of Florida became
homes are sold, especially in high risk areas. involved in the radon issue because of the phosphate mining
areas in the state. Concerns for elevated indoor radon in
homes built on reclaimed phosphate lands have been raised
CURRENT AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES since the mid-1970s. A radon statute passed in 1988 by the
[331 Florida state legislature provides Florida with a radon pro-
gram to identify and eliminate radon problems through
Subjects such as the origin of radon, health effects, meth- changes in building codes. To finance the research effort to
ods and protocols for measurements, geologic patterns af- accomplish these tasks, the statute has established a radon
fecting radon concentrations, radon concentration patterns trust fund which levies a surcharge on new construction and
across the United States, strategies for controlling radon, and renovation of buildings. The state has co-funded research
EPA's Radon Action Program collectively provide a well- with EPA, and such state-federal partnerships allow research
dollars to go further in developing long-term, more widely Technical Note, Office of Radiation Program, ORP/CSD-75-4,
applicable initiatives. Washington, DC, September 1975.
R a d o n policies have b e e n established quite promptly fol- [15] U.S. Congress, Use of Uranium Mill Tailings for Construction
Purposes, hearings conducted 28-29 Oct. 1971, 91st Congress,
lowing the discovery of Watra's house. Yet, uncertainties re-
1st Session, 1971, U.S. GPO, Stock No. 5270-1395, Washington,
m a i n in m a n y aspects of the r a d o n issue including identifica-
DC.
tion of geographical areas with elevated r a d o n potential a n d [16] Hazle, A. J., "Colorado: The Legacy of Uranium Mining,"
quantification of health risks to nonsmokers. Similarly, influ- Environment, Vol. 29, No. 1, January/February 1987, pp. 13, 18-
encing peoples' perceptions a b o u t r a d o n risks is more com- 21.
plex t h a n ever thought before. U n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d conveying [17] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Preliminary Findings:
the risks to people will require c o n t i n u e d emphasis o n re- Radon Daughter Levels in Structures Constructed on Reclaimed
search a n d education. Florida Phosphate Land, Technical Note, ORP/CSD-75-4, Office
of Radiation Program, Washington, DC, September 1975.
[18] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Indoor Radiation Expo-
sure Due to Radium-226 in Florida Phosphate Lands; Radiation
REFERENCES Protection Recommendations and Request for Comment,
Federal Register, Vol. 44, No. 128, 1979, pp. 38664-38670.
[1] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA'S Radon Program: [19] Moschandreas, D. J. and Rector, H. E., "Indoor Radon Concen-
Reducing the Risk of lndoor Radon, Office of Radiation Program, trations," Environment International, Vol. 8, 1982, pp. 77-82.
Washington, DC, July 1991. [20] Roberts, P. L., "Radon: One Utility's Experience," in Proceedings:
[2] International Agency for Research on Cancer, Monograph on the Indoor Air Quality Seminar--Implications for Electric Utility
Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, Volume 43: Man- Conservation Programs, Report EA/EM-3824, Electric Power Re-
made Mineral Fibers and Radon, IARC, World Health Organiza- search Institute, Palo Alto, CA, January 1985, pp. 7-1 to 7-12.
tion, Lyon, France, 1988. [21] Sachs, H. M., Hernandez, T. L., and Ring, J. W., "Regional
[3] National Research Council, Health Risks of Radon and other Geology and Radon Variability in Buildings," Environment In-
Internally Deposited Alpha-emitters, BEIR IV, National Academy ternational, Vol. 8, 1982, pp. 97-103.
Press, Washington, DC, 1988. [22] Hess, C. T., Norton, S. A., Brutseart, W. F., Casparius, R. E.,
[4] International Commission on Radiological Protection, Lung Combs, E. G., and Hess, A. L., Radon 222 in Potable Water
Cancer Risk from Indoor Exposures to Radon Daughters, ICRP Supplies in Maine: The Geology, Hydrology, Physics, and Health
Publication 50, Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K., 1987. Effects, Office of Water Research, Project A-045-ME Completion
[5] National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Report, 1979, See also Hess, C. T., Casparius, R. E., Norton, S.
Evaluation of Occupational and Environmental Exposures to A., and Brutseart, W. F., "Investigation of Natural Levels of
Radon and Radon Daughters in the United States, NCRP Report Radon-222 in Groundwater in Maine for Assessment of Related
78, Bethesda, MD, 1984. Health Effects," The Natural Radiation Environment 1II, Vols. 1
[6] National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, and 2, T. F. Gesell and W. M. Lowder, Eds., 1980, pp. 529-546,
Ionizing Radiation Exposure of the Population of the United CONF-780422, National Technical Information Service.
States, NCRP Report 93, Bethesda, MD, 1987. [23] Gerusky, T. M., "Pennsylvania: Protecting the Homefront,"
[7] Nero, A., "Earth, Air, Radon and Home," Physics Today, Vol. 42, Environment, Vol. 29, No. 1, 1987, pp. 12-18.
No. 2, April 1989, pp. 32-39, and personal communication with [24] Sextro, R. G., "Radon and the Natural Environment," Chapter 2,
the author, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, Octo- this publication.
ber 1992. [25] Samet, J. M., "Health Effects of Radon," Chapter 3, this publica-
[8] American Cancer Society, Cancer Facts and Figures 1992, Wash- tion.
ington, DC, 1992. [26] Fortmann, R. C., "Measurement Methods and Instrumentation,"
[9] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, A Citizen's Guide to Ch. 4, this publication.
Radon, EPA 402-K92-001, Washington, DC, 1992. [27] Ronca-Battista, M. and Magno, P., "Radon Measurement Proto-
[10] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Residential cols," Chapter 5, this publication.
Radon Survey, Statistical Analysis, National and Regional Esti- [28] Schumann, R. R., Gundersen, L. C. S., and Tanner, A. B., "Geol-
mates, Office of Radiation Programs, Washington, DC, 1991. ogy and Occurrence of Radon," Chapter 6, this publication.
[11] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Technical Support Doc- [29] Koontz, M. D., "Concentration Patterns," Chapter 7, this publi-
ument for the 1992 Citizen's Guide to Radon, Office of Radiation cation.
Programs, EPA 400-R-92-011, Washington, DC, 1992. [30] Lucas, R. M., Grillo, R. B., and Kemp, S. S., National Residential
[12] Tanner, A. B., "Radon Migration in the Ground: A Review," The Radon Survey, Statistical Analysis, Volume 1: National and Re-
Natural Radiation Environment, J. A. S. Adams and W. M. gional Estimates, prepared for Office of Radiation, U.S. Environ-
Lowder, Eds., The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, mental Protection Agency by Research Triangle Institute, Re-
1964, pp. 161-190. port RTI/5158/49-1F, Research Triangle Park, NC, July 1992.
[13] Lucas, H. F., "A Fast and Accurate Survey Technique for Both [31] Leovic, K. and Roth, R. C., "Radon Control Strategies," Chapter
Radon 222 and Radium 226," The Natural Radiation Environ- 8, this publication.
ment, J. A. S. Adams and W. M. Lowder, Eds., The University of [32] Burnett, J., Chiles, B., and Dickson, M., "EPA's Strategy to
Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 1964, pp. 315-329. Reduce Risk of Radon," Chapter 9, this publication.
[14] U.S. Surgeon General's letter of 27 July 1970 to Dr. R. L. Cleere, [33] Rose, S., "Current and Future Perspectives," Chapter 10, this
Executive Director, Colorado State Department of Health as publication.
contained in Appendix A of the U.S. Environmental Protection [34] U.S. Department of Energy, Radon Research Program, Office of
Agency's report Preliminary Findings: Radon Daughter Levels in Energy Research, Office of Health and EnvironmentalResearch,
Structures Constructed on Reclaimed Florida Phosphate Land, DOE/ER-0536P, March 1992.
MNL15-EB/Jun. 1994
Radon and the Natural

Environment
by Richard G. Sextro ~
RADON HAS COME TO BE RECOGNIZED a s o n e of the most impor- trations in indoor air and due to the health effects associated
tant environmental pollutants to which humans are exposed, with exposures to its radioactive decay products. Radon-220,
in part due to the fact that it is widespread--indeed, radon is alternatively referred to as thoron, is part of the thorium
present in all houses--and due to the health risks associated (232Th) decay series and has a half-life of 56 s. Under certain
with even average concentrations. Although the existence of circumstances, it can contribute to the radiation exposure in
radon has been known since the beginning of this century homes in the United States, though its short half-life typically
and the health effects associated with exposure to mine atmo- limits the indoor concentrations of thoron and its decay prod-
spheres (both uranium and nonuranium mines) have been ucts. The third radon isotope in this list, 219Rn (archaically
studied for several decades, our understanding of it as an named actinon in reference to its presence in the "actinium,"
indoor air contaminant in ordinary houses has developed or 235U, decay series), does not contribute significantly to hu-
substantially only within the past decade. Some of the earliest man radiation exposures due both to the low natural abun-
indications of elevated concentrations in U.S. homes were dance of the 235U precursor (approximately 20 times smaller
associated with the use of uranium mill tailings as backfill in activity concentration than 238U)and the very short (4 s) 219Rn
house construction [1] or in other areas where radium con- half-life. In this book, use of the word radon is generally
centrations were elevated, such as parts of central Florida, synonymous with 222Rn. In those cases where the discussion
where buildings were built on lands reclaimed from phos- refers directly to the 22~ isotope (thoron), this will be noted.
phate mining [2]. However, by the late 1970s, researchers had The 23aUand 232Th decay series are illustrated in Figs. 1 and
found homes in other parts of the U.S. with elevated radon 2, respectively. As can be seen, each decay chain proceeds
concentrations for which there were no radon sources that through a series of radioactive transformations and ulti-
could be associated with technological activities [3-5]. The mately terminates in a stable isotope of lead. These radioac-
discovery of high-to-very-high indoor concentrations in east- tive decays proceed either by alpha decay, in which the unsta-
ern Pennsylvania in the mid 1980s [6, 7] did not offer a new ble nucleus emits an alpha particle, equivalent to the nucleus
scientific perspective on the radon question; rather, it focused of a helium atom, or by beta decay, where the unstable nu-
the attention of the public and local and federal governmental cleus releases an electron. In some cases, these alpha or beta
agencies on the issue. This chapter provides a broad overview decays may also lead to the production of gamma radiation,
of radon and its radioactive decay products. A number of which is an important source of external radiation exposure,
topics are introduced in this discussion that are covered in as discussed below.
greater detail in later chapters. Uranium-238, 23sU, and 232Th are primordial radionuclides,
that is, they were present at the origin of the earth and have
half-lives that are of the same order of magnitude as the age
BACKGROUND of the earth (ca. 4.5 • 10 9 years). Although the natural abun-
dance of 23sU and 232Th varies by geological setting, they are
Origin of Radon widely distributed in the earth's crust. The highest average
concentrations of these radioelements are found in relatively
Radon is a colorless and odorless monatomic gas. It is, rare alkaline intermediate rocks, with both having concentra-
under all conditions of interest here, chemically inert and is tions on the order of 500 Bq kg 1 (13.5 pCi g i). Somewhat
the heaviest of the six noble gases constituting Group 0 of the lower values are found in other igneous rocks, - 8 0 to 100 Bq
Periodic Table of Elements. Unlike other gases in this group, kg -1 (2 to 3 pCi g-l) for both these nuclides. Among the
it has no stable isotopic form; instead, all of its isotopes are sedimentary rocks, shales tend to have higher concentra-
radioactive. There are three naturally occurring isotopes of tions, - 4 0 and 50 Bq kg -1 (1 and 1.5 pCi g 1) for 238U and
radon, each associated with a different radioactive decay 232Th, respectively. The mean of the upper continental crust,
series that begin with the radionuclides 23sU, 232Th, or 23sU, weighted by the abundance of the various rock types, is about
respectively. Radon-222, which has a 3.8 day half-life, is part 50 Bq kg i (1.4 pCi g t) for each of these radionuclides [8].
of the uranium (23sU) decay chain. This nuclide is the most The radiochemical composition of soil, which is a mixture
important of the three radon isotopes because of its concen- of soild materials, air, and often water and organic matter,
typically reflects the geological formations from which the
JStaff scientist, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Building 90-3058, soil has been derived, although weathering and other trans-
Berkeley, CA 94720. port processes can affect the soil composition as well. On
9
10 MANUAL ON RADON
Uranium Decay Series Thorium Decay Series

masSElement deca"
half-life ~" Y
c(-decay
I 10
FIG. 2-The decay series for 2a~h, which in-

cludes 22~ and its decay products. The no-
FIG. 1-~3aU decay series, including 2~Rn and its decay prod- menclature for each nuclide and radioactive
ucts. Only the major decay branches are shown. The nuclides decay is the same as given in Fig. 1. Those
designated by the outline typeface are those whose inhalation nuclides responsible for the health effects
and/or subsequent decay give rise to the health effects associ- associated with ~~ exposures are indi-
ated with exposure to 222Rn. All half-lives except for those cated by the outline typeface. Only the major
nuclides noted in Table 1, are from Ref 94. decay branches are shown, and the branch-
ing ratios and half-lives are taken from Ref
94.
average, the concentrations of 23~Uand 232Thin soils are about
30% lower than the average crustal concentrations [8]. Ra-
dioactive equilibrium (in this case, each of the decay products radon decay products in indoor environments is discussed in
of these primordial nuclides, down to the gaseous radon iso- greater detail later in this chapter.
topes, have approximately equal activity concentrations) is
often observed, though not in all cases. Radium isotopes, like Radioactive Decay--A Brief Primer
their original uranium or thorium sources, are also widely
distributed in the earth's crust, and the radium concentration Radionuclides are inherently unstable; this property can be
in soils is typically 40 Bq kg -1 (1 pCi g-l). In general the characterized by the half-title (t1/2), which is the period of
observed values range from - 1 0 to 200 Bq kg-1 (0.3 to 5.4 pCi time it takes for one half of the initial quantity of radioactive
g 1) for soils outside of areas with uranium mining and mil- atoms to radioactively decay. Radioactive decay is unaffected
ling activities [9]. by any chemical interactions the radioactive atoms may
Due to the widespread presence of radium, the resulting undergo. The decays illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2, particularly
222Rn and 22~ isotopes are ubiquitous constituents of the beta decay, are often accompanied by the emission of one or
fluids present in soil pore spaces. Radium in crustal materials more g a m m a rays. Some of the g a m m a decay energies associ-
also accounts for the appearance of radon in groundwater, ated with radon or thoron decay products are listed in Tables
where the radon typically arises from the radium in the solid 1 and 2.
materials in which the aquifer is found, rather than coming While a rigorous mathematical treatment of the equations
from radium dissolved in the water. More details on radon describing radioactive growth and decay of a series of decay
and geology are presented in Chapter 6. products is beyond the scope of this chapter, the main ele-
Each of the radon isotopes is radioactive. As illustrated in ments as they apply to radon and its decay products are
Figs. 1 and 2, these radioactive decays produce other radio-
provided here. Greater detail may be found in Ref 10 or in
nuclides, referred to as radon decay products (alternative
most standard texts on nuclear physics or nuclear chemistry.
references in the literature are to radon progeny or to the
The equation describing the loss of atoms of a particular
more archaic term, radon daughters). Additional details re-
garding the half-lives, decay modes, and the alpha and radionuclide by radioactive decay is
gamma decay energies and intensities for 222Rn and 22~ and dN
their respective decay products are presented in Tables 1 and - N)~ (1)
dt
2, beginning with their radium precursors. The behavior of
RADON AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT 11
TABLE 1 - - 2 2 2 R n d e c a y s e r i e s ~.
M a j o r R a d i a t i o n Energies Potential Alpha E n e r g y Calculation

~Ea,
Decay Constant, N, MeV
Nuclide Half-Life ,X (s 1) E~, MeV E~, keV atoms lq- 1 atom 1 F r a c t i o nb
226Ra 1600 years 1.37 X 10 11 4.60 (6) ~ ... 7.3 • 101~ ...
. . . . . . 4.78 (94) .--
222Rn 3.82 days 2.10 x 10 - 6 5.49 (100) ..- 4 . 8 x 105 ..-
21Spo 3.04 min d 3.80 • 10 3 6.00 (~100) 263 13.69 0.104
214pb 26.9 min ~ 4.29 • 10 4 ... 242 (20) f 2329 7.69 0.517
. . . . . . . . . 295 (52)
. . . . . . . . . 352 (100)
214Bi 19.7 min ~ 5.86 • 10 - 4 ... 609 (100) 1705 7.69 0.379
. . . . . . . . . 1120 (33)
. . . . . . . . . 1764 (35)
214po 1 6 4 /xs 4.23 X 103 7.69 (100) ... 2 • 10 - 4 7.69 0
2~~ 22.3 years 9.86 • 10 -~~ ... 47 (100)
21~ 5.01 d a y s 1.60 x 10 - 6 . . . . . . g
21~ 138 days 5.81 x 10 - 8 5.30 (100) ...
2~ stable . . . . . . . . .
"Except as noted, all d a t a o n half-lives, alpha- a n d g a m m a - d e c a y energies, a n d d e c a y intensities are f r o m Ref 94.
bFraction of total a l p h a energy released, c o m p u t e d as Ni x (~YE~)I/~(Ni x (~E~)i).
~Fraction of total a l p h a decay.
dHalf-life f r o m Ref 95.
eHalf-life f r o m Ref 96.
/Fraction of decays p r o c e e d i n g b y this m o d e (in percent), relative to the m o s t intense g a m m a d e c a y ( = 100).
gNo g a m m a emissions a c c o m p a n y this b e t a decay.
where N is the n u m b e r of radioactive atoms, )t is the radioac- and No is the n u m b e r of radioactive atoms present initially (at
tive decay constant for that species, and t is the time. The time t -- 0). The quantity Nh is often referred to as the
solution to this differential equation is given by activity, designated by I (where I 0 = N0)t). The equations
relating the radioactive growth and decay equilibrium be-
N ( t ) = N o e - at (2)
tween two or more radioactive species (as in the case of the
where the decay constant, ;~, is related to the half-life by equilibrium established between radon and its decay prod-
ucts) are based on the same principles, although they are
ln2 functionally more complicated. For the general case ofA --~ B ,
h - (3)
tl/2 where both A and B are radioactive, the differential equation
TABLE 2--22~ decay series".
M a j o r R a d i a t i o n Energies Potential Alpha E n e r g y Calculation

Decay Constant, N, ~,E~,
Nuclide Half-Life h (s 1) E~, MeV E~ keV atoms Bq- 1 (MeV a t o m - l)b FractionC
224Ra 3.66 days 2.19 • 10 - 6 5.45 (5) d ... 4 . 6 X 105 . . . . . .

5.69 (95) 241 (100) e 9. . . . . . . .
22~ 55.6 s 1.25 x 10 - 2 6.29 (100) ... 80 . . . . . .
216po 0.150 s 4.62 6.78 (100) ... 0.22 14.58 0
212pb 10.6 h 1 . 8 2 X 10 5 -.. 239 (100) 5.5 x 104 7.80 0.913
9.. 3 0 0 (8) . . . . . . . . .
212Bi 60.6 rain 1.91 • 10 4 . . . . . . 5246 7.80 0.087
212Bi a d e c a y ( 3 6 ) f .
. . . . . 6.05 (25) ...
.
. . . . . 6.09 (10) ...
2~ 3.05 min 3 . 7 9 X 10 - 3 ... 511 (22)
. . . . . . . . . 583 (86)
. . . . . . . . . 860 (12)
. . . . . . . . . 2615 (100)
2~ stable . . . . . . . . .
212Bi ~ d e c a y ( 6 4 ) f . . . . . . . . . 727 (100) .

. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 7 8 6 (2) .
. . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 1 6 2 1 (2) .
. . . . .
212po 298 ns 2.33 x 106 8.78 (100) ..- 4 x 10 - 7 5.62
2~ stable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
~All d a t a o n half-lives, alpha- a n d g a m m a - d e c a y energies, a n d d e c a y intensities are f r o m Ref 94.

bAlpha d e c a y energies, w e i g h t e d b y 212Bi b r a n c h i n g ratios.
CFraction of total a l p h a energy released, c o m p u t e d as Ni x (~,E~)i/~(Ni x (EEl)i).
dFraction of total a l p h a decay.
eFraction of decays p r o c e e d i n g b y this m o d e , relative to the m o s t intense g a m m a d e c a y ( = 100).
fFraction of total 212Bi decay.
12 MANUAL ON RADON
describing the production of B from the decay of A and the concentration of 218poincreases rapidly in a pure 2 2 2 R n s a m -
subsequent radioactive decay of B is ple (as is also the case in a building in response to r a d o n
entry) so that approximately 50% of the equilibrium concen-
dN8
- - NA)t A -- NB}k B (4) tration is achieved within 4 min and almost 9 0 0 equilibrium
dt
between the radon parent and this first decay product is
Similar equations can be derived for successive parent- obtained within 10 min. For the 22~ series, on the other
progeny relationships. These equations, k n o w n as the Bate- hand, the initial concentration of 2 2 ~ decays away quite
m a n equations [11], can be simplified for specific cases quickly, and no equilibrium between the radon parent and
where, for example, the half-lives of the parent and progeny the subsequent decay products exists. Instead, the total alpha
species are quite different and where initial conditions can be actiVity observed for a sample of 22~ for times greater than
specified. For NBo = 0 and NA = NAo at t = 0, the solution for 10 rain after collection is controlled by the decay of the 10.6 h
Eq 4 is 212pb isotope. As discussed in more detail below, the equilib-
rium conditions in actual indoor environments are different
NB - )t~A NAo(e--;tAt - e-A"t), (5) than illustrated here, since the airborne radon decay product
)LB -- )LA
concentrations are affected by indoor aerosol concentrations,
or using I = NA and Eq 3 ventilation rates, and radon entry rates.
IB _ tl/2(A) (e -ha' - e -AB') (6) By combining the equations describing the concentrations
IA o tl/2(A) - t,/2(B ) of the alpha-active radionuclides, the total alpha activity as a
function of time can be calculated. Using the decay constants
More general treatments of these equations, including the or half-lives for the radon isotopes and their respective decay
detailed equations for all of the radon decay product concen-
products as summarized in Tables 1 and 2, the equations for
trations, are available [10,12], but are beyond the scope of
the total alpha activities are
this chapter.
Using the Bateman equations for the production and decay Total alpha activity
of each of the radon decay products, the time-dependent = 3.010 exp( - )LRn_222 t)
1Rn-222 (initial)
activity concentrations can be calculated. The results are
- 1.024 exp( - )tpo_218t) (7)
shown in Figs. 3 and 4 for 222Rn and 22~ respectively, each
- 4.404 exp( - ~ t P b _ 2 1 4 t )
for the case of an initially pure sample of radon or thoron.
+ 3.418 exp( - ABi-214t)
These two figures also illustrate two conditions of radioactive
equilibrium. In the case of 222Rn, radioactive equilibrium and
between radon and the radon decay products is achieved
after approximately 3 h. After that time, the activity concen- Total alpha activity
= 2.003 exp( - ~-Rn-220 t)
trations of the short-lived decay products are essentially /Rn-220 (initial)
equal to that of the radon parent. This situation is referred to + 1.6 X 10-3exp(--APb_212 t) (8)
as secular equilibrium. As can be seen in Fig. 3, the activity -- 1.63 X l0 3exp(--Ani_212t)
, , , ,,,,,I I i I I lltll l I l i i llii I l I I I II
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
c 100
O /
/
c
0.)
o
10-1
t- /
o
t " .....Total alpha
>~
._> 10-2. /
/ , __222Rn
+.J
< _ _ -218p0
/
._> /" _. -214pb

+.J 1 0 -3
/ - . -214Bi
/
10-4 ~/ i i i Ill~ I t
i , i i iiii I i i i i ,1~, I , i i i i1,1
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0
Time (min)
FIG. 3-Relative activity concentration of 222Rn and its immediate radioactive decay
products as a function of time. These concentrations assume that only 2aaRn is
present initially. The total alpha activity concentration as computed from Eq 7 is also
shown.
i i I llltl i ' ' ,,,,~I I I I I IIII[ I I I I I III
t- 100
.o_ ------------~"'-.. - .... Total alpha
~ ~ ~ , . ~22~
,.-"~ 0 -1 ",~,,, - - -212pb
o
0-2
o
<
._>
~ 1 0-3 ..-- ', /-- "-"--'.='-....
10-4 " ' " "' ' ' ". . .' . . . i ' ~\':'l1";" "'" '"l "
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0
Time (rain)
FIG. 4-Relative activity concentration of 22~ and its decay products as a function
of time. Only 22~ is present initially, although due to the very short 150 ms half-life
for 216p0, the total alpha activity concentration as calculated from Eq 8 is already
effectively twice the 22~ concentration after 6 s (the lower limit on the time axis in
the figure).
As a practical matter, these equations are the basis for inter- products of 222Rn or 22~ leads to one or more alpha decays;
preting measurements of radon concentrations using grab the number of atoms of each radionuclide per unit activity
samples taken with a scintillation cell. The total alpha activity and their ultimate alpha decay energies are shown in Tables 1
concentrations are also shown in Figs. 3 and 4. and 2. The conversion for PAEC in units of WL and the SI
units of J m-3 is shown in Table 3.
An alternative method of expressing radon progeny
Measurement Units
concentrations is the equilibrium equivalent concentration
Radionuclides are often measured in terms of their activity (EEC), which is currently more widely used in Europe than in
concentrations, that is, the amount of radioactive decay that the United States. The EEC is expressed in units of activity
occurs per unit of volume or mass. Until recently, the most concentration, either Bq m - 3 or pCi L- 1, and is related to the
common unit of radioactivity has been the curie and by mod- individual decay product concentrations by
em definition is equal to 3.7 • 101~disintegrations per sec-
ond. More recently, the becquerel, defined as one disintegra- n
tion per second by the International System of Units (SI), has EEC = ~ ai[i (9)
i--I
been adopted for use in scientific publications. Thus, radio-
nuclide concentrations formerly measured in units of pico-
where ai is the weighting factor for each decay product, as
curies per liter (pCi L 1) or per gram (pCi g ~) are now more
properly denoted by Becquerels per cubic meter (Bq m - 3) or shown in the last column of Tables 1 and 2, Ii is the corre-
per kilogram (Bq kg ]). This book has adopted the SI conven- sponding activity concentration, and n = 3 and 2 for decay
tion, although the equivalent concentration in pCi L- 1 or pCi products of 222Rn and 22~ respectively. The equilibrium
g 1 is often shown parenthetically. The units of measure and equivalent concentration (EEC) and weighting factor for
the conversions among them are shown in Table 3. each of the radon decay subseries are shown in Table 3, along
Most early measurements of radon decay product concen- with the conversions between EEC and PAEC.
trations were done in mines and were part of efforts to char- As can be seen from Table 1, the concentration of 214po in
acterize and eventually limit exposures of miners to radon the air does not contribute to the overall PAEC since the very
decay products. The potential alpha energy concentration short half-life limits the actual number of atoms of this radio-
(PAEC) concept was devised such that the decay product nuclide in the air compared with the other decay products.
concentrations are expressed in units of working levels (WL), However, its importance to the total PAEC is that the decay of
where, by definition, 1 WL is equal to any combination of any of the previous radon products will eventually lead to the
radon decay products in 1 L of air that ultimately releases 1.3 7.69 MeV alpha decay of 214po, as indicated in Table 1. Simi-
x l0 s MeV of alpha decay energy [13]. By this definition, 100 larly, 212po does not directly contribute to the measured
pCi L-1 of radon, in complete equilibrium with its decay PAEC of the 22~ decay products due to its very short half-
products (under the assumption that they all remain air- life, although in analogy to 214p0, part of the 22~ decay
borne), is equivalent to 1 WL. Each of the short-lived decay chain eventually leads to the 8.78 MeV alpha decay of 212po.
14 MANUAL ON RADON
T A B L E 3 - - C o n v e r s i o n factors a n d u n i t s of m e a s u r e m e n t .
Activity
SI unitsa: 1 b e c q u e r e l (Bq) = 1 d i s i n t e g r a t i o n p e r s e c o n d (s i)
1 curie (Ci) = 3 . 7 x 101~ d i s i n t e g r a t i o n s s - 1
= 3 . 7 x 10 TM B q
1 p i c o c u r i e (pCi) = 0 . 0 3 7 B q
= 2.22 d i s i n t e g r a t i o n s rain i
Activity Concentration
Slunits: 1 Bqm 5 =0.027pCiL-1
1 pCi L -1 = 3 7 B q m -3
SI units: 1 B q kg 1 = 0.027 pCi g - 1
Potential Alpha Energy Concentration (PAEC)

PAEC = 1 . 3 • 1 0 5 M e V L 1
SI units: = 2 . 0 8 • 10 -5 J m -3
= 1 W o r k i n g Level (WL)
1 m W L = 2 0 . 8 n J m -3
Progeny
E q u i l i b r i u m E q u i v a l e n t C o n c e n t r a t i o n (EEC)
E E C (222Rn) = 0 . 1 0 4 1 [218P0] + 0.517 1 [214pb]
+ 0.379 1 [214Bi]
E E C (22~ = 0 . 9 1 3 1 [212pb] + 0.087 1 [212Bi]
( w h e r e E E C a n d l[i] are i n e i t h e r B q m 3 o r pCi L 1)
F o r 222Rn: E E C (Bq m -3) = 3 7 0 0 • PAEC (WL)
PAEC (nJ m 3) = 5 . 6 2 • E E C (Bq m 3)
F o r 22~ E E C (Bq m -a) = 2 7 6 • PAEC (WL)
PAEC (nJ m 3) = 7 5 . 4 • E E C ( B q m -3)
E q u i l i b r i u m factor (F) = EEC/I [Rn]
1 B q m 3 222Rn = 2 . 8 1 n J m 3pAECatF = 0.5
= 1.35 • 10 -4 W L
1 pCi L-1 222Rn = 5 . 0 x 10 -3 W L at F = 0.5
1 Bq m-3 220Rn = 3 . 7 7 n J m 3pAECatF = 0.05 b
= 1.81 x 10 -4 WE
1 p C i L 1 220Rn = 6 . 7 • 10 3 W L a t F = 0.05 b
Exposure
1 w o r k i n g level m o n t h (WLM) =lWLfor 170h
WLM = W L • ( e x p o s u r e t i m e in h/170 h)
SI units: 1 W L M =3.54 • 10-3jhm 3
w o r k i n g 170 h p e r m o n t h
for 1 y e a r at 1 W L = 12 W L M
living for 1 y e a r at W L
(100% o c c u p a n c y )=51.5 WLM
F o r 1 y e a r e x p o s u r e at 100% o c c u p a n c y ; F = 0.5 for 222Rn; F = 0 . 0 5 b for 22~
E x p o s u r e (1 B q m 3 222Rn ) = 2 . 8 1 n J y m 5 = 2.46 • 10 5 j h m - 3
= 7 . 0 • l0 3 W L M
E x p o s u r e (1 pCi L - 1 2Z2Rn ) = 0 . 2 6 W L M
E x p o s u r e (1 B q m - 3 220Rn ) = 3 . 7 7 n J y m -3 = 3.30 • 10 5 j h m 3
= 9 . 3 • 10 S W L M
E x p o s u r e (1 pCi L 1 220Rn ) ---0.35 W L M
Dose
SI units: 1 gray (Gy) = 1 j o u l e p e r k i l o g r a m (1 J kg -1)
1 Gy = 100 r a d
Dose Equivalent
Si units: sievert (Sv) = 100 r e m
aMeasurement units adopted by the International System of Units.
bEquilibrium factor for 2Z~ decay products based on estimates from Refs 15 and 16.
The relationship between the radon concentration and the (in J kg-l). The dose equivalent, which has the SI unit of
combined radon decay product concentrations, expressed as sievert (Sv), is the multiple of the absorbed dose and the
EEC, is given by the equilibrium factor, F, which is defined as quality factor, which accounts for the radiation type. The
generally accepted quality factors are 20 for alpha radiation,
EEC 1 for gamma, electron, and muon radiation [I9], and a mean
F - , (lO)
Io value of 6 for cosmic ray neutrons averaged over the neutron
energy distribution [20]. Thus, 1 Gy of alpha radiation pro-
where I0 is the corresponding activity concentration of radon vides a dose equivalent equal to 20 Gy of gamma radiation.
(in the same units as the EEC). If all of the radon decay Finally, the organ-specific weighting factors are used to
products remained airborne, F would equal 1, reflecting com- convert dose equivalent to effective dose equivalent, which
plete airborne equilibrium between the activity concentra- also has units of sieverts. This concept will be used in the next
tions of all of the nuclides in the decay subseries. However, as section in comparing human exposure to various sources
will be illustrated below, there are a number of factors that of radiation, a practice that has been followed elsewhere
influence the behavior of radon decay products in indoor air, [19,21]. However, as also noted in these references, there are
leading to a reduction in observed airborne concentrations. uncertainties in converting specific doses to effective dose
The average equilibrium factor for 222Rn and its decay prod- equivalents. One particular example is the conversion for
ucts in U.S. homes is usually taken to be 0.5, although a radon decay product exposures, so that the calculated effec-
number of recent measurements have suggested that F may tive dose equivalent for radon decay products should be used
be closer to 0.4 or even lower in some homes [14]. The for general comparisons to other sources of natural or man-
relation between PAEC and radon concentration at F = 0.5 is made radiation and not as a means of estimating risk.
shown in Table 3. For the 22~ series, the few measurements
in houses suggest that F is about ten times smaller, implying a
greater disequilibrium between 22~ and its decay products
Average Radiation Background
[15,16]. Table 3 shows the relationship between PAEC and There are several sources of natural and man-made radi-
22~ concentrations for F = 0.05. ation to which members of the general public are exposed.
Finally, a term often used in evaluating the dose arising The estimated annual effective dose equivalent from each of
from exposure to radon decay products is the unattached these sources is summarized in Table 4. Natural radiation has
fraction, defined as the ratio of the EEC arising from the two main sources, cosmic rays and terrestrial radioactivity.
unattached decay products, denoted by the superscript u, to The composition of the cosmic radiation flux varies with
the total EEC altitude, although at mid-latitudes and for altitudes less than
3 kin, the predominant radiation is charged particles. These
EEC u particles are mainly muons, which are secondaries created by
fp - (1 l)
EEC (total)" the decay of pions formed by the interaction of high-energy
galactic protons with the nuclei of atoms comprising the
This term is important because the largest portion of the dose atmosphere and, to a lesser extent, electrons. In addition,
to the bronchial tissue per unit of inhaled activity is thought there is a neutron component, also formed from the incident
to arise due to inhalation and deposition of the unattached proton bombardment of the upper atmosphere.
decay products. Dosimetric models have indicated that the The effective dose equivalent from the ionizing component
ratio of the dose due to the unattached decay products to that of cosmic radiation at sea level is 0.24 mSv y-1 (y = year),
arising from the attached decay products ranges from 13 to while the neutron contribution to the effective dose equiva-
30, depending upon the modeling details and assumptions lent is small, approximately 0.02 mSv y-1. However, the
[17]. neutron component of the dose increases more rapidly with
Exposure is the product of concentration (or PAEC) and increasing elevation than the ionizing component, so that
time. Because the original concerns regarding exposures to above 6 km the dose equivalent for neutrons exceeds that for
radon decay products were associated with uranium mining, the ionizing component. The combined effective dose equiva-
the concept of a working level month (WLM) was devised to lent approximately doubles with every 1.5-kin increase in alti-
characterize exposures encountered working a daily 8-h shift tude for low altitudes [20]. Thus, a person living in Denver
for one month, or approximately 170 h. It is interesting to (~1.6 km above sea level) receives about 0.5 mSv y-1 due to
note that for the same concentrations (PAEC), living in a cosmic radiation. At aircraft altitudes of - 11 kin, the effective
house for one year (at 100% occupancy) yields an exposure dose rate equivalent is approximately 5 /xSv h 1 [19]. Thus,
that is 4.3 times larger than working for one year in a mine at airplane flights averaged over the entire population (flying
170 h per month. and nonflying) provide an additional exposure to cosmic
In order to make comparisons among the radiation doses radiation with an estimated effective dose equivalent of 0.01
attributed to various sources of radiation, it is necessary to mSv y-l.
account for the absorbed dose (particularly if it is organ Cosmic radiation also produces radionuclides in the atmo-
specific, such as the radiation of the bronchial epithelium by sphere which enter the food chain and ultimately contribute
alpha particles from inhaled radon decay products), the type to the internal radiation dose. The most important of these
of radiation, and a weighting factor accounting for the risk of cosmogenic radionuclides is 14C, which has a small effective
incurring specific radiation-induced diseases in that organ dose equivalent of 0.01 mSv y-1 [19].
[18]. The absorbed dose has units of gray (Gy) and is equiva- Human exposure to radiation from terrestrial sources (ex-
lent to the amount of energy absorbed by the organ of interest clusive of the alpha dose from inhaled radon decay products)
16 MANUAL ON RADON
T A B L E 4--Estimated annual average radiation exposures of the U.S. adult population. Values are effective dose equivalents in mSv y- 1.
Radiation Source External Internal Inhaled Total Fraction, %
Cosmic 0.26~ 9. . . . . 0,28 8

Cosmic-air travel 0.01~ -. . . . . . . . . . .
Cosmogenic radionuclides ... 0.01" 9. . . . . . . .
23su series 0.05" 9. . . . . 2.0 58
23sU __~226Ra ... 0.01~ 9. . . . . . . .
222Rn _._) 214p0 . . . . . . 1.8 b . . . . . .
21Opb__~21op0 ... 0.17" 9. . . . . . . .
232Th series 0.13~ .. . . . . 0.3 9

232Th __~ 224Ra ... 0.01'~ .. . . . . . . .
22~ ~ 2~ . . . . . . 0.2 c .. . . . .
Other primordial (mainly 4~ 0.10~ 0.2tY ... 0.30 9
Medical 0.40d 0.14d --. 0.54 16
Totals: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Natural sources 0.55 0.40 2.0 2.9 .-.
All sources, including medical 0.95 0.54 2.0 3.5 ...
Fraction of all sources, % 27 16 57 ..- 100

~From Ref 19.
bCalculated based on an annual average indoor Z22Rn concentration of 46 Bq m - 3, an occupancy factor of 0.75, and exposure to an outdoor 222Rn concentration of
10 Bq m 3 for the r e m a i n i n g time; a dose conversion factor of 10 mSv/WLM ( = 0.025 m S v nJ - t y 1 m 3) and a mines-to-home correction factor of 0.7. See
discussion in text.
r based on a PAEC (22~ of - 5 0 nJ m -3, a c o m b i n e d mines-to-home and 222Rn-to-22~ correction factor of 0.2, an occupancy factor of 0.75, and
negligible outdoor exposures to -'ZORn. See discussion in text.
aFrom Ref 22.
is due principally to g a m m a radiation from the 238U and 2 3 2 T h [24], a n average outdoor c o n c e n t r a t i o n of 10 Bq m 3 (0.3 pCi
decay series a n d from the p r i m o r d i a l 4~ These c o n t r i b u t e to L-1) [25], a n d a n average occupancy factor of 0.75 [26-28].
the external radiation exposure, primarily from the soil or Therefore, a n n u a l average 222Rn decay product exposures are
near-surface geologic features, a n d to a lesser extent to the 97 n J y m -3 (0.24 WLM) indoors a n d 7 n J y m -3 (1.8 x 10 -2
small b a c k g r o u n d radiation, exclusive of r a d o n directly, WLM) outdoors. For 22~ progeny, the a n n u a l average
f o u n d inside homes due to earth-based building materials. PAEC is estimated to be 50 nJ m -3, based o n a PAEC(Rn-
Terrestrially derived radionuclides also c o n t r i b u t e to the ra- 220)/PAEC(Rn-222) ratio of 0.4 [15,29-31], which yields an
diation exposure due to internally deposited nuclides. In the indoor exposure estimate of - 4 0 nJ y m -3.
latter case, ingestion of foodstuffs contributes almost all of A recent c o m p a r i s o n indicates that doses from exposures
the 4~ e n t e r i n g the body a n d the m a j o r p o r t i o n of 21~ The to 222Rn decay products in homes are about 30% less t h a n
n u m b e r s listed in Table 4 are averages from which there may comparable exposures in mines. For exposure to 22~ decay
be considerable variation for individuals. products in homes, the estimated dose is a b o u t 20% of that
M a n - m a d e sources of external radiation exposures are for 222Rn decay products in m i n e s [14]. Using an average dose
m a i n l y medical a n d dental X-rays, while n u c l e a r medical
conversion factor of 10 mSv/WLM ( = 0.025 mSv n J - l m 3 y - 1)
techniques contribute to the average exposure from i n t e r n a l
for 222Rn decay p r o d u c t exposures in mines [I7], the a n n u a l
radionuclides [22]. Other sources, such as fallout from nu-
average effective dose equivalent is 1.8 mSv y - J a n d 0.2 mSv
clear w e a p o n s testing or the n u c l e a r fuel cycle, contribute
y-1 for 222Rn a n d Z2~ respectively.
very little to average exposures, although, as the Chernobyl
The total a n n u a l average radiation exposure for the general
reactor accident in the Ukraine demonstrates, accidental ex-
adult p o p u l a t i o n is s u m m a r i z e d in Table 4 a n d illustrated by
posures from a n t h r o p o g e n i c sources of radiation can have
i m p o r t a n t consequences for local populations [21]. the first b a r in Fig. 5. As can be seen, the r a d i a t i o n dose due to
O n average, exposure to 222Rn decay products constitutes inhaled r a d o n decay products is the most i m p o r t a n t single
the largest single source of radiation for m e m b e r s of the source, comprising over half the total effective dose equiva-
general public. Although the health effects are associated lent even at a n average r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n of 46 Bq m S 3.
with radioactive decay of the inhaled r a d o n decay products, a Since the radiation dose associated with r a d o n is propor-
n u m b e r of studies have suggested that reasonable estimates tional to the concentration, living in a house with r a d o n
of the dose rate can be made based o n the r a d o n concentra- c o n c e n t r a t i o n s at the EPA guideline of 150 Bq m -3 [32]
tion [I 7,23], for which time-averaged c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are eas- increases the r a d o n c o n t r i b u t i o n to approximately 80% of the
ier to m e a s u r e (see Chapters 4 a n d 5 for more complete total average radiation exposure a n d increases the total radi-
discussions of m e a s u r e m e n t techniques a n d protocols). The ation exposure by a factor of two, as illustrated by the second
estimates s h o w n in Table 4 are based on a n a n n u a l average bar in Fig. 5. A more complete discussion of the health effects
Z22Rn c o n c e n t r a t i o n in residences of 46 Bq m - 3 (1.2 pCi L - i) a n d risks associated with r a d o n is given i n Chapter 3.
organic c o m p o u n d s (VOCs) dissolved in water, the contami-
~ 8~l
n a n t is still released i n d o o r s at point-of-use a n d thus can be
7.0 g////////////////////////A [] Cosmic
k\\\\\\\\\\\\'t t h o u g h t of as an i n d o o r source. I n d o o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s can be
IIIIlllllllHiNl[lll[ll Terrestrial d e s c r i b e d as a function of time, taking into a c c o u n t b o t h
~6.0 ] V//////////A [] Internal sources a n d sinks of the specific pollutant. In its m o s t general
80% [] Medical form, the t i m e - d e p e n d e n t m a s s - b a l a n c e equation is given by
"~5.0 [] Radon
._>
,t_c__2 = "~-"+ PAoC o - A.vC ~ - kC~ (12)
u.~4.0 dt V
CD
Co
0 g////////////////////////A
c~ 3.0 K\\\\\\\\N\\'q where
> Illlllllllllll[ILIIIlllHll
~ 2.0 V//////////A
57% S = the i n d o o r pollutant source strength or release rate,
U3 typically in units of mass or particle n u m b e r p e r
].0
time unit, or as in the case of radon, activity p e r time
unit,
0.0 I V = the volume of the affected i n d o o r space,
46 150 C i = the i n d o o r concentration, usually in units of mass,
Annual Average Radon Concentration (Bq m-3) particle n u m b e r , or radioactivity p e r unit of volume,
p = the fraction of the o u t d o o r pollutant that p e n e t r a t e s
FIG. 5 - A n n u a l effective dose equivalent to the gener-
al adult population due to radiation from various the b u i l d i n g shell o r enters via a m e c h a n i c a l ventila-
sources, as compiled in Table 4. The bar on the left is tion system. In this latter case, P will a c c o u n t for
based on the annual average radon concentration in losses due to filtration efficiency,
U.S. housing [24], while the bar on the right is based )k v the ventilation rate, including b o t h n a t u r a l a n d me-
on a radon concentration equal to the U.S. EPA recom- chanical ventilation terms, in units of inverse time,
mended "action" guideline level [32]. The effective
C o = the o u t d o o r pollutant concentration, a n d
dose attributed to radon in this figure includes expo-
k = the r e m o v a l rate due to o t h e r c h e m i c a l or physical
sures to 222Rn decay products both indoors and out-
doors, and to 22~ decay products indoors, as dis-
processes, such as deposition, or c h e m i c a l or radio-
cussed in the text. Only the indoor 222Rn concentration active decay, in units of inverse time.
changes for the two cases are illustrated here. The
fraction of the total exposure arising from radon is The first two t e r m s r e p r e s e n t i n d o o r a n d o u t d o o r sources,
shown for each year.
respectively, while the last two terms account, for removal by
ventilation a n d b y other physical or chemical processes, re-
spectively. E a c h of these terms can be e x p a n d e d to explicitly
THE INDOOR ENVIRONMENT
a c c o u n t for specific sources or sinks within these four b r o a d
H u m a n s are exposed to a variety of a i r b o r n e pollutants in categories. F o r 222Rn the radioactive decay c o n s t a n t is small
various settings. While m u c h of the focus of air pollution c o m p a r e d with the ventilation rate, so that for m o s t practical
research during the p a s t several decades has been on the cases, the radioactive decay can be neglected as a removal
sources, nature, a n d control of o u t d o o r air pollutants, there term. F o r = ~ the opposite situation exists; the a i r b o r n e
has been a growing awareness that exposure to a n u m b e r of c o n c e n t r a t i o n is controlled by the 56-s half-life r a t h e r t h a n
pollutants is greatest i n d o o r s [33]. There are two p r i m a r y the ventilation rate. Ventilation does affect the r a d o n decay
reasons for higher i n d o o r exposures; first, people typically p r o d u c t concentrations; however, the d y n a m i c s of the growth
spend 75% or m o r e of their t i m e indoors, either at h o m e or in a n d decay, plus the i n t e r a c t i o n with surfaces in the r o o m ,
an office or o t h e r n o n i n d u s t r i a l e n v i r o n m e n t [ 2 6 - 2 8 ] . Sec- m a k e this a m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d p r o b l e m . These effects will be
ond, c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of m a n y pollutants are higher indoors discussed in m o r e detail later in the chapter.
t h a n o u t d o o r s b e c a u s e the i n d o o r volumes into w h i c h pollu- Assuming that the pollutants are well-mixed, a n d that S, )~,,
tants are e m i t t e d are small a n d have low air exchange rates a n d Co are t i m e independent, then the solution to this equa-
with the outdoors. This section provides a general d e s c r i p t i o n
tion is
of s o m e of the factors affecting the i n d o o r environment.
ci(t) - S / V + P ) ~ C o (1 - e x p [ - ( A ~ + k)t])
A Simplified Model for Pollutant Concentrations Av+k
Indoors + C,(t = O ) e x p [ - ( X o + k)t] (13)
There are two principal source locations for i n d o o r air
pollutants: emissions from sources w i t h i n the building shell w h e r e C~ (t = 0) is the initial i n d o o r pollutant concentration.
a n d pollutants whose origins are exterior to the building a n d In the m o r e general situation w h e r e S a n d / o r k o vary as a
are t r a n s p o r t e d indoors, usually by the m o v e m e n t of air from function of time, as is often the case, Eq 13 no longer holds,
the outside into the building. In certain cases w h e r e the a n d the exact solution will d e p e n d u p o n the functional forms
origin of the pollutant is outdoors, such as r a d o n or volatile for S ( t ) a n d Av(t).
18 MANUAL ON RADON
In the idealized case where S and )tv are constant and air-to-air heat exchanger, where incoming air passes through
dC~ a heat exchanger to recover heat from the outgoing air
steady-state conditions are achieved, ~ = 0, and Eq 13
stream. Of these three, infiltration can be the largest contrib-
reduces to utor to the overall annual ventilation.
Buildings interact with their surrounding environment in
Ci _ S l Y -b P)~vCo (14) two important ways, both of which provide the forces driving
)t,, + k infiltration. When the indoor temperature is higher than that
of the surrounding ambient air, different air density gra-
For those pollutants for which k is small (or zero) compared dients are established in the two air columns, resulting in
with the ventilation rate, Eq 14 can be further simplified to horizontal pressure differences across the building shell. The
pressure difference between the pressure indoors (Pi) and
S that outdoors (Po) at height z, is given by
C~ = - - + PCo (15)
Vhv
AP(=Pi- Po)~- 12.65 (\ T~ -Ti To]] (z - zn) (16)
This equation, though idealized, helps illustrate the rela-
tionships among the sources and removal terms. For exam-
ple, for pollutants generated outdoors, the indoor con- where the pressure difference has units of Pa (101 kPa = 1
centrations will depend upon the fraction entering the atm), Ti is the indoor air temperature in K, T o is the outdoor
building (for most gases, P is essentially 1), and, at steady air temperature in K, zn is defined as the height (in metres) at
state, the indoor concentrations will equal those outside. which the indoor-outdoor pressure difference is zero (the
Thus, outdoor airborne radon, for example, will always make neutral pressure level), and z is in metres (see Ref 34 for a
a contribution to the total indoor radon concentration. For more complete treatment of stack and wind effects on build-
pollutants generated indoors or that may enter from an es- ings). In this convention, z and z~ are measured with respect
sentially constant source, such as radon entry by means of to the lowest level in the house. A negative pressure means the
molecular diffusion from or through the building materials, pressure inside is lower than that outside. At the lowest level
the concentrations are a result of the balance between the in the house, the basement floor, for example, where z = 0,
generation and removal terms. Often ventilation rates in ex- the air pressure difference between the inside and outside is
isting buildings cannot be changed significantly (as in the the most negative. Conversely, at the highest level of the
case of weatherization of existing buildings), so that the most conditioned space, the ceiling, for example, the pressure
important and practical means of control of indoor concen- gradient is the most positive. As an illustration, when To is
trations is reduction or elimination of the pollutant source 273 K, T/is 293 K, and the neutral pressure plane, z~, is 3 m
term.
above the basement floor, the static pressure across a base-
ment slab floor (z = 0) can be computed to be - 2 . 6 Pa.
Building Factors This gradient in the pressure differences due to the "stack
effect" is illustrated in Fig. 6a. Air will flow out of the building
Buildings themselves, their construction details, and how through leaks above the neutral pressure level and inward
they are operated are important factors influencing indoor through leaks below this level. If some fraction of this leakage
pollutant concentrations, particularly radon. There are a is below grade, such as a gap at the floor-wall joint of a
variety of different buildings, ranging from residential, sin- basement or gaps around utility penetrations through the
gle-family-detached housing to multistory residential and of- floor slab or basement wall, then radon-bearing soil gas entry
rice buildings. Within these broad categories, there are may be driven by this pressure difference.
considerable differences in the way the buildings are con- The second important effect is that of the interaction of the
structed or the types of equipment installed within them. As
wind with the building walls and roof. Flow across the roof
noted in the earlier discussion, ventilation is one part of the
can help depressurize the structure, especially in the case
equation determining indoor pollutant concentrations.
where appliances are vented through the roof (such as a
Ventilation air enters a building in three ways: (1) infiltra-
space-heating furnace in the basement). At the same time, the
tion, usually defined as uncontrolled air flow through un-
wind alters pressure difference across the upstream and
intended cracks, holes, or other openings in the building shell
downstream walls, as shown in Figs. 6b and 6c. The overall
either above or below the soil grade; (2) natural ventilation,
which is the flow of air through intended and usually control- effect of the wind is more complicated than that of the stack
lable openings such as doors, windows, or vents; and (3) effect, since the angle of the wind hitting the structure and
mechanical ventilation, which is the use of either unbalanced the location of any shielding structures or vegetation compli-
or balanced air flow driven by a blower or fan. In the case of cate the wind dynamics. In addition, wind speeds and direc-
unbalanced ventilation, air is usually exhausted from a room tions may be highly variable within a span of minutes,
or house without specific provision for makeup air. An exam- whereas the temperatures giving rise to the stack effect are
ple might be a room or whole-house exhaust fan where slower to change. The general form of the relation between
makeup air enters through gaps below doors, around win- wind speed and surface pressure is
dows, or through openings for plumbing or electrical service.
Balanced ventilation refers to situations where air supply Apj _ C(/~_p,,.v2 (17)
vents furnish makeup air. One such example is the use of an 2
R A D O N AND THE NATURAL E N V I R O N M E N T 19
- 0 . 2 . Thus, at a w i n d velocity of 3 m s 1, the resulting
aNo q / d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n of the structure is ~ - 1 Pa. Since the pres-

sure difference d e p e n d s u p o n the square of the w i n d speed,
Wind
neu"a"S
eve' small changes in w i n d velocity will have large effects on the
p r e s s u r e differential; in the above example, a n increase in the
w i n d speed from 3 to 4 m s-1 a l m o s t doubles the p r e s s u r e
difference (to ~ - 2 Pa).
"."-'.~."-7
~"~ ~ ........
The p r e s s u r e coefficients discussed earlier are those that
.TTT. apply to the b u i l d i n g surfaces a n d in the simplest cases are
a s s u m e d to apply u n i f o r m l y to the entire surface. W i n d tun-
nel e x p e r i m e n t s have also shown that similar pressure coeffi-
cients are developed on the soil surface s u r r o u n d i n g a h o u s e
Lioht
Wind
t~
I-~
\ neutral l e v e l \
x,__
/ a n d extend a w a y from the wall for distances a p p r o x i m a t i n g
that of the wall height [36]. The w i n d can therefore increase
the p r e s s u r e difference b e t w e e n the soil surface a n d the inte-
r i o r of the s u b s t r u c t u r e on the w i n d w a r d side a n d decrease it
on the l e e w a r d side, thus affecting the total driving p r e s s u r e
for advective flow of soil gas. These effects are also illustrated
schematically in Figs. 6b a n d 6c.
Overall infiltration rates vary a m o n g houses; r e p o r t e d aver-
age ventilation rates range from 0.3 h ~ for electrically
h e a t e d houses in the Pacific Northwest [37], 0.6 h - 1 for n e w e r
houses in several locations in the U.S. [38], a n d 1.2 h - 1 for
h o m e s older t h a n a b o u t 45 years [39]. These rates will change
daily a n d seasonally as t e m p e r a t u r e a n d w i n d conditions
change. An example of the variations in w h o l e - h o u s e ventila-
tion rates, as m e a s u r e d every 3 h with a t r a c e r gas, is shown in
Fig. 7 for two-week-long periods d u r i n g different seasons
[40]. As can be seen, there is a general c o r r e s p o n d e n c e be-
tween the d i u r n a l variations in the t e m p e r a t u r e difference
a n d the ventilation rate. The overall m a g n i t u d e of the ventila-
tion rate d r o p s with decreasing t e m p e r a t u r e difference. Dur-
ing the first time period, the average i n d o o r - o u t d o o r
FIG. 6-Schematic illustration of pressures (flows) t e m p e r a t u r e difference was 19.6~ a n d the average ventila-
across the building shell, established by (a) the ther- tion rate was 0.25 h 1, while for the second t i m e period, the
mal stack effect, (b) the stack effect plus light wind
average t e m p e r a t u r e difference was 3.9~ a n d the average
conditions, and (c) the stack effect plus heavy wind
conditions. The arrows indicate the direction of flow ventilation rate was 0.1 h-1. W i n d a n d fireplace o p e r a t i o n
from a higher to lower pressure region. Note the pres- were also found to have an effect on the ventilation rates for
sures (flows) into or out of the soil adjacent to the short time periods [40].
house due to the pressure fields created by the wind The o p e r a t i o n of m e c h a n i c a l systems in houses, such as
striking the structure. Figure adapted from Ref 97. forced-air furnaces, can significantly increase the ventilation
rates of the structure, in s o m e cases by 40% [29] to 60% [37].
M u c h of this is due to duct leakage in either the supply or
where APi is the pressure (in Pa) on face j of the building due
r e t u r n systems [41,42]. These leaks can also have an i m p o r -
to the w i n d m i n u s the free s t r e a m pressure, C~ (j) is the
tant effect on the r a d o n entry, due to the i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e
p r e s s u r e coefficient for face j, p is the air density (1.2 kg m 3
difference across the building shell, and the r a d o n concentra-
at 20~ a n d 1 a t m pressure), a n d v is the w i n d velocity (in m
tion d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n the house. B a s e m e n t s are often ob-
s - ~). In general Cp (j'), w h i c h is relatively i n d e p e n d e n t of the served to have average r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s several times
w i n d velocity, can vary from + 1 to - 1 a n d d e p e n d s greatly higher t h a n in the first-floor living space. In h o m e s with a
u p o n the o r i e n t a t i o n to the w i n d of the face in question. The forced-air furnace located in the b a s e m e n t , r a d o n concentra-
interior pressure coefficient, Cp (in), arises due to the effects tions on the n o n b a s e m e n t floors often a p p r o a c h those of the
of the exterior pressure on the building envelope a n d will b a s e m e n t due to mixing i n d u c e d by the forced-air system
d e p e n d u p o n the b u i l d i n g o r i e n t a t i o n with the w i n d a n d the d u r i n g those times w h e n the furnace fan is o p e r a t i n g [43]. In
d i s t r i b u t i o n of the leaks b e t w e e n the interior a n d exterior. e x p e r i m e n t s c o m p a r i n g flows in a house w h e r e a forced-air
Pressure coefficients have b e e n measured, usually in w i n d furnace a n d electrical resistance heating were alternately em-
tunnels, for simple, idealized geometries a n d the results com- ployed, the flows b e t w e e n the b a s e m e n t a n d upstairs zones,
piled as a function of w i n d angle (see, for example, Ref 35). averaged over typical winter-time forced-air furnace usage,
The pressure across the b u i l d i n g surfaces, due to the wind, were eight to ten times larger w h e n the space was condi-
has the s a m e form as Eq 17 above, except the net p r e s s u r e t i o n e d with the forced-air furnace [44].
coefficient is the algebraic difference b e t w e e n the i n t e r i o r Although t e m p e r a t u r e a n d w i n d effects also exist for larger,
and exterior pressure coefficients. A typical value for Cp (in) is n o n r e s i d e n t i a l buildings, m e c h a n i c a l systems are often the
20 MANUAL ON RADON
Week: 2/25 to 3/3 4/29 to 5/5

[] T.-T - l - - T.-T
I O I O
o Vent. r a t e 9 Vent. r a t e
,,,l,,,I,,,I,,,L,,,I,,,l,,,I,,,I,,,~,,,I,,,I,,,I,,,I,,, 30.0
-o
- 20.0
10.0 _~
0.4 0.0 rC)

"T e~
0.3 --10.0r
o~
0.2
r-
(.)
0.1
.~-
<
0.0
0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56
T i m e (3 h p e r i o d s )
FIG. 7-Indoor-outdoor temperature differences and ventilation rates measured in a
house near Chicago [40]. Data were recorded every 3 h. The open symbols indicate
data obtained during 7 days, from February 25 to March 3. Data obtained during the
second 7-day time period, extending from April 29 to May 5, are designated by the
closed symbols.
m o s t i m p o r t a n t source of building depressurization. Obser- relative pressure in the room; higher r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

vations of elevated r a d o n concentrations in s o m e school usually a c c o m p a n i e d larger negative pressures [45].
r o o m s have focused attention on ventilation systems in
school buildings [45-47]. In one such examination, three
types of heating, ventilating, a n d air conditioning (HVAC) RADON INDOORS
systems were found. In m o s t buildings with air conditioning,
central air-handling systems were used. These systems incor- M e a s u r e d i n d o o r r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s range over m o r e
p o r a t e a n u m b e r of elements, d e p e n d i n g u p o n the size of the t h a n three orders of magnitude, from average c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
building a n d the system design. The air r e t u r n systems are of less t h a n 20 to m o r e than 1 • 105 Bq m -3 (<0.5 to >2500
often a significant cause of d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n in the buildings, pCi L-1). R a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s also vary from location to
either as a result of the design of the system or b e c a u s e the location and as a function of time. This section s u m m a r i z e s
p r o p e r b a l a n c e between the air supply a n d r e t u r n flows has the various sources of radon, the i m p o r t a n t m e c h a n i s m s re-
not been maintained. A second type of HVAC system found in sponsible for t r a n s p o r t of r a d o n indoors, and the variability
some schools is the unit ventilator, which is installed in each of r a d o n and r a d o n p r o g e n y c o n c e n t r a t i o n s indoors. These
room. In some cases, air is exhausted t h r o u g h a separate, topics are covered in m o r e detail in Chapters 5, 6, a n d 7.
central fan system, which m a y c o n t r i b u t e to the depres-
surization of the room. The third type of system is r a d i a n t hot
water, w h i c h in some cases has a d d i t i o n a l p o w e r e d exhaust Distribution of Indoor Radon Concentrations
ventilation [45]. W i t h the increased p e r c e p t i o n of the i m p o r t a n c e of r a d o n
Other factors influencing r a d o n entry into these school as an i n d o o r air pollutant, a n u m b e r of surveys have been
buildings were the s u b s t r u c t u r e types a n d the presence of c o n d u c t e d to assess r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s at a variety of
cracks or utility p e n e t r a t i o n s t h r o u g h the slab floors. R a d o n geographical levels. In addition, there have been several hun-
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in m a n y schools were found to vary from d r e d t h o u s a n d m e a s u r e m e n t s c o n d u c t e d in individual h o m e s
r o o m to room. This was p a r t i c u l a r l y the case in those schools in the United States, either on b e h a l f of the individual h o m e -
that were m a i n l y slab-on-grade construction. In s o m e cases, owners (one collection of such d a t a is d e s c r i b e d in Ref 48) or
r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s were found to be r e d u c e d with the as p a r t of various state or local surveys (state survey examples
HVAC system on a n d elevated w h e n the system was shut are d e s c r i b e d in Refs 49-52). Many of the surveys a n d most of
d o w n at night or over the weekend. In a l m o s t all cases, how- the m e a s u r e m e n t s in individual h o m e s have utilized short-
ever, r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s were usually c o r r e l a t e d with the t e r m r a d o n m e a s u r e m e n t techniques [48-50], w h i c h m a y
provide an i n d i c a t i o n of w h e t h e r a n individual h o m e has m e a s u r e m e n t s in the high c o n c e n t r a t i o n "tail" of the distribu-

elevated i n d o o r r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s d u r i n g the t i m e of the tion; however, m o s t of the m e a s u r e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are actu-
m e a s u r e m e n t . However, in m o s t cases, such m e a s u r e m e n t s ally below the average. Although there are a n u m b e r of
do not provide reliable i n f o r m a t i o n on long-term average different ways to m a t h e m a t i c a l l y describe such d a t a sets, the
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s for a n individual house [53-55], which is nec- l o g n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n has been widely used to c h a r a c t e r i z e
essary in d e t e r m i n i n g the exposures a n d h e a l t h risks a n d the the results of m a n y types of e n v i r o n m e n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t s
[56,57]. This d i s t r i b u t i o n has t u r n e d out to be a convenient,
n e e d to take a c t i o n to reduce the i n d o o r r a d o n concentration.
a n d in m o s t cases, a r e a s o n a b l y r o b u s t d e s c r i p t o r of such
A n a t i o n w i d e survey of a n n u a l average r a d o n concentra-
data. The d i s t r i b u t i o n a l form is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by two p a r a m e -
tions has been c o n d u c t e d by the E n v i r o n m e n t a l Protection
ters, the g e o m e t r i c m e a n (GM) a n d geometric s t a n d a r d devia-
Agency (EPA) [24]. Based on a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5700 m e a s u r e -
tion (GSD). In addition, the average o r a r i t h m e t i c m e a n (AM)
ments, a d i s t r i b u t i o n of a n n u a l average r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
is often of interest, for example, in using the m e a s u r e m e n t
has b e e n developed that is representative of t h a t expected for
results to estimate r a d o n exposures or health risks.
the U.S. housing stock. The r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n is the arith-
metic m e a n of m e a s u r e m e n t s m a d e in all frequently o c c u p i e d
levels of the house. The resulting c o n c e n t r a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n
Sources of Indoor Radon
is s h o w n in Fig. 8. This a r i t h m e t i c m e a n c o n c e n t r a t i o n is 46
Bq m -3 (1.2 pCi L - 1), a n d the m e d i a n c o n c e n t r a t i o n is 25 Bq Early investigations of r a d o n in h o m e s t e n d e d to focus on
m 3 (0.68 pCi L - l ) . The m e d i a n should a p p r o x i m a t e the building m a t e r i a l s as a m a j o r source of radon, along with
g e o m e t r i c m e a n (GM) for a l o g n o r m a l distribution. B a s e d on r a d o n release from d o m e s t i c w a t e r in certain regions of the
these m e a s u r e m e n t s , a b o u t 6% of the U.S. housing stock country. However, d a t a on i n d o o r r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s com-
( a p p r o x i m a t e l y six million h o m e s ) is expected to have a n n u a l b i n e d with s i m u l t a n e o u s m e a s u r e m e n t s of ventilation rate
average i n d o o r r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s exceeding the EPA rec- showed no c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n the two [58,59]. Such an in-
o m m e n d e d guideline of 150 Bq m 3. A p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.7% of verse correlation w o u l d be expected if the m a j o r source of
the m e a s u r e d r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s were above 370 Bq m - 3 . r a d o n were l o c a t e d inside the building envelope o r if the
The d i s t r i b u t i o n of a n n u a l average c o n c e n t r a t i o n s s h o w n r a d o n entered at a c o n s t a n t rate, i n d e p e n d e n t of ventilation
in Fig. 8 illustrates the s k e w e d . n a t u r e of the c o n c e n t r a t i o n or o t h e r building factors, as d e s c r i b e d in Eq 15. I n this
distribution. As can be seen, there is a significant n u m b e r of section, various potential sources of r a d o n are briefly de-
Radon Concentration (pCi L-1)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0.30 , i , I , I ~ I A I , l , I , I
!
0.25 - -- Lognormal curve:
G M = 2 5 Bq m -3 (0.67 pCi L-1)
G)
G S D = 3.11
E
O 0.20 - AM = 46 Bq m 3 (1.25 pCi L1)
"I-
o
c-
._.o_ 0.15,
o
LL
0.10-
0.05- > 300 Bq m -3
\
0.00 t t L I- ~ I
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Radon Concentration (Bq m -3)
(average of measurements in all living levels)
FIG. 8-Distribution of long-term average radon concentrations in the U.S. housing stock. The bars indicate the
fraction of houses falling into each 10 Bq m -3 concentration bin. The curve shows the log normal distribution
with a GM of 25 Bq m-a and a GDS of 3.11. The data are from the EPA National Residential Radon Survey and are
discussed further in Ref 24.
22 MANUAL ON R A D O N
scribed; the n o m i n a l i n d o o r r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n due to each 0 L__ I ; ~ , I

source is s u m m a r i z e d in Table 5. Additional discussion of
r a d o n occurrence is provided in Chapter 6. I-q _Z ---4-0 ,/ ,' / ,'
Soil ~ k " ~ \,"Oo , I / -
The principal source of r a d o n in homes with elevated in-

door r a d o n concentrations is the soil adjacent to the b u i l d i n g
, , f ~ ,I . r _.k ~ , / ~ I
substructure. Several recent experimental studies a n d analy- I I \ J "~ - , - \ / ~ ..t,',
! i ,7, ~, \ , / u.20.____~
ses have investigated soil gas m i g r a t i o n t h r o u g h soils a n d into
houses a n d have helped illuminate the role of advective flow -6 1%~,0 \ .,~ . . o . .\ / /
as a n i m p o r t a n t soil gas transport and entry process [60-64].

The i m p o r t a n c e of soil gas flow in r a d o n entry has also b e e n
, ,, \ /
d e m o n s t r a t e d by the results of mitigation efforts which have
~, X/ - -I- . . . . G ,/
employed subslab depressurization or b a s e m e n t pressur-
ization to reverse the pressure gradients responsible for soil
gas entry into buildings. I n those cases where the m i t i g a t i o n
technique was successfully applied, the r a d o n entry de- \ 4~ //
\ 0 /
creased sharply w h e n the pressure gradient across the build-
-12 \.. .."
ing s u b s t r u c t u r e was reversed [65,66].
A n u m b e r of analytical a n d n u m e r i c a l s i m u l a t i o n models
have been developed to investigate transport of soil gas or
-14
r a d o n by advective flow alone [67-69] or to examine both o 2 ; ; 14
advective a n d diffusive r a d o n m i g r a t i o n [70-73] t h r o u g h
X (m)
soils a n d into houses. I n general, these models d e m o n s t r a t e
that the building s u b s t r u c t u r e interacts with the s u r r o u n d i n g FIG. 9 - P r e s s u r e and flow fields in the soil surrounding a
soil a n d that the gas flow through the soil depends u p o n basement substructure. The solid lines indicate lines of con-
characteristics of the soil m e d i u m . The building-soil interac- stant pressure difference and are labeled with the fraction of
the applied pressure. The model geometry includes solid, no-
tion is illustrated schematically in Fig. 9 for a relatively sim-
flow walls and floor with a 1-mm-wide perimeter crack at the
ple substructure geometry a n d h o m o g e n e o u s soil conditions.
floor-wall interface. The pressure at the interior of the substruc-
The pressure field develops in the soil adjacent to a b a s e m e n t ture is - 3 . 5 Pa with respect to the pressure in the soil. Flow
s u b s t r u c t u r e as a result of the pressure difference b e t w e e n streamlines for soil gas movement in response to the pressure
the openings in the b a s e m e n t floor a n d the soil surface. Soil gradient are indicated by dashed lines. (Figure from Ref 98).
gas flow lines established in response to the pressure field are
also indicated. Most of the flow in such a system occurs
TABLE 5~Nominal contributions from various sources to indoor t h r o u g h the soil located w i t h i n 1 m of the b a s e m e n t wall.
radon concentrations for a single-story residence~, Similarly, because the 3.8-day r a d o n half-life limits the dis-
Indoor Radon tance r a d o n m a y travel, the soil regions closest to the house
Concentration, Note or
Source Bq m 3 Reference will make the largest c o n t r i b u t i o n to the r a d o n entry rate.
It is of interest to know the relative c o n t r i b u t i o n of diffu-
Outdoor air 10 [25] sion a n d advective flow to r a d o n transport t h r o u g h soil a n d
Potable water ... Table 6
Surface water 0.13 .-. entry into buildings. The bulk flux density for r a d o n t h r o u g h
Public groundwater 1.3 .-. the soil m e d i u m , which is a c o m b i n a t i o n of the diffusive a n d
Private wells 23 ... advective flux densities, has b e e n c o m p u t e d as a f u n c t i o n of
Natural gas 0.07 [85] soil permeability, k [70]. For values of k < 10 12 m 2, the flux
Building materials . . . . . .
Concrete floor 3 ...b density is d o m i n a t e d by the diffusive c o m p o n e n t , a n d the flux
Concrete walls 5 ...b density is almost invariant with changes in k. On the other
Gypsum wallboard 3 ...c hand, for k > 10-12 m 2, advective flow increasingly becomes
Soil . . . . . .
Diffusion through floor 7 b the d o m i n a n t term in the flux density. An analysis of the
Diffusion through walls 2 .. b transport equations for r a d o n m i g r a t i o n t h r o u g h soil ob-
Uncovered soil 15 ...d tained a similar result: k -~ 10 12 m 2 represented the b o u n d -
Convective entry --0.5 - 1100 ...e ary between transport d o m i n a t e d by diffusion a n d that
Compare with the average
indoor radon concentration 46 [24] d o m i n a t e d by advective flow [64]. Diffusive entry of r a d o n is
discussed further in the section on building materials, below.
a T h e " r e f e r e n c e h o u s e " h a s a b a s e m e n t w i t h a 1 0 - c m - t h i c k c o n c r e t e floor
a n d 1 5 - c m - t h i c k p o u r e d c o n c r e t e walls. T h e s i n g l e a b o v e - g r a d e floor h a s inte- An estimate of the c o n t r i b u t i o n of advective r a d o n entry to
rior walls and ceiling covered with gypsum-based wallboard. Total house i n d o o r concentrations, for c o m p a r i s o n with other sources
v o l u m e is 500 m 3 a n d h a s a n a v e r a g e v e n t i l a t i o n r a t e o f 0.9 h - 1.
b B a s e d o n E q 23, a s s u m i n g D e = 5 x 10 -8 m 2 s - 1; f = 0.2; 6 - 0.2; L - l 0
listed in Table 5, m a y be obtained from the analytical model
c m f o r t h e floor slab, L - 15 c m f o r t h e walls, a n d a soil g a s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 40 developed in Ref 69 for a b a s e m e n t substructure. This model
k B q m -3.
is based on a n u m b e r of simplifying assumptions, primarily
CAssumes a n e x h a l a t i o n r a t e o f 0.001 B q m 2 s - 1 f o r g y p s u m [80,81].
d B a s e d o n a soil e x h a l a t i o n r a t e o f 0.017 B q m - 2 s 1 [78]. that the soil properties are u n i f o r m a n d isotropic a n d that soil
e B a s e d o n E q s 18 a n d 19 a n d t h e a s s u m p t i o n s d i s c u s s e d i n t h e text. gas entry into the b a s e m e n t occurs via a perimeter gap that
can be d e s c r i b e d by a b u r i e d cylinder of d i m e n s i o n s equal to c o m p a r i s o n with the c o n t r i b u t i o n s from other sources listed

the b a s e m e n t p e r i m e t e r a n d the w i d t h of the opening. No in Table 5, pressure-driven r a d o n entry can p r e d o m i n a t e ,
o t h e r structural features are i n c o r p o r a t e d in the model; m o r e even for the m o d e r a t e soil-gas r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s used in
detailed n u m e r i c a l m o d e l i n g has i n d i c a t e d that s o m e of these these examples.
s u b s t r u c t u r e features can have a significant influence on the An example of the variability of the i n d o o r r a d o n concen-
r a d o n entry rate. F o r example, the presence of a high-perme- trations a n d the associated driving forces for advective flow is
ability soil layer i m m e d i a t e l y b e l o w the floor slab can in- shown in Fig. 10. The top three curves show similar d i u r n a l
crease the advective r a d o n entry rate by as m u c h as a factor of a n d day-to-day changes d u r i n g this two-week c o n t i n u o u s
five over that calculated for the situation w i t h o u t such a m o n i t o r i n g period. The c o r r e s p o n d e n c e b e t w e e n the indoor-
soil layer [74]. F o r the simplified analytical model, the r a d o n o u t d o o r t e m p e r a t u r e difference, the resulting pressure differ-
entry rate, F, is given by ence across the b u i l d i n g shell, a n d the b a s e m e n t r a d o n con-
c e n t r a t i o n confirms, at a general level, the c o n t r i b u t i o n of
F - 3.5 X lOSLApklp. ~ forAPk <dP (18) advective flow to elevated i n d o o r r a d o n concentrations. Note
ln(2H/r) also that the b a s e m e n t r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n varies b y m o r e
[ H ] 2/3 t h a n a factor of five d u r i n g this time. Other e n v i r o n m e n t a l
= 5.8 X 103L(~ARn) 1/3 ln(2--H/r) variables were m o n i t o r e d , including soil gas r a d o n m o n i -
X (APk)2/3IRn for APk > 9 (19) t o r e d b e l o w the b a s e m e n t slab, b a r o m e t r i c pressure, a n d soil
t e m p e r a t u r e s at two depths. No association b e t w e e n the vari-
w h e r e qb = 9 • 10 -6 EARnH 2 ln(2H/r); L is the length of the ations in these p a r a m e t e r s a n d the b a s e m e n t r a d o n concen-
cylinder (taken to be the length of the b a s e m e n t perimeter); H tration was f o u n d [75].
is the d e p t h of the cylinder ( b a s e m e n t floor depth) b e l o w the
soil surface; r is the r a d i u s of the cylinder (half-width of the Water
p e r i m e t e r gap in the b a s e m e n t floor); E is the soil porosity; ARIa Since r a d i u m is widely d i s t r i b u t e d in the earth's crust, it is
is the radi.oactive decay c o n s t a n t for radon; Ap is the pressure found in m i n e r a l s t h a t c o m e in contact with groundwater.
difference (in Pa) between the soil surface a n d the cavity Radon, w h i c h is soluble in water, is found in g r o u n d w a t e r ,
( b a s e m e n t opening); a n d / R n is the soil gas r a d o n concentra- a n d in s o m e cases, significant concentrations have b e e n ob-
tion at the opening. served [76]. These concentrations a p p e a r to d e p e n d u p o n the
The r a d o n entry rate is the p r o d u c t of the airflow rate a n d structure of the aquifer a n d the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the r a d i u m in
the r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n in the entering soil gas. F o r low the rock matrix. I n m a n y cases, these r a d o n - i n - w a t e r concen-
airflow rates, the r a d o n entry rate is p r o p o r t i o n a l to the prod- trations are "unsupported," m e a n i n g that there is relatively
uct of the p e r m e a b i l i t y a n d the driving pressure, as i n d i c a t e d little r a d i u m dissolved in the w a t e r giving rise to the radon.
in Eq 18. However, at high airflow rates, depletion of the soil- Rather, the r a d o n is t r a n s f e r r e d into the w a t e r directly f r o m
gas r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n occurs b e c a u s e the t r a n s i t time of the radioactive decay of the r a d i u m in the solid m a t e r i a l s in
the air t h r o u g h the soil is small c o m p a r e d with the r a d o n the aquifer, a n d the dissolved r a d o n is then t r a n s p o r t e d with
half-life. F o r conditions where Ap • k is greater t h a n ~ , as the water.
defined above, the r a d o n entry rate is no longer s i m p l y pro- I n d o o r w a t e r use, p a r t i c u l a r l y in c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h e r e the
p o r t i o n a l to Ap • k, as shown in Eq 19. w a t e r is heated o r a e r a t e d such as in a s h o w e r or a laundry,
To illustrate the use of these equations, typical values for will release r a d o n into the i n d o o r air. The a m o u n t of r a d o n
s o m e of the p a r a m e t e r s are: L = 40 m, H = 2 m, a n d E = 0.5. released p e r unit of r a d o n dissolved in the w a t e r d e p e n d s
F o r a small p e r i m e t e r gap of 0.001 m, 9 is 3.4 • 10-10 Pa m 2, u p o n the water-use rate for each type of use, Wi, a n d the
while for a gap two orders of m a g n i t u d e larger (0.1 m), qb is efficiency (often referred to as the transfer coefficient) of the
1.7 X 10-~0 Pa m 2. Thus, for this larger gap r a d o n depletion r a d o n release for each of these w a t e r uses, ei. Data on these
in the entering soil gas will begin to o c c u r w h e n the air p a r a m e t e r s can be used to estimate the average c o n t r i b u t i o n
p e r m e a b i l i t y of the soil is greater t h a n -~ 4 • 10-11 m 2 for a from w a t e r use to i n d o o r a i r b o r n e r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s [77].
typical pressure difference of 4 Pa. Using these p a r a m e t e r s Referring to Eq 15, the source t e r m for r a d o n released from
a n d a soil gas r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n of 100 kBq m -3 (2700 pCi w a t e r is
L - l ) , Eq 18 now becomes: F -- 1.5 x 1011 APk for a gap of
0.001 m, a n d F - 3.2 x 10 ~ hPk for the larger 0.1 m gap. At Sw - Cw ~W'ei (20)
the lower p e r m e a b i l i t y limit for advective soil gas flow, k V V
10-12 m 2, a n d a small 0.5-Pa driving pressure, hPk is 5 X Dividing each side of the equation by the ventilation rate, by,
10-13 Pa m 2, w h i c h yields r a d o n entry rates of 0.075 a n d 0.16 yields the steady-state air concentration, Ca. The overall ratio
Bq s - ~ for the two gap sizes. At a APk value of - 1 • 10- ~0 Pa of air-to-water r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n can be e s t i m a t e d from
m 2, w h i c h is n e a r the onset of soil gas r a d o n depletion in this
case, the r a d o n entry rate is e s t i m a t e d to be 15 a n d 30 Bq s - 1 G Sw
f - - -- (21)
for the two gap widths. F o r a APk value of 1 X 10-9 Pa m 2, Cw VXv
w h i c h is greater t h a n 9 a n d thus is in the depletion regime
We
w h e r e Eq 19 applies, the r a d o n entry rate is 90 a n d 140 Bq s - 1 - (22)
for the two gap sizes. Assuming a h o u s e volume of 500 m 3, the VAv
volumetric r a d o n entry rates s p a n a range from 0.5 Bq m -3 w h e r e W is n o w the total p e r capita water-use rate a n d e the
h-1 at the lowest flow rate a n d s m a l l e r gap, to 1000 Bq m -3 use-weighted transfer coefficient. On average, a l m o s t com-
h - 1 at the highest flow rates a n d larger gap. As can be seen in plete transfer of r a d o n from w a t e r to air occurs w h e n b o t h
24 MANUAL ON RADON
Radon and E n v i r o n m e n t a l P a r a m e t e r s
' I ' I ' I
<- ~ I A basement rado
'~ ,: ;2',,,~ ....... delta P

L% I 9f
. . . . . , ,:; : ~: ~.;
c, "'"'.l J' ~,'
b",",, :,
t'~/u. Tin - "['out ]
T
/I ,~l ~ \ill # t,
/l~] i I
t s. ~ I
~d
O (,
\11
soil radon (/10) /
O r
9- soil T (1.0 m deep)
~, ..... " "'.. -...... soil T (0.15 m deep
eg
~ __ ---- barometric P /r
r
07 NOV 09 NOV 11 NOV 13 NOV 15 NOV 17 NOV 19 N0V 21 NOV

FIG. 10-Variations in radon and environmental parameters observed over a two-week period in a
New Jersey residence. Data were acquired continuously and recorded every 30 min. Note that the
scale for the basement-outdoor pressure difference (LIP) is increasingly negative toward the top
of the figure. (Figure is from Ref 75,)
heat and a e r a t i o n or agitation are involved, such as in a - 0 . 3 to - 3 Bq m -3 for a r a d o n - i n - w a t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n of

d i s h w a s h e r o r laundry, w h e n the m e a s u r e d transfer coeffi- 10 000 Bq m "3.
cients average 0.92 to 95, while w a t e r use in a toilet has an There are three m a i n categories of d o m e s t i c w a t e r sup-
average transfer coefficient of 0.3. Based on estimates of the p l y - - s u r f a c e water, public groundwater, and private ground-
distributions for each of the four p a r a m e t e r s in Eq 22, the water. This last category is c o m p r i s e d m a i n l y of private wells
d i s t r i b u t i o n for the overall transfer factor, f, can be e s t i m a t e d directly serving individual h o m e s (or p e r h a p s in s o m e cases,
to have a GM of 0.65 • 10-4, a GSD of 2.88, a n d an average of a small cluster of homes). R a d o n concentrations have been
1.14 x 10 .4 [77]. These results indicate that, on average, a e x a m i n e d fairly extensively for public g r o u n d w a t e r a n d only
r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n of I0 000 Bq m -3 in w a t e r is n e e d e d in sporadically in the case of private well water. This is p a r t l y a
o r d e r to yield an i n d o o r air r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n of 1 Bq m - 3 consequence of the fact that the drinking w a t e r s t a n d a r d s - -
due to use of that w a t e r indoors. The likely range in the value a n d thus r e g u l a t i o n s - - a p p l y only to public supplies. Rela-
for f, derived from the GSD, provides an e s t i m a t e of the range tively few m e a s u r e m e n t s of r a d o n in surface waters have
in expected i n d o o r r a d o n concentrations, in this case from been reported, t h o u g h these can be expected to be quite low
T A B L E 6--Distribution of radon concentrations in water and in air due to water usea.

Fraction Cw (Ca)c
of Fraction of
Population GM, AM,b GM, AM,b C~ Exceeding
Type of Water Supply Served kBq m 3 GSD kBq m -3 Bq m 3 GSD Bq m 3 40 (150) Bq m -3
Surface water 0.50 0.3 5.0 1.1 0.020 6.86 0.13 5 • 10 _5 ( - )
Public groundwater 0.32 5.2 3.53 12 0.34 5.19 1.3 0.002 (0.000 14)
Private well water 0.18 36 6.5 200 2.3 8.6 23 0.09 (0.03)
~Data and table adapted from Ref 77.
bFor a lognormaldistribution, the average or arithmetic mean (AM)can be found from: AM - GM exp[0.5 (ln(GSD))2].
"Derived from: GM(C,) = GM(Cw)GM(f), and GSD(Co) = exp [[In(GSD(Cw))]2 + [In(GSD(f))]2]I/2;where GM(f) and GSD(;f)are the GM and GSD for the
distribution of the air-to-waterratio.
in dissolved radon. Table 6 presents a s u m m a r y of data o n sphere. The m e a n eddy diffusion distance has been estimated
r a d o n in domestic water supplies. As can be seen, surface to be about 1 km for 222Rn a n d about 20 m for 22~ [15];
water supplies serve almost half the U.S. p o p u l a t i o n a n d have thus, the airborne concentrations of these nuclides will be
a n average AM r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n of - 1 1 0 0 Bq m 3 ( - 3 0 reasonably well mixed at elevations that are typical of build-
pCi L l). Public groundwater, which supplies water to a b o u t ing heights. A n n u a l average 222Rn concentrations at 1 to 2 m
one third of the U.S. population, has a n average r a d o n con- above the g r o u n d have b e e n reported to vary between 0.6 Bq
centration of - 1 2 kBq m 3 ( - 3 0 0 pCi L - l ) . Based o n the m -3 as m e a s u r e d in Kodiak, Alaska, to 28 Bq m -3 for G r a n d
limited data available, the average r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n for Junction, Colorado. Coastal regions are generally lower, in
private g r o u n d w a t e r supplies is 200 kBq m 3 ( ~ 5 0 0 0 pCi the range of 8 to 10 Bq m -3. The estimated U.S. c o n t i n e n t a l
L 1). Also s h o w n in Table 6 are the inferred distributions for average c o n c e n t r a t i o n in outdoor air is - 1 0 Bq m - 3 for both
the airborne r a d o n concentrations, Ca, due to water use from 222Rn [25] a n d 22~ [15]. For houses with average r a d o n
the different water supply sources. The last c o l u m n shows the concentrations, or for multistory buildings where the soil
estimated fraction of airborne r a d o n concentrations exceed- source term is not likely to be significant for above-grade
ing 40 a n d 150 Bq m -3 for each type of water supply. Based floors, outdoor air may contribute a significant fraction of the
on the data a n d analysis presented in Table 6, the probability
total indoor r a d o n concentration.
of having significant indoor air r a d o n concentrations due to
use of water from public water supplies (surface or ground) is
quite small. On the other hand, private wells, for which there Building Materials
are few data, can be a n i m p o r t a n t source in some circum-
Since r a d i u m is widely distributed in the earth's crust, it is
stances [76].
present in trace a m o u n t s in all earth-based building materi-
als. Release of r a d o n from a variety of building materials has
Outdoor Air
been examined by a n u m b e r of researchers in the U.S., Can-
As can be seen from the steady-state i n d o o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n ada, and Europe [79-81] (see also reviews in Refs 21, 60).
model described in Eq 15, the outdoor r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n With the exception of building materials derived from a l u m
constitutes the m i n i m u m i n d o o r concentration, to which shales in Sweden [79], the average indoor r a d o n concentra-
other sources will add. Soil is the principal source of o u t d o o r tion due to r a d o n e m a n a t i o n from building materials is quite
radon, with only 2% of the atmospheric r a d o n contributed by small. In the United States, the e m a n a t i o n rate from concrete
r a d o n release from the oceans [78]. The soil c o n t r i b u t i o n is averages 7.7 x 10 - 6 Bq k g - ~ s 1 a n d for gypsum the average
m a i n l y due to diffusion, driven by the large c o n c e n t r a t i o n
is 6.3 • 10 -6 Bq kg - I s 1 [80]. Even in the case where
gradient between the r a d o n in the soil gas a n d that in the first
phosphate slag materials, which can have elevated Ra con-
few centimeters of outdoor air. The average flux density
centrations, were incorporated in the building materials, the
across the air-soil b o u n d a r y (reviewed in Ref 78) is 0.017 Bq
r a d o n release from the materials was small, apparently be-
m 2 s - 1 for 222Rn a n d a b o u t 100 times larger, 1.5 Bq m -2 s 1,
for 2Z~ cause the processing reduced the specific e m a n a t i o n rate
from these materials [82,83].
Outdoor r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s have been observed to vary
For building c o m p o n e n t s in contact with the soil, diffusive
diurnally, seasonally, a n d by geographical location a n d alti-
tude. Near-ground c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are typically highest in the entry can arise from r a d o n generated in the soil exterior to
early m o r n i n g hours, w h e n the atmosphere is the most stable, the building shell, and from the building material itself. This
a n d lowest in midafternoon. Daily variations of about a factor can be illustrated in the solution to the o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l dif-
of three or four have been observed. Atmospheric 222Rn con- fusion equation for the flux density for r a d o n [84], as shown
centrations show seasonal variations of a b o u t the same size, in Eq 23. This e q u a t i o n incorporates r a d o n diffusion from the
i.e., factors of three or four, although the m a x i m a a n d min- building material itself as well as diffusion through the mate-
i m a show some geographic variation. This p a t t e r n appears to rial from a n external source, as in the case of a concrete slab
depend u p o n local soil moisture conditions a n d solar heating placed on the soil.
of the soil. I n general, these variations a n d the observed
atmospheric behavior are all consistent with diffusion of
[ ( GDtR.)(cosh(L/l) - 1)
r a d o n from the soil as the principal transport mode, with sinh(L/l)
eddy diffusion t h e n responsible for mixing in the lower atmo- + C~ - C l cosh(L/l)] (23)
26 MANUAL ON RADON
where the r a d o n p r o d u c t i o n rate in the b u i l d i n g materials is r a d o n in the adjacent soil d o m i n a t e s that generated internally
given by from the radioactive decay of the r a d i u m in the concrete; this
is p a r t i c u l a r l y true as the soil r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n increases.
G = Pf'IR~)tR"(1 -- e) (24) At a n o m i n a l value for D e = 5 • 10- 8 m 2 s - 1, the total r a d o n
flux density is e s t i m a t e d to be - 1.2 x 10 _2 Bq m -2 s - 1, for a
concrete r a d i u m content of 40 Bq kg i and a soil gas r a d o n
a n d the diffusion length is c o n c e n t r a t i o n of 40 kBq m -3 (the solid curve in Fig. 11). The
relative c o n t r i b u t i o n of r a d o n in the adjacent soil can be
e s t i m a t e d to be a b o u t 70% of the total by e x a m i n i n g the case
I = [D,l"2 (25) where the concrete r a d i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n is set to zero. These
L }kRnJ results are p r e s e n t e d in Table 5 for r a d o n diffusion from a n d
t h r o u g h the floor slab. Results from a similar calculation for
w h e r e Jo is the flux density in Bq m - 2 s - 1, e is t h e concrete
the r a d o n e n t r y t h r o u g h the b a s e m e n t walls are also given in
porosity (~0.2), D e is the effective diffusion coefficient, L is the table. In c o m b i n a t i o n , these sources m a y c o n t r i b u t e
the thickness of the building material, C, is the r a d o n concen- a b o u t 15 to 20 Bq m 3 to i n d o o r r a d o n concentrations u n d e r
t r a t i o n in the soil, p is the average grain density of the con- the m o d e l i n g a s s u m p t i o n s d e s c r i b e d above.
crete m a t e r i a l s (usually 2650 kg m - 3 ) , fe is the e m a n a t i o n
coefficient for concrete (~0.2), IR, is the concrete r a d i u m Natural Gas
concentration, and Cz is the i n d o o r r a d o n concentration. This As with g r o u n d w a t e r , n a t u r a l gas can a c c u m u l a t e r a d o n
e q u a t i o n treats the soil c o n c e n t r a t i o n as a constant; in those gas from r a d i u m in the rocks a n d m a t e r i a l s s u r r o u n d i n g the
cases where the concrete diffusivity a p p r o a c h e s or exceeds gas formation. Almost all n a t u r a l gas is processed, stored,
that of the soil, this a s s u m p t i o n will begin to b r e a k down. a n d s h i p p e d by pipeline. S o m e of the original r a d o n will have
Based on this equation a n d a s s u m i n g that the i n d o o r r a d o n d e c a y e d simply due to the t i m e elapsed b e t w e e n initial pro-
c o n c e n t r a t i o n is effectively zero c o m p a r e d with the pore- d u c t i o n from the well a n d final delivery to the p o i n t of use.
space c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in either the soil or the concrete, the R a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in gas d i s t r i b u t i o n lines have b e e n sur-
r a d o n flux density as a function of the effective diffusion veyed at various locations in the United States; these concen-
coefficient in concrete has b e e n calculated a n d the results trations have varied b e t w e e n - 4 0 and 4000 Bq m -3, with an
displayed in Fig. 11. These calculations a s s u m e a concrete- average of - 7 5 0 Bq m -3 [85]. The c o m b i n e d residential gas-
slab thickness of 10 cm, a n d the four cases illustrated repre- use rates in appliances such as cooking ranges a n d u n r e n t e d
sent different values for the r a d i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n in the ovens a n d gas heaters is - 1 m 3 d - i , or a b o u t 0.04 m 3 h-1,
concrete and the soil-gas r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n a d j a c e n t to the averaged over the entire day. This yields a volumetric source
outer surface of the concrete. Figure 11 illustrates that, ex- t e r m of s 0 . 1 Bq m -3 h - 1, which m a k e s a negligible contribu-
cept for very low diffusion coefficients, the flux density from tion to i n d o o r r a d o n c o m p a r e d with o t h e r sources. Other
101 L I I I I I I I ~ I I I I I I I I ~ I I I I L I I I
.--- 10 o . . . . . . . .
. o .
o
"
~ . ~"
1 0-2 ....
- ,.-.T-
"~ ...... .. - " in concrete; soil gas
r- 10-3 . - " ( B q k g -1) (kBq m -3)
x .-" - .... 40; 400

U_. 1 0-4_ - .. - - - 100; 40
/ " 40; 40
" - - - 0; 40
10-5
10 .9
.......
10
I-8 . . . . .
"1'6-7 . . . . . . . . 10 .6
Diffusion Coefficient (m 2 s -1)
FIG. 11 - F l u x density for ~22Rn as a function of diffusion coefficient through a 10-cm-
thick slab with a porosity of 0.2 and an emanation fraction of 0.2. This range of
diffusion coefficients is typical of most U.S. concretes. The calculations have been
done for three values of radium (226Ra) concentration in the concrete (0, 40, and 100
Bq kg -1) and for two different radon concentrations in the soil gas (40 and 400 kBq
m -a) immediately adjacent to the exterior side of the slab.
RADON AND THE NATURAL E N V I R O N M E N T 27
major appliances such as gas furnaces and water heaters are similar diurnal behavior [30]. However, other results show
vented, and the r a d o n released in these applications will be little, if any correlation [29]. One significant result, although
vented outdoors with the combustion gases. tentative due to the small n u m b e r of houses involved, is that
the ratio of PAEC (22~ to PAEC (222Rn) for houses with
222Rn concentrations greater that 140 Bq m - 3 is about 0.1 or
Sources and Concentrations o f Z2~
less, depending u p o n whether the measurements were con-
The discussion above has focused on 222Rn; however, in- ducted in the basement or on the ground floor. By compari-
door exposures to 22~ decay products are estimated to son, for houses with 222Rn concentrations less than 36 Bq
contribute 10 to 15% of the effective dose equivalent attrib- m -3, the ratio is closer to 0.4 [31]. At present, there are
uted to radon, as discussed earlier. Based on the relatively insufficient data to determine whether or under what circum-
few indoor measurements of 22~ [16] or its decay products stances pressure-driven flow from soil is an important source
[15, 2 9- 31 ], the estimated indoor 22~ concentration is - 10 of 22~
to 15 Bq m - 3. There are two related questions of considerable
interest. The first is the importance of various sources. Due to Radon Decay Product Behavior Indoors
the short 22~ half-life, the diffusion length for this isotope is
Because the radiation dose to the lungs is conferred by the
of the order of 1 cm, which effectively limits diffusive sources
to the indoor surfaces of building materials. On the other r a d o n decay products, the behavior of these species in indoor
hand, the mean exhalation rates for 22~ have been reported air is an important consideration. This behavior is strongly
to be about two orders of magnitude higher than for 222Rn, influenced by the fact that these species are chemically active,
~4.5 X 10 -2 Bq m -2 s- 1 for 2201~ as c o m p a r e d with =4.9 • unlike the inert radon parent, and thus can become attached
10 -4 Bq m -2 s-1 for 222Rn. These results are an average over to various surfaces. The factors influencing radon decay-
several different building materials [81]. Using this value for product concentrations in indoor air are shown schemati-
the diffusive source term, an indoor surface area of 400 m 2 cally in Fig. 12 with the rate constant for each process shown
and an indoor volume of 500 m 3, the indoor 22~ concentra- in parentheses. Radon has two decay or removal mecha-
tion due to exhalation from building materials is estimated to n i s m s - r e m o v a l by ventilation (~,v) and radioactive decay to
be 3 Bq m -3 based on Eq 14, where removal of 22~ is 218po ()~0). Initially, these decay products are "unattached,"
almost entirely due to its radioactive decay. that is, they are not associated with aerosols that m a y also be
The second question is whether houses with elevated 222Rn present in the indoor air, although in the thermalization
concentrations also have significant 22~ decay product con- process the alpha-decay recoil m a y form an ultrafine aerosol
centrations. While it would appear from the previous discus- (with particle diameters -~0.5 to 10 nm) with other gaseous
sion that outdoor air plus exhalation from interior surfaces molecules [87]. There are six possible interaction or removal
can account for typical indoor 22~ concentrations, some modes for the subsequent progeny: (1) ventilation; (2) re-
simultaneous measurements of the decay products from moval by a control device ()t~'a); (3) deposition or plateout on
222Rn and 22~ suggest that there might be a positive corre- a macrosurface, such as a wall 0t~'a); (4) attachment to an
lation between the respective PAECs [30,86]. Simultaneous airborne particle ()t~); (5) detachment of 21Spo from the aero-
measurements of PAECs in a few homes also appear to show sol, denoted by the product of the recoil probability and the
Other Removal
Processes:
Ventilation (Xv) Radon /
9 /
/
Decay (Xo) /
// Wall or
,, Other
<
Ventilation (Xv) UnattachedI" Plate-out(Xd u) , Macro
Control Device (XFu) Progeny i /
Surface
/
Recoil (218po only)
(~.~)
Attachment
(r Xl) /
/
Ventilation (Xv)
Control Device
Attached
(XFa) Progeny
~--------------~
Deposition (Xda)
/
Particle
FIG. 12-Schematic illustration of the behavior of radon decay products indoors,
showing deposition, attachment to indoor aerosols, and removal processes and
their respective rate constants. The rate constants are described in the text. Radio-
active decay of the radon progeny, an additional removal term, is not shown here.
28 MANUAL ON RADON
218po decay constant; and (6) radioactive decay to subsequent a t t a c h m e n t (Aa) of the decay p r o d u c t s to i n d o o r aerosols de-
r a d i o n u c l i d e s (not explicitly n o t e d in Fig. 12). The su- p e n d s not only u p o n the aerosol n u m b e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n b u t
perscripts u a n d a refer to u n a t t a c h e d a n d a t t a c h e d radioac- also u p o n the size of the aerosols. However, for aerosols
tive decay products, respectively. W i t h the exception of typically found in i n d o o r air, )to ~ 7.3 • 10 -3 c m 3 h - l N,
radioactive decay a n d recoil d e t a c h m e n t , all interactions o r w h e r e N is the particle n u m b e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n [90].
r e m o v a l processes are a s s u m e d to be the s a m e for the three These equations c a n be used, along with equations for EEC
a n d fp defined earlier in Eqs 9 a n d 11, respectively, to esti-
p r o g e n y species of interest here.
m a t e the effect of changes in the various r e m o v a l p a r a m e t e r s
These factors c o m p r i s e a set of source a n d sink t e r m s t h a t
on the d e c a y - p r o d u c t concentrations, the EEC, a n d the unat-
m a y be c o m b i n e d to provide a m a t h e m a t i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n of
t a c h e d fraction, fp. Assuming no filtration a n d using values
the r a d o n d e c a y - p r o d u c t behavior. These equations are col- for the d e p o s i t i o n rates of the u n a t t a c h e d a n d a t t a c h e d prog-
lectively referred to as the r o o m m o d e l [88,89] and were eny of 20 and 0.2 h - 1, respectively [90], the total u n a t t a c h e d
recently reviewed in Ref 90. There are a n u m b e r of a s s u m p - fraction has been c o m p u t e d as a function of particle concen-
tions a n d l i m i t a t i o n s to such a model; p e r h a p s the m o s t t r a t i o n a n d for three different ventilation rates. The results
significant are the a s s u m p t i o n s that i n d o o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are p r e s e n t e d in Fig. 13.
can be t r e a t e d as well m i x e d a n d that d y n a m i c terms o r As s h o w n in this figure, changes in particle c o n c e n t r a t i o n
interactions are not i m p o r t a n t . Under steady-state condi- have a m o r e significant effect on the u n a t t a c h e d fraction (and
tions, equations that s u m m a r i z e the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of each of thus, the health effects associated with exposure to r a d o n
the u n a t t a c h e d a n d a t t a c h e d decay p r o d u c t s can be w r i t t e n as progeny) t h a n do changes in ventilation rates that s p a n the
range of typical values for houses. These results are from a
17 = )tilT- I + ri_ 1~i Ia 1 (26) simplified m o d e l a n d do not take into a c c o u n t the complex
air flow a n d circulation d y n a m i c s often f o u n d indoors. De-
tailed n u m e r i c a l m o d e l i n g results suggest, for example, that
and airflow along r o o m surfaces can increase the d e c a y - p r o d u c t
d e p o s i t i o n rates [91].
17 = (1 - r i ,))ti Ia , q- ~alu (27) The relative i m p o r t a n c e of the u n a t t a c h e d fraction is also
2% + hi + X~ + A~ illustrated in Fig. 14, where a typical alpha-activity weighted
size d i s t r i b u t i o n can be c o m p a r e d with the c o r r e s p o n d i n g
w h e r e I~''a is the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of the u n a t t a c h e d (u) o r at- e s t i m a t e d lung dose. The size distribution d a t a were o b t a i n e d
t a c h e d (a) species and i = 1 to 3, which c o r r e s p o n d s to the in three residences in the eastern United States [92]. The
222Rn decay products, 21Spo, 214pb, a n d 214Bi, respectively, or smaller mode, ranging in size from - 2 to - 1 0 nm, is com-
for the case of 22~ decay products, 216p0, 212pb, a n d 212Bi, m o n l y referred to as the u n a t t a c h e d 222Rn decay product,
respectively. I 0 (without any superscripts) is the concentra- while the larger mode, from - 5 0 to 300 nm, consists of decay
tion of the respective r a d o n isotope a n d the recoil detach- p r o d u c t s a t t a c h e d to i n d o o r aerosols. The relative intensity of
m e n t probability, rl = 0.83 (and r2 = r3 = 0) [90]. The rate of each m o d e d e p e n d s u p o n the aerosol concentration; the size
10 0 I I [ i I i i I I i i i I i I I I
Ventilation Rate
~L
~ . . . . -. " .... 0 . 4 h -1
10 -1 ' " ~ . . . . -- 0.9 h -1

o " ' 4
"ID
ID
t-
o
*-. 1 0 - 2
t--
10 -3 i i i i i i i i I i i i i i i i i
10 3 10 4 10 5
Particle Concentration (cm -3)
FIG. 13-Unattached fraction of PAEC (or EEC) as a function of particle concentra-
tion, calculated for three ventilation rates using the steady-state room model. Model
parameters are described in the text.
35 ........ 1 ........ , ........ 250

E fraction of a i r b o r n e a l p h a activity
s 30.
- - d o s e per unit size class -200
9=.~. 25.
t-
.9 / ~
I ~ 150
20- , ~
N I I
"~ 15- ' ~ ~-

-o ' ~ 100
t- I I
"-~ 10 /
' ~ , 50
:~_ 5 - ,~
kk
0 ........ ~ ........ 0
lo 0 16' ....... 46 1,
Particle size, Dp (nm)
FIG. 14-Alpha-activity weighted size distributions and the associated relative lung
dose. The solid line is a smoothed average of size distributions measured in three
residences [92]. The corresponding dose, shown as the dashed line, is based on an
average of the dose conversion coefficients for dose to secretory and basal cells as
a function of particle size [931. In this figure a relative dose of 100 ~ 100 mSv WLM -~
( - 2 . 8 X 10 4 mSv m a j - 1 h-l).
of the lower mode is also a function of other contaminants use from private groundwater sources. The contribution of
that might be present in the indoor atmosphere [87]. No pressure-driven flow of soil gas bearing radon to such con-
indoor aerosol concentrations were reported, although based centrations is unclear, though the magnitude of the estimated
on the reported fp = 0.07, the indoor aerosol concentration contribution from this source covers a wide range of values,
can be estimated from Fig. 14 to be ~ 10 000 c m -3, which is a as indicated in Table 5, and could easily account for all or
typical value for residential environments. part of the observed average concentrations. For elevated
The estimated dose shown in the figure is based on dose indoor radon concentrations, advective flow of soil gas is the
conversion factors calculated as a function of particle size for predominant source in almost all cases. This is suggested by
both secretory and basal cells in the lung epithelium [93]. The the estimates presented in Table 5 and by the empirical obser-
two cell types were weighted equally in deriving an overall vation that many of the successful radon mitigation systems
dose conversion and a volumetric breathing rate of - 1 m 3 reverse the natural pressure gradient across the building sub-
h-~ was assumed. These results were then applied to the structure so that entry of radon-bearing soil gas is reduced or
measured activity-weighted size distribution to yield the dose prevented.
spectrum shown in Fig. 14. Based on the observed size spec- Radon-220 may account for 10% or more of the annual
trum, in this case the unattached decay products contribute effective dose equivalent. Few measurements of 22~ or its
more than half of the overall dose even though the unat- decay products have been conducted, and the basis for esti-
tached mode comprises ~7% of the total PAEC. These results mating indoor concentrations and exposures is tentative.
also indicate that small changes in the unattached fraction, as Outdoor air and emanation from building materials indoors
might arise from changes in the aerosol concentration or may account for the indoor concentrations that have been
from changes in the ventilation rate, can have a pronounced observed; however, it is not known, in general, whether in-
effect on the estimated dose. door 22~ concentrations may increase with increasing
222Rn c o n c e n t r a t i o n s .
The indoor environment is very dynamic, with changes in
SUMMARY ventilation rates and pollutant emissions occurring at several
time scales, from hourly to seasonal effects. In part, these are
Radon is an ubiquitous contaminant in indoor air. It is also a result of the interaction of the building with the external
a significant source of radiation exposure for the general environment, where temperature differences or winds pro-
population, constituting more than half the annual effective vide the driving forces for both ventilation and for advective
dose equivalent, even at average indoor concentrations. radon entry. The operation of mechanical systems within the
These average concentrations, ~50 Bq m -a, may result from building shell can affect the ventilation rate of the structure,
contributions from several sources, such as outdoor air, dif- the radon entry rate, and mixing within the building. In
fusion from or through building materials, or indoor water actual buildings, these interactions are often complex. The
resulting i n d o o r r a d o n and r a d o n decay-product concentra- [17] James, A. C., "Lung Dosimetry," Radon and Its Decay Products in
tions can also be highly variable over similar time periods. Indoor Air, W. W. Nazaroff and A. V. Nero, Eds, Wiley-Intersci-
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i n d o o r pollutants and in estimating exposures. [18] International Commission on Radiological Protection, "Recom-
mendations of the International Commission on Radiological
Protection," ICRP Publication 26, Annals of the ICRP, Vol. 1, No.
3, 1977.
[19] NCRP, "Exposure of the Population of the United States and
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MNL15-EB/Jun. 1994
Health Effects of Radon

by Jonathan M. Samet ~
A L T H O U G H RADON IN INDOOR AIR has

been widely recognized a s study design has been most widely applied. In this design,
a significant public health problem only since the 1970s, miners are followed longitudinally and the occurrence of
radon has been linked to excess lung cancer in underground lung cancer and other diseases monitored; the disease experi-
miners since the early decades of this century. As long ago as ence of the miners is often compared to the expected occur-
the 1500s, Agricola described unusually high mortality from rence of disease based on the rates in the general population.
respiratory, diseases among underground metal miners in the Disease risks are also examined in relation to exposure to
Erz Mountains of eastern Europe, a region presently encom- radon or other agents. The relative risk is used to describe the
passed by Germany and Czechoslovakia [1]. The disease, effect of exposure; it compares the risk in exposed persons to
termed "bergkrankheit," probably represented lung cancer, those in an unexposed or less exposed reference category.
silicosis, and tuberculosis, common diseases of underground Another design, the case-control study, has also been used to
miners. In 1879, Halting and Hesse [2] reported autopsy find- investigate lung cancer in miners. In this design, the expo-
ings in miners of Schneeberg in Germany that documented sures of lung cancer cases are compared with those of con-
an occupational hazard of lung cancer, although they did not trols who do not have lung cancer.
identify the disease as primary cancer of the lung. Early in Epidemiologic studies have shown excess occurrences of
this century, further pathological studies showed that the lung cancer in uranium miners in the United States, Czecho-
miners developed primary carcinoma of the lung [3,4]. slovakia, France, and Canada, and in other underground
Measurement of radon in the mines of Schneeberg and miners exposed to radon decay products, including New-
Joachimsthal early in this century documented the presence foundland fluorspar miners, Swedish and U.S. metal miners,
of radon at concentrations that would be considered high by British and French iron miners, and Chinese and British tin
present occupational standards [5-7]. By the 1930s, excess miners [13]. In the United States and elsewhere, regulations
lung cancer was demonstrated among miners in Joa- have been implemented to limit the exposure of underground
chimsthal on the Czechoslovakian side of the range, and miners to radon decay products, and exposure in the mining
radon was found in the air of the mines. Radon was consid- environment has progressively declined since the t950s
ered a likely cause of lung cancer in these miners [6], but a [14, I5]. hi recent years, the exposure of animals to radon and
causal role of radon was not uniformly accepted. For exam- decay products has confirmed that radon decay products
ple, in a 1944 review of the subject, Lorenz [8] argued that cause lung cancer [13].
radon alone could not be the cause of lung cancer and pro- As information on air quality in indoor environments accu-
posed that genetic susceptibility to develop lung cancer might mulated, it became apparent that radon and its decay prod-
be unusually high in the miners of Schneeberg and Joa- ucts are invariably present in indoor environments and that
chimsthal. However, the association of exposure to radon concentrations may reach levels as high as those in under-
with lung cancer became widely accepted as causal as the ground mines in some dwellings. The well-documented ex-
biologic basis of carcinogenesis by radon was better under- cess of lung cancer among underground miners raised con-
stood and excess lung cancer was documented in additional cern that exposure to radon decay products might also be a
populations of underground miners [9-11]. Bale's 1951 cause of lung cancer in the general population. Thus, the lung
memorandum showing that the decay products of radon, cancer hazard associated with radon exposure is presently of
rather than radon itself, delivered the alpha energy dose to concern not only for the relatively small number of exposed
the respiratory, tract was an important advance [12]. underground miners, but for the general population. The
Evidence on radon and lung cancer, as well as other dis- lung cancer risk associated with indoor radon has not yet
eases, is now available from about 20 different groups of been extensively investigated. The risk of indoor radon has
underground miners. These groups have been investigated been primarily assessed by using risk models that extend the
using epidemiologic study designs; epidemiology is the bio- findings of the studies of miners to the general population.
medical research science used to describe the occurrence of However, numerous epidemiological investigations of the as-
diseases and to determine the causes of diseases in popula- sociation between indoor radon and lung cancer are now in
tions. In investigating the various mining groups, the cohort progress throughout the world.
This chapter reviews the evidence on lung cancer and expo-
tProfessor of Medicine, Department of Medicine and the New Mex- sure to radon decay products. It covers concepts of exposure
ico Tumor Registry, Cancer Center, University of New Mexico Medi- and dose, the relevant epidemiological studies, and risk as-
cal Center, Albuquerque, NM 87131. sessment. It also considers the more limited information on
33
34 MANUAL ON RADON
health effects other than lung cancer. Of necessity, it cannot is dependent on both biological and nonbiological factors,
cover these topics in depth. Other recent reviews and mono- including the physical characteristics of the inhaled air, the
graphs provide more complete treatments of various aspects amount of air inhaled, breathing patterns, and the biological
of the subject [13,16-22]. characteristics of the lung (Table 1) [25,26]. These factors
influencing the relation between exposure and dose could
plausibly differ for the circumstances of exposure in homes
DOSIMETRY OF RADON and in mines; it cannot be assumed that the same exposures
in a home and in a mine lead to the same doses of alpha
Concentration and Exposure radiation to target cells in the lung and hence to the same
lung cancer risk. Thus, in using the epidemiological evidence
For historical reasons, the concentration of radon decay
from studies of miners to estimate the risk of indoor radon,
products in mines has been generally expressed as working
the dosimetry of radon decay products in the mining and
levels (WL), where one WL is any combination of radon decay
indoor environments needs to be compared.
products in one liter of air that ultimately releases 1.3 x l0 s
Certain aspects of lung structure and function are impor-
MeV of alpha energy during decay [23]. Exposure to 1 WL for tant determinants of the dosimetry of radon decay products
170 h equals one working level month (WLM) of exposure.
[25,27]. Inhaled air flows through the nasal and oral airways
The WLM was developed to describe exposures sustained by to the trachea; at rest, the nasal route predominates, but flow
miners during the average number of hours spent under- through the oral route increases with exercise. The lung com-
ground during a work month. Nevertheless, this unit of expo-
prises the airways, a dichotomously branching system of
sure has been applied in the United States to indoor expo-
tubes, and the alveoli, the saccular structures where gas ex-
sures. Because most persons spend much more than 170 h at
change takes place. Gas flow is turbulent in the larger airways
home each month, a concentration of 1 WL in a residence
and laminar in the smaller airways; gases move by diffusion
results in an exposure much greater than 1 WLM on a
in the alveolar spaces. The respiratory system has multiple
monthly basis. Thus, assuming that 70% of time is spent at
defense mechanisms for handling inhaled particles, such as
home, a 1 WL concentration (7400 Bq m 3or 200 pCi/L) would
radon decay products. The nose efficiently removes large
yield an exposure of 3.0 WLM monthly or 36 WLM annually.
particles and charged particles; the latter is the state of the
The approximate average concentration in U.S. homes (55 Bq
unattached fraction of radon decay products. In the lung,
m 3 or 1.5 pCi/L) [24], under the same home occupancy as-
particles in the size range of 2 to 10/zm tend to deposit in the
sumption, results in an exposure of about 0.02 WLM
airways and are cleared by the mucociliary apparatus, which
monthly, about 0.3 WLM annually, and about 20 WLM over a
moves mucus towards the larynx, where it is coughed or
70-year lifetime. Cumulative exposure in SI units is expressed
swallowed. Submicron particles also deposit in the airways
in Joule hours per cubic meter (Jh m 3) and 1 WLM is a 3.5 X
10 -3 Jh m -3. with increasingly high deposition fractions as the particle di-
ameter decreases.
Most human lung cancers arise at the level of about the
Respiratory Dosimetry of Radon Decay Products third through the fifth airways generations, and relatively few
originate peripherally [28]. These airways have a cartilagi-
The lung cancer risk associated with exposure to radon is
considered to result from the alpha particles emitted by in- nous structure and are lined by a pseudostratified ciliated
haled radon decay products which have been deposited on columnar epithelium; that is, the superficial layer includes
the lining of the airways of the lung. The genetic material of cells with cilia, hair-like structures which beat in an orga-
cells in this lining, referred to as the epithelium, may be nized fashion to propel mucus towards the trachea. The cells
damaged by the energy released by the alpha particles as they appear to be in multiple strata, although only one layer is
pass through the cells. Thus, the lung cancer risk associated present [27]. The cellular components of the airways epithe-
with exposure to radon is presumed to vary with the dose of lium include the ciliated epithelial cells, mucus-secreting
alpha energy delivered to target cells in the lung [22]. cells, basal reserve cells, and other types. Although the cellu-
The relation between exposure to radon decay products, lar origins of human lung cancer are controversial, all of the
measured as WLM or Jh m -3, and dose of alpha energy to principal cell types of the airways epithelium are considered
target cells in the respiratory tract is extremely complex and to have the potential to undergo malignant transformation
[22,29,30]. The relevant target for carcinogenesis by alpha
particles is assumed to be the mucus-secreting cells and the
TABLE 1--Physical and biological factors influencing the dose to basal cells of the bronchi, the airways where most human
target cells in the respiratory tract from radon exposure. lung cancers occur [22].
Physical Factors The dose of alpha energy delivered to these target cells in
Fraction of daughters unattached to particles the lungs cannot be directly measured; modeling approaches
Aerosol size distribution are used to simulate the complex sequence of events, from
Equilibrium of radon with its progeny inhalation of radon decay products to cellular injury by alpha
Biological Factors particles. The models incorporate not only the biological pro-
cesses that follow inhalation, but the physical state of the
Tidal volume and respiratory frequency
Partitioning of breathing between the oral and nasal routes inhaled radon decay products, also an important determi-
Bronchial morphometry nant of the exposure-dose relation for radon decay products.
Mucociliary clearance rate Radon is an inert gas, but its decay products are solid,
Mucus thickness charged particles. While most of the decay products attach to
Location of target cells
aerosols immediately after formation, a variable proportion
H E A L T H E F F E C T S OF R A D O N 35
of the atoms exist in an uhrafine mode, historically referred - - Bronchial region I

I
to as the unattached fraction [22,26, 31 ]. The fraction of unat- . . . . . Segmental branch1 I
!
tached radon decay products in inhaled air is an important I
determinant of the dose received by target cells at a particular I
I
concentration in inhaled air; as the unattached fraction in-
Breathing rate, m3h -1 II/
creases, the dose also increases because of the efficient depo-
sition of the unattached decay products in the larger airways
(Fig. 1) [25]. The size distribution of particles in the inhaled - ~ - ~ " - ' - ~ ' _ - Z - Z ' - :. . . . . . ~'-.:_ _ _ .: _ -" - ~ "
air also influences the dose to the airways because particles of 1.2
different sizes deposit preferentially in different generations to 075

of airways [25]. The specific mixture of radon decay products
also affects the dose to target cells, although to a lesser extent. ~ ~ 0.45
The amount of inhaled radon decay products varies di-
rectly with the minute ventilation, the total volume of air Q: I I I i ( i
inhaled each minute. The increased ventilation associated 0.001 0.01 0.1 0.5
with physical activity increases the inhaled burden of radon AMD, urn
decay products. The deposition of radon decay products FIG. 2-Relative epithelial doses in the bronchial region and
within the lung, however, does not vary in a simple fashion segmental bronchi in relation to aerosol size and breathing
with the minute ventilation but varies with the flow rates in rate. Calculations are relative to values for occupational expo-
each airway generation (Fig. 2) [25]. These flow rates depend sure at a breathing rate of 1.2 m3/h. Used with permission from
on both tidal volume and breathing frequency. The dose Ref 25.
changes approximately with the square root of breathing
rate. The proportions of oral and of nasal breathing also
branching patterns of the airways affect deposition, and these
influence the relationship between exposure and dose [25]. A
aspects of airways configuration may differ between children
substantial proportion of the unattached radon decay prod-
and adults, and between males and females. The exposure-
ucts deposits in the nose with nasal breathing, whereas the
dose relation is thus different for infants, children, and adults
oral filtration efficiency is lower [22].
and for males and females [22,25,32]. Once deposited in the
Characteristics of the lung also influence the relationship
airways, radon decay products are cleared by the mucociliary
between exposure and dose (see Table 1). The sizes and
apparatus. Thus, the rate of mucociliary clearance and the
thickness of the mucous layer in the airways also enter into
Io0.05 0.1 ~15 0.2 F'- 0.15 dose calculations. The dose increases as the mucociliary
15
clearance slows and diminishes with increasing thickness of
F= 037 the mucous layer. Cigarette smoking tends to reduce the rate
i of clearance and to increase the thickness of the mucous
F=0.72 layer.
The cells of the airways absorb alpha energy as alpha parti-
E cles released in the decay of polonium-218 and polonium-214
" 10 on the epithelium's surface move through the epithelial layer.
These particles have a short range in tissue but can penetrate
g to the basal layer. Cellular doses can be calculated [22,25].
"6 Computer models have been developed to describe the rela-
"e tion between exposure to radon decay products and the dose
J-B of alpha radiation received by target cells. These models can
t~
/ be used to assess the effects of the physical and biological

factors listed in Table 1 on the exposure-dose relation. These
complex models generally incorporate biological factors, in-
cluding airways geometry, mucociliary deposition, particle
deposition, ventilation pattern, and location of the target
cells, and physical factors, including the unattached fraction
and the aerosol size distribution [22,25,26,33]. Using such
o ~ models, factors for converting exposure to an absorbed radi-
o 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Unattached Fraction fp ation dose can be calculated, but the range of published dose
conversion factors is wide [25]. As summarized by James
FIG. 1-Dose (mGy/WLM) in segmental bronchi [25], the values span from 0.8 rad/WLM (0.8 mGy/WLM) to
calculated as a function of the unattached frac- about 10 rad/WLM (100 mGy/WLM). For the attached and
tion (.fp) and equilibrium factor (F) using differ-
unattached fractions specifically, the dose conversion factors
ent dosimetric models: Harley-Posternack (H-
P), Jacobi-Eisfeld (J-E), and James-Birchall (J- cover a narrower range. Recent estimates for the attached
B). The open symbols represent unattached Po- fraction are about 0.2 to 1.3 rad/WLM (2 to 13 mGy/WLM)
218 particles of 1-nm diameter, and the solid and for the unattached fraction about 10 to 20 rad/WLM (100
symbols represent particles of 3-nm diameter. to 200 mGy/WLM). To convert absorbed dose to tissue dose
Used with permission from Ref 2 5 . equivalent in units of ram, or sieverts in the SI system, the
36 M A N U A L ON R A D O N
absorbed dose in rads or grays is multiplied by 20, the quality TABLE 2--Summary of K factors for bronchial dose calculated
factor for alpha radiation. for normal people in the general environment relative to healthy
underground miners, a
K Factor for Target Cells
Comparisons o f Dosimetry in the Indoor and Subject Category Secretory Basal
M i n i n g Environments
Infant, age 1 month 0.74 0.64
Dosimetric models have proved useful for evaluating un- Child, age 1 year 1.00 0.87
certainties in extrapolating from the mining to the general Child, age 5 to 10 years 0.83 0.72
Adult female 0.72 0.62
indoor environment. Using dosimetry models, the alpha dose Adult male 0.76 0.66
to the respiratory tract has been compared under the circum-
aTaken from Table S-1 in Ref 22.
stances of exposure in homes and in mines [22,25]. In com-
parison with mines, the unattached fraction is higher in
homes, and the aerosol size distributions may differ in the have provided data on the combined effects of cigarette
two environments. The ventilation rates of working miners smoking and exposure to radon decay products. These stud-
are higher on average than the general population during ies have been less informative concerning the temporal ex-
usual activities at home. The physical configuration of the pression of the excess risk across the full life span and the
airways of children differs from that of adults as well. effect of exposure rate. Animal experiments have also pro-
A number of comparisons of dosimetry in mines and in vided data on exposure-response relations and on the modify-
homes have been reported [22,25,26]. Comparative analyses ing effects of exposure rate and the physical characteristics of
reported during the 1980s indicated that exposures to radon the inhaled radon decay products [13].
decay products in homes and in mines yield essentially com- The lung cancer risk associated with exposure to radon
parable doses of alpha energy to the respiratory tracts of decay products must be considered in the context of the
adults [25,26]; for children, the estimated doses were esti- extensive literature on lung cancer in the general population.
mated to be higher than for adult miners and nonminers This malignancy, uncommon at the start of the century, has
because of the physical differences between the lungs of chil- become the leading cause of cancer death in the United States
dren and adults [25,26]. [35]. Most lung cancers are caused by cigarette smoking, and
The Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR) IV only 5 to 10% of the total occur in lifelong nonsmokers
Committee of the National Research Council [13] used a [35, 36]. In cigarette smokers, the risk of developing lung can-
descriptive approach and also concluded that exposure-dose cer increases with the number of cigarettes smoked daily and
relationships were similar for exposure in homes and in with the number of years smoked [35,37]. The risk of lung
mines. The Committee reviewed the likely range of dose con- cancer for a smoker compared with a nonsmoker is increased
version factors for particle size, unattached fraction, equilib- approximately ten-fold on average but reaches twenty-fold or
rium factor, and minute ventilation in homes and in mines. higher in heavier smokers. Lung cancer occurs in multiple
The Committee's estimates for the ratios of these factors in histopathological patterns, as assessed by conventional light
homes to mines were 1.4, 1.2, 1, and 0.56, respectively. When
microscopy [38]. The most common types of lung cancer are
considered together, the product of these ratios was near
squamous cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, small cell carci-
unity. The Committee's approach assumed that the remain-
noma, and large cell carcinoma, accounting for about 30, 25,
ing biological determinants of the exposure-dose relationship
20, and 10 to 15% of lung cancers in the general population,
were comparable in miners and in the general population.
respectively [39].
More recently, another National Research Council com-
Because cigarette smoking predominates as the cause of
mittee further compared the relations between exposure and
lung cancer, the risk from exposure to radon decay products
dose in homes and in mines [22]. This committee used the
must be addressed separately for smokers and for nonsmok-
most recent information on the parameters of a new dosi-
ers. When one agent (cigarette smoke, for example) modifies
metric model. The findings were expressed as a ratio, termed
the effect of another (radon decay products, for example)
K, which represents the quotient of the dose of alpha energy
interaction is present. An interaction between two agents
delivered per unit exposure to an individual in the home to
may be either synergistic or antagonistic; synergism refers to
the dose per unit exposure to a male miner in a mine. At
an increased effect of the independent exposures when both
nearly all ages, K was less than 1, indicating lesser doses in
are present, whereas antagonism refers to a reduced effect. If
the home environment (Table 2).
the combined effect equals the product of the independent
risks, then the interaction is considered to be multiplicative;
the interaction is considered additive if the combined effect
E P I D E M I O L O G I C A L S T U D I E S OF R A D O N equals the sum of the independent risks less unity. A multipli-
AND LUNG CANCER cative interaction yields the same level of relative risk in
smokers and nonsmokers for a particular exposure, but the
Introduction
higher background risk of the smokers is multiplied by that
The causal association of exposure to radon decay products resulting from radon decay products. If two agents interact in
with lung cancer has been amply documented through epide- a synergistic fashion, then some cases can be attributed to the
miologic investigations of underground miners [13,16,34]. two factors acting alone and some to their joint action. The
Studies of miners have shown rising lung cancer risk as cases having shared causation can in theory be prevented by
cumulative exposure to radon decay products increases and removing either of the interacting agents. Estimates of the
H E A L T H E F F E C T S OF R A D O N 37
n u m b e r s o r p r o p o r t i o n s of preventable cases m a y thus ex- TABLE 3--Epidemiological studies of radon-exposed

ceed the total n u m b e r of cases o r 100%. underground miners. ~
Cigarette smoking has well-described effects on b o t h the Substance Mined (Reference) Location
airways a n d the lung p a r e n c h y m a [40]; these effects m a y Uranium [11] U.S. Colorado Plateau
plausibly m o d i f y the relationship b e t w e e n exposure to r a d o n Uranium [45] New Mexico
a n d dose of a l p h a energy to cells. In c o m p a r i s o n with the Uranium [46] Czechoslovakia
dose in n o n s m o k e r s , the dose in s m o k e r s m i g h t be increased Uranium [47] Ontario, Canada
b y the g r e a t e r central deposition, the i n c r e a s e d airways per- Uranium [48] Beaverlodge, Canada
Uranium [49] Port Radium, Canada
meability, a n d the slowed m u c o c i l i a r y t r a n s p o r t that have Uranium [50] France
b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d to result from smoking. The dose in Iron [51] Kiruna, Sweden
s m o k e r s m i g h t be r e d u c e d by m u c o s a l e d e m a a n d b y the Iron [52] Grangesberg, Sweden
increased m u c u s thickness, on average, s e c o n d a r y to the Iron [53] Malmberget, Sweden
Iron [54] Northern Sweden
h e i g h t e n e d m u c u s p r o d u c t i o n in the airways of smokers. Iron [55] England
C o m p o n e n t s of tobacco s m o k e m i g h t also interact with a l p h a Iron [56] France
particles in the process of carcinogenesis itself. At present, a Magnetite [57] Norway
conclusion c a n n o t be r e a c h e d t h r o u g h biologically b a s e d Fluorspar [58] Newfoundland, Canada
Metal ores [59] United States
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s alone c o n c e r n i n g the net consequence of in- Zinc-lead [60] Hammar, Sweden
t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n cigarette smoking a n d exposure to r a d o n Tin [61] Cornwall, England
decay products. Thus, the d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the form of inter- Tin [62] Yunnan, China
action b e t w e e n exposure to r a d o n decay p r o d u c t s a n d ciga- Niobium [63] Norway
rette smoking has b e e n b a s e d p r i m a r i l y on the epidemiologi- ~From Ref 31.
cal studies of u n d e r g r o u n d miners.
The hypothesis has b e e n a d v a n c e d t h a t the interaction of
r a d o n decay p r o d u c t s with e n v i r o n m e n t a l tobacco smoke exposure a n d analytical m e t h o d s a m o n g the investigations.
m a y c o n t r i b u t e to the d e v e l o p m e n t of lung c a n c e r in active The m o s t detailed analyses have b e e n r e p o r t e d for the study
s m o k e r s a n d in passively exposed n o n s m o k e r s [41,42]. The of u r a n i u m m i n e r s in the Colorado Plateau [66,67]. I n this
i n t r o d u c t i o n of cigarette s m o k e into an unventilated r o o m cohort, the exposure-response relation was n o n l i n e a r across
increases the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of r a d o n decay products, an in- the full range of exposure w h i c h extended to 35 Jh -3 (10 000
crease that m a y reflect a t t a c h m e n t of decay p r o d u c t s to to- WLM); the excess risk p e r unit exposure d e c r e a s e d at h i g h e r
bacco s m o k e aerosol [43]. I n c r e a s e d exposure to r a d o n decay exposures. The decrease in excess risk at the h i g h e r exposures
p r o d u c t s w o u l d thus result f r o m the t o b a c c o smoke. How- m a y reflect cell killing by a l p h a particles, b u t a greater degree
ever, the results of d o s i m e t r i c m o d e l i n g indicate that increas- of e r r o r in h i g h e r exposure estimates is an alternative expla-
ing c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of particles decrease the dose received by n a t i o n [13]. Subjects first exposed at a n o l d e r age were at
target cells in the lung's airways. Thus, the net effect of envi- increased risk of lung cancer. Risk was also i n c r e a s e d b y a
r o n m e n t a l t o b a c c o smoke on the lung c a n c e r risk represents lower rate of exposure, a n d the relative risk declined with
the s u m m a t i o n of the factors tending to increase a n d to de- t i m e since leaving mining.
crease dose to target ceils. A conclusion c a n n o t yet be r e a c h e d Insight into the interaction between exposure to r a d o n
on the b a l a n c e of these factors [44]. decay p r o d u c t s a n d cigarette smoking can be g a i n e d f r o m
those e p i d e m i o l o g i c studies of m i n e r s that d o c u m e n t e d b o t h
Studies of Miners of these exposures; unfortunately, such i n f o r m a t i o n is avail-
able for only a few of the study groups [13]. Small case
The risk of lung c a n c e r associated with exposure to r a d o n n u m b e r s in some of the studies also limit the statistical preci-
decay p r o d u c t s has been investigated in a b o u t 20 different sion with which the interaction can be described. Although
p o p u l a t i o n s of u n d e r g r o u n d m i n e r s (Table 3). Although the
m e t h o d o l o g y of these studies is varied, the findings u n i f o r m l y
indicate i n c r e a s e d lung c a n c e r o c c u r r e n c e from exposure to TABLE 4--Relative risk coefficients for lung cancer from
r a d o n decay products. Not all of the investigations, however, longitudinal studies of underground miners. ~
include the d a t a for individual subjects that are n e e d e d to Excess Relative Risk,
c h a r a c t e r i z e the exposure-response relation of lung c a n c e r Study Jh m- 3
risk with exposure to r a d o n decay products, a n d only a few of Colorado Plateau uranium miners 1.4 (0.5) b
the investigations have i n c o r p o r a t e d a s s e s s m e n t of cigarette New Mexico uranium miners 3.1 (1.1)
smoking. Moreover, n o n e of the longitudinal investigations Ontario uranium miners 3.7 (1.3)
have yet c o m p l e t e d follow-up of all subjects from first expo- Beaverlodge, Canada, uranium miners 7.4 (2.6)
Port Radium, Canada, uranium miners 2.0 (0.7)
sure to death; thus, u n c e r t a i n t y r e m a i n s concerning the full Czech uranium miners 5.4 (1.9)
t e m p o r a l expression of the excess risk of lung cancer associ- Malmberget, Sweden, iron miners 4.6 (1.6)
ated with exposure to r a d o n decay products. Newfoundland fluorspar miners 8.6 (3.0)
Quantitative exposure-response relationships have been Chinese tin miners 2.6 (0.9)
d e s c r i b e d using d a t a f r o m several of the c o h o r t studies (Table "With the exception of New Mexico uranium miners, the data were ab-
4) [13,64,65]. The range of excess relative risk coefficients, stracted from Table 2 in Ref 64 and refer to exposure categories below 1.75 Jh
m -3 (500 WLM). For New Mexico uranium miners, the data were obtained
f r o m 1.4 to 8.6 p e r Jh m -3 (0.5 to 3.0 p e r 100 WLM), is from Ref 65 and refer to exposures less than 3.51 J h -3 (1000 WLM).
r e m a r k a b l y n a r r o w in view of the differing assessments of bValues in parentheses are excess relative risk per 100 WLM.
38 MANUAL ON RADON
the smaller investigations have yielded inconsistent descrip- In the descriptive studies, incidence or mortality rates for
tions of the combined effect of smoking and exposure to lung cancer within geographic units were correlated with
radon decay products, the largest investigation, that of Colo- measures of exposure for inhabitants of these units (Table 5).
rado Plateau uranium miners, indicates a multiplicative or In spite of crude exposure measures, most of these studies
somewhat submultiplicative interaction, and the data are not showed associations between exposure to radon decay prod-
compatible with simple additivity [13,66, 67]. Analyses of data ucts and the incidence of or mortality from lung cancer. Two
from the New Mexico uranium miners [65] and the Bea- studies of counties in the Reading Prong are of particular
verlodge, Canada uranium miners [68] also indicate a multi- interest because of the number of homes in this region with
plicative interaction. high radon concentrations [84,85]. Both studies indicated
The histopathology of lung cancer cases has been charac- increased mortality from lung cancer in residents of the
terized by light microscopy in some groups of underground counties with the highest exposures. However, these descrip-
miners to determine if exposure to radon decay products is tive studies, which did not consider the exposures of individu-
associated with particular histologic types [13,69]. Most case als to radon decay products and other agents, can provide
series have come from mining groups in which cigarette only suggestive evidence that exposure to radon in the home
smoking was prevalent. The case series, largely cross-sec- increases the risk of lung cancer.
tional, have shown a greater prevalence of small cell lung The association of radon exposure and lung cancer has
cancer than would be anticipated based on the pattern of lung been more directly tested in case-control and cohort studies
cancer occurrence in the general population; in these series, (Table 6). In the first of these investigations, Axelson, Edling,
about 50% of the cases have been small cell cancer, approxi- and Kling [87] conducted a case-control study in a rural area
mately double the proportion of this histological type in the of Sweden. Those subjects who lived in stone houses were
general population. In the longitudinal observations of lung assumed to be most exposed and those who lived in wooden
cancer in the Colorado Plateau, reported by Saccomanno et houses were assumed to be least exposed; other types of
al. [70], the proportion of small cell cancer declined from 76% dwellings were considered to be a source of intermediate
in 1964 to 22% in the late 1970s, while squamous cell cancers exposure. In spite of this crude exposure classification, the
increased concomitantly. Saccomanno [71] recently reported study showed that residence in stone houses was associated
that 6 of 25 cases in nonsmokers from the Colorado Plateau with a significantly increased relative risk compared to resi-
region were small cell carcinomas. Butler et al. [72] reviewed dence in wooden houses (age- and sex-adjusted RR = 5.4).
the histopathology of lung cancer cases in Navajo uranium The study did not consider data on cigarette smoking or life-
miners who were either nonsmokers or light smokers. The time residence history.
distribution of histopathological types was comparable to In several later case-control studies performed in Sweden
that for the general population, but the proportion of small (see Table 5), surrogate exposure indexes were validated
cell cases was far greater than would be anticipated for cases against measurements of radon decay products with the find-
in nonsmokers. ing that average levels, as determined by measurement, paral-
Analyses of excess lung cancer occurrence by histological leled the presumed concentration [88,92, 93]. The findings of
type have been reported for the Colorado Plateau uranium these case-control studies were mixed; some showed signifi-
miners and for the Czech uranium miners. In the Colorado cantly increased risk associated with exposure, whereas
group, the ratio of observed to expected cases was greatest for others did not. However, this may be due to the small number
small cell carcinoma, but squamous carcinoma and adeno- of cases in several of the studies and the general use of
carcinoma also occurred in excess [73]. A similar analysis for surrogate measures of exposure. Reliance on surrogate mea-
the Czech cohort showed excesses of small cell carcinoma, sures may introduce misclassification; that is, some subjects
squamous carcinoma, and types other than adenocarcinoma, may be assigned higher or lower exposures than they actually
which was not increased [74]. The ratio of observed to ex- received. If misclassification occurs randomly in cases and
pected cases was greatest for small cell carcinoma. controls alike, the relative risk estimates will be biased
toward unity and an effect of exposure may not be found.
The more recent studies in Sweden have included larger
Studies of the General Population numbers of cases and controls than those initially reported,
and some have incorporated measurement of radon for large
To date, epidemiologic investigations of indoor exposure to numbers of dwellings [91-93]. Two investigations in Stock-
radon decay products as a risk factor for lung cancer have holm have shown approximately doubled lung cancer risk for
been limited by the methodological difficulties of studying more exposed compared with less exposed subjects [92, 94]. A
this exposure. Both descriptive and analytical approaches study in northern Sweden that assumed exposure from resi-
have been used to examine the association between exposure dence type found no increased risk overall [91]. In a study in
to radon decay products in the home and lung cancer. Tech- southern Sweden, Axelson et al. [93] used measurement data
niques for estimating lifetime exposure of individuals to and information on residence type and geology to estimate
radon decay products in indoor air have not yet been vali- exposure; association was found in rural but not urban
dated, and surrogates for exposure based on residence type, dwellers. This variation in the effect of exposure to radon
geology, or limited measurements have of necessity been with residence location could not be readily explained by the
used in the case-control and cohort studies. The principal investigators.
published reports are reviewed; Borak and Johnson [75] sum- In the United States, Simpson and Comstock [95] exam-
marized the relevant literature including several unpublished ined the relationship between the incidence of lung cancer
investigations. and housing characteristics. During a 12-year period in
HEALTH EFFECTS OF R A D O N 39
T A B L E 5--Descriptive studies of exposure to radon and lung cancer.

Location [Reference] Outcome Measure Exposure Measure Findings
U.S. [76] Lung cancer mortality for Presence of a Significant excess of high lung
U.S. counties, 1950-1969 phosphate deposit, cancer rates in counties
mine, or processing with phosphate mills.
plant in the county
Iowa, U.S. [77] Lting cancer incidence for Mean level of Significantly increasing cancer
municipalities of radium-226 in the incidence for males with
1000-10 000 residents for water supply exposure; increase not
years 1969-1979. significant for females.
Sweden [78] Lung cancer mortality rates Estimated background Significant correlations for
by county, 1969-1978 gamma radiation, lung cancer rates in males
assumed to correlate and females with exposure.
with radon
Canada [79] Lung cancer mortality rates Geometric mean WL No association of lung cancer
for 18 cities for 1966-1979. from a survey of mortality rates with radon
14 000 homes done daughter levels.
1978-1980
Maine, U.S. [80] Lung cancer mortality rates Estimated county Significant associations in
by county, 1950-1969 average for radon males and females of lung
concentration in cancer mortality with
water exposure.
Central Italy [81] Lung cancer mortality rates Soil geological features Nonsignificant increase for
for 31 towns, 1969-1978 males and females in higher
exposure area.
Guangdong Province, China [82] Lung cancer mortality rates By area: "control" and Similar lung cancer mortality
for two areas, 1970-1983 "high background" rates in the two areas.
Limousin and Poitou-Charentes, Lung cancer mortality rates By area: from geology, Similar lung cancer mortality
France [83] for the two regions, indoor radon rates in the two regions.
1968-1975 estimated 3-4 times
higher in Limousin
region.
Reading Prong, U.S. [84] Lung cancer mortality rates By county, based on For the three counties mostly
by county, 1950-1969 the proportion within within the Reading Prong,
the Reading Prong lung cancer mortality
significantly elevated for all
three for men and in two
for women.
Reading Prong, U.S. [85] Lung cancer mortality rates By county, based on For both sexes combined,
by county, 1950-1979 geology; three levels lung cancer mortality
of exposure follows a gradient
consistent with exposure,
U.S, [86] Lung cancer mortality rates By county, geometric For males and females, lung
for all U.S. counties, mean concentration cancer mortality rates were
1950-1969 measured in 10 or inversely associated with
more homes. county-average radon levels.
W a s h i n g t o n County, Maryland, the incidence of lung cancer building materials [98]. Exposures were estimated for the
i n the county's residents was not significantly affected by the period of residence in Port Hope o n the basis of earlier mea-
type of b a s e m e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n or building materials. W i t h o u t s u r e m e n t data. The analyses indicated a n increased risk for
specific validation, the dwelling characteristics were a s s u m e d subjects with higher exposure, which persisted w h e n ciga-
to be surrogates for exposure to radon. rette smoking was controlled. However, the n u m b e r of sub-
I n New Jersey, Klotz et al. [96] evaluated mortality of 752 jects was small a n d the results were not statistically signifi-
persons who had resided in 45 homes c o n t a m i n a t e d by r a d o n cant.
from r a d i u m processing waste. Overall, lung cancer mortality Blot et el. [99] performed a case-control study in Shenyan,
was not elevated. The standardized mortality ratio for white People's Republic of China, a n area with particularly high
males was increased, b u t the excess was not statistically sig- lung cancer rates in women. The study included 397 cases
nificant. I n a n o t h e r recent study in New Jersey, r a d o n expo- a n d 391 controls. Homes were m o n i t o r e d with alpha-track
sures for the 10 to 30 years before diagnosis were estimated detectors for one year; the m e a n c o n c e n t r a t i o n of r a d o n was
for 433 cases a n d 402 controls d r a w n from a previously 85.1 Bq m -3 (2.3 pCi/L) a n d 20% of the levels were above 148
completed study of 994 cases a n d 995 controls [97]. Overall, Bq m -3 (4 pCi/L), the c u r r e n t "action guideline" of the Envi-
the risk of lung cancer tended to increase at higher exposures, r o n m e n t a l Protection Agency (EPA).
b u t the association of r a d o n with lung cancer was not statisti- Many new case-control studies are n o w in progress
cally significant in most analyses. Inexplicably, the risk of t h r o u g h o u t the world b u t most will not be completed for
r a d o n exposure was less a m o n g heavier cigarette smokers. several years [100]. Most incorporate m e a s u r e m e n t s of r a d o n
A case-control study was conducted in Port Hope, Ontario, concentrations in c u r r e n t a n d former residences. The sample
where some homes had been constructed with c o n t a m i n a t e d sizes of most of the investigations are substantially greater
40 MANUAL ON RADON
TABLE 6--Epidemiological studies of domestic exposure to radon and lung cancer.

Location [Reference] Study Design Subjects Exposure Measure Findings
Southern Sweden Case-control 37 cases and 178 Residence type: wood, "mixed," RR = 1.8a (p < 0.05) for stone
[87] controls or stone and mixed vs. wood.
Oeland, Sweden [88] Case-control 23 cases and 202 Residence type and 4 months' RR = 4.3 (90% CIb 1.7-10.6) for
controls measurements low vs. high home type.
RR = 2.7 (90% CI 1.4-18.5)
low vs. high by measurement.
Southern Sweden Case-control 23 cases and 202 Measurement with alpha- RR increased for higher vs.
[89] controls sensitive film lowest exposure categories.
Multiplicative interaction with
smoking.
Northern Sweden Case-control 15 nonsmoker and Construction characteristics Estimated mean exposure
[90] 15 smoker significantly higher for smoking
case/control cases than controls; exposure
pairs not different for nonsmokers.
Sweden [90] Case-control 11 nonsmoker and Construction characteristics Estimated mean exposures
12 smoker comparable for cases and
case/control controls regardless of smoking.
pairs
Northern Sweden Case-control 589 male cases, Residence type: wood or RR not increased, with or
[91] 582 deceased nonwood without smoking adjustment.
controls, 453 RR increased for those never
living controls employed in occupations not
associated with lung cancer.
Stockholm, Sweden Case-control 292 female cases Geology and living near ground RR -- 2.2 (95% CI 1.2-4.0) for
[92] and 584 controls level exposed vs. nonexposed.
Exposure-response relationship
not found.
Southern Sweden Case-control 177 cases and 677 Residence type and geology, all Exposure associated with
[93] controls homes; two-month increased risk for rural, but not
measurement, some homes urban dwellers.
Stockholm, Sweden Case-control 210 female cases, Two-week measurement and RR = 1.8 (95% CI 1.2-2.9)
[94] and 209 assumed values comparing "high" and
population and "intermediate" to low. RR
191 hospital highest for small cell cancer.
controls
Maryland, U,S. [95] Cohort 298 cases over a Housing characteristics No associations of incidence rates
12-year period with housing characteristics.
New Jersey, U.S. Cohort 752 persons who Residence for at least one year SMRC = 1.7 (95% CI 0.8-3.2) for
[96] had resided in in one of the homes lung cancer in white males. No
45 homes excess for females.
contaminated by
radium waste
New Jersey, U.S. Case-control 433 female cases Year-long alpha-track RR = 1.9 (95% CI 1.0-3.4)
[97] and 402 controls measurements, some comparing ->74 Bq/m3 (->2
estimates pCi/L) to lower values.
Ontario, Canada [98] Case-control 27 cases and 49 Reconstructed exposures based RR = 2.4 (95% CI 0.8-7.1) with
controls on measurements smoking adjustment for
exposed vs. nonexposed.
Shen yang, Republic Case-control 397 cases and 391 Year-long alpha-track No association of lung cancer
of China [99] controls measurements with radon exposure.
aRelative risk.
bConfidence interval.
CStandardized mortality ratio.
than m a n y of the original studies (see Table 5), but extremely dence on the carcinogenicity of r a d o n has been compelling,
large studies are needed to address c u r r e n t questions con- the a n i m a l studies have provided confirming data and en-
cerning the risks of i n d o o r r a d o n [101]. Consequently, plans abled assessment of aspects of exposure, such as exposure
have b e e n m a d e to pool the data f r o m the individual studies rate an d the presence of o t h er agents, w h i c h c a n n o t be read-
to obtain the m o s t informative picture possible of the risks of ily addressed with ep i d em i o l o g i cal methods. The a n i m a l
i n d o o r r a d o n [100]. studies have also provided quantitative risk coefficients. Of
the m o d e r n studies, the m o s t i m p o r t a n t ex p er i me nt s were
c o n d u c t e d at the Pacific N o r t h w e s t Laboratory (PNL) a nd at
ANIMAL S T U D I E S the laboratory of the C o m p a g n i e Generale des Matieres
Nucleaires (COGEMA) in France. E x p e r i m e n t s during the
Animal studies on the respiratory effects of r a d o n were 1950s at the University of R o c h e s t e r addressed the dos i me t r y
initiated early in this c e n tu r y [102]. While the h u m a n evi- of r a d o n an d decay products in the respiratory tract.
HEALTH EFFECTS OF RADON 41
TABLE 7--Summary of COGEMA studies with rats. a exposure-response relations, of the effects of m i x e d expo-
M e a n Lifetime sures to r a d o n decay p r o d u c t s along with ore dust or diesel
Group Mean E x p o s u r e Rate, Risk Coefficient, exhaust, of the effects of exposure rate, a t t a c h m e n t fraction
E x p o s u r e Jh m 3, m Jh m -3 % Animals 10-4/m Jh m -3
WLM (WLM/week) with T u m o r s (10 4/WLM)
a n d equilibrium, a n d of the c o m b i n e d effects of s m o k i n g a n d
r a d o n decay products. These studies are c o m p r e h e n s i v e l y
0.07-0.09 (20-25) 7.0-14.0 (2-4) 1.7 2.1 (7.5) s u m m a r i z e d elsewhere [13,102].
0.18 (50) 7.0-28.1 (2-8) 2.9 1.7 (5.8)
1.02 (290) 31.6 (9) 10 0.9 (3.3) The PNL studies have confirmed that exposure to r a d o n
3.02 (860) 1298.3 (370) 20 0.8 (2.8) decay p r o d u c t s alone causes lung cancer. E x p o s u r e - r e s p o n s e
5.16 (1470) 1298.3 (370) 25 0.5 (1.7) relations were similar in the COGEMA a n d PNL studies (Fig.
6.32 (1800) 701.8 (200) 34 0.5 (1.9) 3). In PNL studies with dogs, c o n c o m i t a n t exposure to ciga-
6.67 (1900) 1087.7 (310) 35 0.5 (1.8)
rette s m o k e a n d r a d o n decay p r o d u c t s r e d u c e d the incidence
7.37 (2100) 771.9 (220) 43 0.6 (2.0)
9.82 (2800) 1087.7 (310) 41 0.4 (1.5) of lung tumors. The c o n c o m i t a n t exposures to o t h e r agents
10.53 (3000) 1298.3 (370) 43 0.4 (1.4) did not affect t u m o r incidence. In rat experiments, lung can-
15.79 (4500) 1298.3 (370) 73 0.5 (1.6) cer risk i n c r e a s e d as the u n a t t a c h e d fraction increased. As in
OAbstracted f r o m Table III-1 in Ref 13. the COGEMA studies of rats, n o n m a l i g n a n t changes were
found in the airways a n d alveoli of exposed animals.
The COGEMA a n d PNL studies c o m p l e m e n t the e p i d e m i o -
Beginning in the 1960s, the COGEMA g r o u p c o n d u c t e d a logical data. Their findings confirm that r a d o n decay prod-
series of experiments involving exposure of rats to r a d o n ucts cause lung cancer, a l t h o u g h the cancers p r o d u c e d in
decay products. The e x p e r i m e n t s d e m o n s t r a t e d that lung a n i m a l m o d e l s are not fully a n a l o g o u s to h u m a n lung c a n c e r
c a n c e r occurrence i n c r e a s e d with exposure to r a d o n decay in l o c a t i o n o r histopathology. Risk coefficients derived f r o m
products, even at m e a n cumulative exposures as low as 70 to a n i m a l a n d h u m a n d a t a are r e m a r k a b l y close [102].
87.5 m Jh m -3 ( 2 0 t o 25 WLM) (Table 7). Lung c a n c e r inci-
dence i n c r e a s e d as the exposure rate decreased. Exposure to
RISK A S S E S S M E N T FOR LUNG CANCER
cigarette smoke after exposure to r a d o n decay p r o d u c t s re-
suited in synergism b e t w e e n the two agents, w h e r e a s ante-
I n t r o d u c t i o n
cedent cigarette smoke exposure did not, A variety of n o n m a -
lignant changes were observed in the airways a n d alveoli; Because only scant e p i d e m i o l o g i c d a t a on d o m e s t i c expo-
extremely high exposure caused diffuse interstitial p n e u m o - sure are available, the h a z a r d p o s e d by exposure to r a d o n in
nia, i n f l a m m a t o r y changes in the lung's interstitial frame- i n d o o r air has b e e n p r i m a r i l y a d d r e s s e d with risk a s s e s s m e n t
work. The COGEMA investigators have recently r e p o r t e d p r o c e d u r e s (Table 8). I n f o r m a t i o n on the p o p u l a t i o n distri-
errors in the exposure calculations for m a n y of these experi- b u t i o n of exposure in dwellings is used in a risk-projection
ments; replications are in progress [103]. e q u a t i o n or "model" that describes the i n c r e m e n t in the oc-
The PNL studies have involved b o t h dogs a n d rodents. The currence of lung c a n c e r p e r unit exposure. Several nation-
studies have h a d diverse objectives including a s s e s s m e n t of wide d a t a bases, including a n a t i o n a l survey c o n d u c t e d b y the
l ~ I I i ill I w ' ' i I I I I I 1 I

'1 .... [ + ' '1'"
9 C O G E M A Rat Data
10 -3
9 PNL Rat and Dog Data
9
6 9
9
9
9
.o
10_4 - 0
O
~E 9
9
Nonsmoking
10-51
9 Dogs
Smoking
, , , i .... 1 , , , i .... t ~ , , I .... I , , ~ ....
10 100 1000 10000 100000
WLM Exposure
FIG. 3 - U f e t i m e lung tumor risk coefficients for exposure to radon decay products in
the COGEMA and PNL studies. Used with permission from Ref 102.
TABLE 8--Recent risk projection models for radon and lung cancer.
Agency Type of Model Source of Risk Estimate
National Council on Attributable risk, Average risk coefficient
Radiation Protection time-dependent from principal
and Measurements [26] studies of miners
International Constant relative Adjusted risk
Commission on risk coefficient from 3
Radiological Protection studies of miners
(ICRP) [32]
Environmental Protection Constant relative Range of coefficients
Agency [104] risk based on studies of
miners
National Institute for Relative risk, time- Risk based on Colorado
Occupational Safety dependent Plateau uranium
and Health [105] miners
National Research Relative risk, time- Risk based on analysis
Council, Biological dependent of 4 studies of miners
Effects of Ionizing
Radiation (BEIR) IV
Committee [13]
Environmental Protection Relative risk, time- Combines the ICRP
Agency [106] dependent and BEIR IV models
E n v i r o n m e n t a l Protection Agency, provide a n increasingly two agents might plausibly take s o m e form o t h e r t h a n p u r e l y
c o m p r e h e n s i v e picture of r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in U.S. additive o r p u r e l y multiplicative.
homes.
The selection of risk coefficients to describe the excess lung
Principal Risk Assessment Models
c a n c e r risk associated with exposure to r a d o n decay p r o d u c t s
is p r o b l e m a t i c - - t h e studies of m i n e r s included only males, Diverse risk p r o j e c t i o n m o d e l s have been developed; Table
m u c h of the exposure of m i n e r s was at c o n c e n t r a t i o n s higher 8 describes the m o s t recent a n d widely used m o d e l s (see Ref
t h a n generally o c c u r in homes, a n d none of the m i n e r popula- 13 for a review of earlier models). E a c h of these recent
tions have yet b e e n followed t h r o u g h o u t the full lifetime of m o d e l s estimates lung c a n c e r risk on the basis of the epidemi-
the subjects. F u r t h e r m o r e , the various factors that affect the ological evidence from u n d e r g r o u n d miners, b u t the biologi-
d o s i m e t r y of r a d o n decay p r o d u c t s m a y differ substantially in cal a s s u m p t i o n s underlying the models a n d their resulting
h o m e s and in m i n e s (see Table 1). As previously discussed, risk projections differ substantially. Table 9 provides addi-
analyses b a s e d on d o s i m e t r i c m o d e l s of the r e s p i r a t o r y tract tional d e s c r i p t i o n of the m o s t p r o m i n e n t risk models: those
suggest, however, that exposures to r a d o n decay p r o d u c t s in of the N a t i o n a l Council for R a d i a t i o n Protection a n d Mea-
h o m e s and in m i n e s have a p p r o x i m a t e l y equivalent o r even s u r e m e n t s (NCRP) [26], the I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n for
lower potency in causing lung c a n c e r [13,25]. Radiological Protection (ICRP) [32], a n d the B E I R IV Com-
To a c c o m p l i s h the risk estimation, a m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l mittee of the National Research Council [13].
is used to project the o c c u r r e n c e of cases of lung c a n c e r The NCRP m o d e l generally projects the lowest excess risk
caused by exposure. These risk-projection m o d e l s require as- b e c a u s e it is a n additive model, a n d the r a d o n - a s s o c i a t e d
excess declines over t i m e (Table 10). The ICRP model, a con-
s u m p t i o n s concerning the t e m p o r a l p a t t e r n of the occur-
stant relative risk model, projects the highest risks. Expo-
rence of lung c a n c e r after exposure a n d the effects of such
sures received by age 20 lead to a p a r t i c u l a r l y large excess
potentially i m p o r t a n t cofactors as age at exposure, age at
b e c a u s e of the three-fold higher risk a s s u m e d up to age 20
risk, a n d cigarette smoking. The two m o s t widely a p p l i e d are
t h a n at s u b s e q u e n t ages. I n the B E I R IV model, the p e r c e n t
the relative risk a n d a t t r i b u t a b l e risk models; the relative risk
excess risk varies with b o t h age a n d t i m e since exposure.
m o d e l a s s u m e s that the b a c k g r o u n d risk is m u l t i p l i e d by the W h e n smokers a n d n o n s m o k e r s are considered separately,
risk from r a d o n decay products, whereas the a t t r i b u t a b l e risk the substantial difference b e t w e e n a s s u m i n g an additive o r a
m o d e l a s s u m e s that the excess risk is additive to the back- multiplicative interaction b e t w e e n smoking a n d r a d o n expo-
g r o u n d risk. Two models, those of the B E I R IV C o m m i t t e e sure is evident (Table 11). The additive NCRP m o d e l projects
[I3] a n d the National Council on R a d i a t i o n Protection a n d small i n c r e m e n t s for s m o k e r s in c o m p a r i s o n with the multi-
M e a s u r e m e n t s [26], describe the risk as varying with the time plicative ICRP a n d B E I R IV models. Lifetime excess lung
since exposure. cancer risks for smokers e s t i m a t e d by the three m o d e l s are
The m a n n e r in w h i c h exposure to r a d o n decay p r o d u c t s m a r k e d l y different. L a n d [108] has calculated the excess lung
a n d cigarette s m o k i n g are a s s u m e d to interact strongly influ- cancer risk p e r 100 000 smokers exposed to 3.5 m Jh m -3 (1
ences the results of risk e s t i m a t i o n m o d e l s for radon-associ- WLM) at age 15 as: N C R P - - 7 . 4 , ICRP--278.7, B E I R I V -
ated lung cancer. If a multiplicative i n t e r a c t i o n is assumed, 114.5; for exposure to 3.5 m Jh m -3 (1 WLM) at age 35, the
then the risk for smokers, a l r e a d y m u c h greater t h a n for non- c o r r e s p o n d i n g projections are 15.5, 94.3, a n d 129.4.
smokers, is multiplied by the risk from exposure to r a d o n These m o d e l s have been used to project the lung c a n c e r
decay products. If an additive interaction is assumed, t h e n b u r d e n associated with exposure to i n d o o r radon. F o r expo-
the s a m e excess risk is a d d e d to the b a c k g r o u n d rates for sure at 0.7 m Jh m -3 (0.2 WLM/year) ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y equiva-
s m o k e r s a n d for n o n s m o k e r s . The interaction b e t w e e n the lent to residence in a h o m e at 37 Bq m -3 (1 pCi/L)), the
TABLE 9 - - F e a t u r e s of selected risk projection models for radon and lung c a n c e r f

NCRP ICRP BEIR IV
Form of model Attributable risk Relative risk Relative risk

Time-dependent Yes; risk declines No Yes; risk declines as
exponentially after time since exposure
exposure lengthens
Lag interval 5 years 10 years 5 years
Age at exposure 3-fold increased No effect of age at
risk for exposure
exposures
before age 20
Age at risk Risk commences at Constant relative Lower risks for ages
age 40 risk with age 55 and older
Dosimetry Increased risk for Decreased risk No adjustment
adjustment indoor exposure for indoor
exposure
Risk coefficient 2.9 • 10-6/yr/m Jh Excess relative Excess relative risk of
m -3 (10 • risks: 0.5%/m 0.7%/m Jh m -3
10 - 6/year/WLM) Jh m - 3 (2.5%/WLM) but
(1.9%/WLM) at modified by time
ages 0 - 2 0 and since exposure
0.2%/m Jh m -3
(0.64%/WLM)
for ages 21 and
above
~From Ref 107.
approximate average annual exposure, the NCRP model pro- T A B L E 1 l - - L u n g cancer mortality rates per 100 000 projected for
j e c t s l i f e t i m e l u n g c a n c e r r i s k as 0.18%; t h e N C R P r e p o r t nonsmoking a n d smoking males at age 65 years by NCRP, ICRP,
a n d BEIR IV models. ~
estimates that 9000 lung cancer deaths annually in the United
NCRP ICRP BEIR IV
States can be attributed to indoor radon. For an annual expo-
s u r e o f a b o u t 0.16 W L M , t h e I C R P m o d e l e s t i m a t e s l i f e t i m e Exposure to 35 m J h m -3
r i s k o f l u n g c a n c e r as 0 . 4 2 % for m a l e s a n d as 0 . 0 9 % f o r (10 WLM) at age 15 years
Nonsmoking 59.8 69.0 60.9
f e m a l e s . T h e B E I R IV r e p o r t d e s c r i b e s r i s k f o r e x p o s u r e s Smoking 698.3 828.8 731.3
r e c e i v e d a b o v e b a c k g r o u n d ; f o r a n e x p o s u r e r a t e o f 0.7 m J h Exposure to 35 m Jh m -3
m -3 (0.20 W L M / y e a r ) , t h e m o d e l p r o j e c t s a t t r i b u t a b l e life- (10 WLM) at age 35 years
time risks of 0.7% for males and 0.3% for females. Using the Nonsmoking 61.5 61.5 60.9
Smoking 700.0 738,3 731.3
B E I R IV m o d e l , L u b i n a n d B o i c e [109] h a v e e s t i m a t e d t h a t
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 13 300 l u n g c a n c e r d e a t h s a n n u a l l y c a n b e aBackground lung cancer mortality rates estimated as 58.0 • 10-s for non-
smokers and 696,5 • 105 for smokers [13]. From Ref 107.
T A B L E 1 0 - - I n c r e m e n t s a in lung cancer risks for 3.5 m J h m -3

(1 WLM) b projected by NCRP, ICRP, and BEIR IV models. a t t r i b u t e d to i n d o o r r a d o n e x p o s u r e . U s i n g E P A ' s c u r r e n t
model, Puskin and Nelson of the EPA calculated that radon
NCRW
Increment e x p o s u r e i n s i n g l e - f a m i l y h o m e s m a y c a u s e 20 0 0 0 l u n g c a n -
at age Male Female ICRP BEIR IV
c e r d e a t h s a n n u a l l y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s [106]. T h e E P A ' s r i s k
EXPOSURE AT AGE 15 YEARS projections are undergoing revision.
35 years 0 (%) 0 (%) 1.9(%) 1.5(%) Thus, in spite of the differing underlying assumptions and
50 years 0.3 0.7 1.9 1.5 risk projections, each of the models indicates that radon must
65 years 0.08 0.2 1.9 0.5
be considered as an important cause of lung cancer for the
85 years 0.02 0.1 1.9 0.5
general population. Each model also demonstrates that unac-
EXPOSURE AT AGE 35 YEARS c e p t a b l e levels o f r i s k a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h i g h e r levels o f
50 years 0.6 1.4 0.6 3.0 e x p o s u r e . F o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e B E I R IV m o d e l , e x p o s u r e a t
65 years 0.1 0.4 0.6 0.5 14.0 m J h m -3 (4 W L M / y e a r ) a b o v e b a c k g r o u n d l e a d s t o a
85 years 0.05 0.2 0.6 0.5 t r i p l i n g of t h e l i f e t i m e r i s k o f l u n g c a n c e r f o r m a l e s a n d
~The excess is additive for the NCRP model. The percent excess relative risk f e m a l e s (Fig. 4) [13]; t h i s level of e x p o s u r e w o u l d b e r e c e i v e d
was calculated for illustration using sex-specific lung cancer mortality rates for
the U.S., 1980-1984. The additive increments are 3.0 • I0 "6, 1.8 • 10 6, and 0.9 fl'om r e s i d i n g i n a h o m e w i t h a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a b o u t 925 B q
x lif o for ages 50, 65, and 85 years, respectively, for exposure at age 15 years, m -3 (25 pCi/L). As a b a s i s f o r p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s , t h e s e r i s k
and 6.0 • 10 "6, 3.5 X 10 "6, and 1.8 • lif ~ respectively, for exposure at age 35 p r o j e c t i o n m o d e l s c a n b e u s e d to e s t i m a t e t h e r i s k s a s s o c i -
years. Based on Ref 107.
bAn annual exposure of 3.5 m Jh m 3 (1 WLM) would be received in a home a t e d w i t h levels o f e x p o s u r e t h a t m i g h t b e d e s i g n a t e d as
with a concentration of 222 Bq/m3 (6 pCi/L), assuming 70% occupancy. g u i d e l i n e s o r s t a n d a r d s . T h e m o d e l s c a n also b e u s e d t o esti-
44 MANUAL ON RADON
0
uJ
4.00 -- however, are also exposed to silica, diesel fumes, and other
0 particles and gases that may also cause airflow obstruction or
o.
3.50 fibrosis. Consequendy, epidemiological studies cannot read-
z U.SF
. ~ ily separate the effects of radon exposure from the effects of
0
I- 3.00 other agents.
C~ Early studies of Colorado Plateau uranium miners indi-
u.I r - - ~ u.s.MALES
tn 2.50
O cated pulmonary function abnormalities associated with esti-
n mates of exposure [113,114]. These studies were carried out
X
UJ
O 2.00 with methods that would not be considered acceptable at
present. In the longitudinal study of Colorado Plateau mines,
~ 1.50 mortality from nonmalignant respiratory diseases exclusive
of tuberculosis, bronchitis, influenza, and pneumonia was
r 1.00 I I I I I increased five-fold across the interval 1950-1977 [111].
1 2 3 4 5 The most recent investigation of nonmalignant respiratory
EXPOSURERATE(WLM/y) diseases was a survey conducted in the early 1980s of 192
FIG. 4-Risk ratio of lung-cancer mortality for lifetime exposure long-term New Mexico uranium miners [115]. After control-
to radon decay products at constant rates of annual exposure, ling for cigarette smoking, the duration of underground ura-
as estimated by the BEIR IV model. Used with permission from nium mining was associated with reduction of airflow. Re-
Ref 13. view of chest X-rays showed abnormalities compatible with
silicosis in 9% of the miners surveyed.
mate the reduction in lung cancer occurrence that would Excess mortality from nonmalignant renal disease was re-
follow reduction of exposure. ported in one analysis of data from the Colorado Plateau
study [111 ]. Mortality from chronic and unspecified nephritis
was elevated over three-fold. This finding has not been repli-
cated, and it cannot be readily interpreted as a direct conse-
HEALTH EFFECTS OTHER THAN LUNG quence of exposure to radon decay products [13].
CANCER In a series of papers in the 1960s, Muller et al. described
reproductive outcomes in children of Czechoslovakian ura-
The epidemiological studies of underground miners have nium miners [116-118]. The secondary sex ratio (male to
provided information on health outcomes other than lung female births) was found to decline following underground
cancer including cancer at other sites, nonmalignant respira- employment. In the 1980s, descriptive data from New Mexico
tory diseases, renal disease, and reproductive outcome. The were considered to show adverse reproductive effects of the
plausibility of the findings on these disease endpoints must be uranium mining industry, related to effects on the miners or
judged in the context of the toxicology of radon and the rele- to effects on those living near mines and mills [119]. Descrip-
vant evidence from animal studies. Radon itself can be ab- tive studies showed changes in the secondary sex ratio for
sorbed into the blood, but provides an insignificant dose to counties in New Mexico with uranium mining, and high rates
nonpulmonary tissues; radon decay products deliver their al- of congenital malformations and spontaneous abortions
pha energy to pulmonary tissues. Longer-lived decay prod- were reported for Shiprock Indian Health Service Hospital,
ucts translocated from the lung could potentially cause ad- which cares for Navajos in an area of uranium mining and
verse effects at distant sites. milling [13]. A follow-up survey of reproductive outcome in
With regard to cancer at sites other than the lung, several the children of uranium miners did not show evidence of
studies of underground miners have shown an excess of adverse effects [120].
stomach cancer [13]. This finding is not consistent across all
of the populations; furthermore, mining populations not ex-
posed to radon also have excess stomach cancer. Two studies CONCLUSIONS
have indicated excess risk of skin cancer, but the numbers of
cases were small, and the findings were not statistically sig- Radon and its decay products are invariably present in in-
nificant [110,i11]. Recently, Henshaw et al. [112] have pro- door environments; most homes have concentrations of
posed that the dose to the bone marrow cells from radon may about 40 Bq m -3, but concentrations in some homes are as
be higher than projected by the usual dosimetric models. high as those measured in uranium and other underground
Descriptive data for the general population showed corre- mines. Exposure to radon decay products has been shown to
lations between rates for several cancers, including child- increase the mortality from lung cancer of underground
hood cancer, and indices of population exposure to radon. miners working in mines with high concentrations. An in-
Radon exposure is associated with alpha irradiation of the creased risk of lung cancer must be presumed to result from
lung's airways and alveoli. Animals exposed to radon or decay indoor exposure as well, although the epidemiologic data on
products at high levels develop emphysema and interstitial indoor radon exposure are still scant. Dosimetric analyses
fibrosis [13]. Thus, human radon exposure could plausibly be suggest that nearly comparable risks of lung cancer should be
associated with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, in associated with radon exposure in mines and in homes. Risk
which obstruction results from emphysema and airways assessments have been performed to evaluate the magnitude
changes, and with pulmonary fibrosis, an inflammatory dis- of the problem of lung cancer associated with indoor expo-
ease of the lung's connective tissue. Underground miners, sure to radon. Although the principal risk projection models
differ substantially, each shows that r a d o n i n i n d o o r air poses Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and Public
a public health threat of substantial magnitude. Health Service, Washington, DC, 1971.
D e t e r m i n a t i o n of a n acceptable c o n c e n t r a t i o n of r a d o n [12] Bale, W. F., "Memorandum to the Files, 14 March, 1951: Haz-
with a n acceptable associated level of lung cancer risk is ards Associated with Radon and Thoron," Health Physics, Vol.
38, 1980, pp. 1062-1066.
problematic [121 ]. Substantial u n c e r t a i n t y r e m a i n s concern-
[13] National Research Council, Committee on the Biological Ef-
ing the risks of lower levels of exposure. F u r t h e r follow-up of fects of Ionizing Radiation, Health Risks of Radon and Other
the cohorts of m i n e r s should provide additional i n f o r m a t i o n Internally Deposited Alpha-emitters, BEIR IV, National Acad-
c o n c e r n i n g the risks of lower levels of exposure. N u m e r o u s emy Press, Washington, DC, 1988.
investigations of residential exposure to r a d o n a n d lung can- [14] Swent, L. W., "Statement of Principles," International Confer-
cer are in progress; difficult methodological problems m a y ence. Radiation Hazards in Mining: Control, Measurement and
limit the precision with which these investigations character- Medical Aspects, Society of Mining Engineers of American In-
ize the risks of indoor radon. stitute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers,
With regard to cancers at sites other t h a n the lung, the Inc., New York, 1981, pp. 4-7.
studies of m i n e r s do not provide consistent evidence of asso-
[15] Morgan, M. V. and Samet, J. M., "Radon Daughter Exposures
of New Mexico U Miners, 1967-19782," Health Physics, Vol. 50,
ciation with r a d o n exposure. The provocative p u b l i c a t i o n of
1986, pp. 656-662.
H e n s h a w et al. [112] c o n c e r n i n g leukemia a n d nonres- [16] Samet, J. M., "Radon and Lung Cancer," Journal of the National
piratory cancers will u n d o u b t e d l y spark additional research; Cancer Institute, Vol. 81, 1989, pp. 745-757.
however, the reported ecological associations c a n n o t be [17] National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements,
regarded as causal. U n d e r g r o u n d u r a n i u m m i n e r s develop "Exposure from the Uranium Series with Emphasis on Radon
silicosis, as do other u n d e r g r o u n d m i n e r s exposed to silica. I n and Its Daughters," Report 77, NCRP, Bethesda, MD, 1984.
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lung f u n c t i o n level was associated with years of u n d e r g r o u n d Properties, and Health Effects, American Chemical Society,
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Plenum Press, New York, 1987.
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Products in Indoor Air, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
1988.
[21] World Health Organization, IARC Monographs on the Evalu-
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MNL15-EB/Jun. 1994
Measurement Methods and

Instrumentation
by Roy C. Fortmann 1
THE RECOGNITION THAT INDOOR ENVIRONMENTS m a y b e poten- distinguishing feature is that it can be used for an integrated
tially important sites of exposure to elevated levels of the measurement of radon over periods as short as a couple
decay products of radon has resulted in an increased demand weeks at high radon levels to periods as long as one year. This
for measurements of radon and radon decay products in- feature makes it attractive for follow-up measurements to
doors. Practical methods and instruments for the measure- obtain estimates of long-term radon concentrations in a
ments of radon and radon decay products have been available building. Both the alpha-track and activated carbon monitors
since the 1950s as a result of the need to assess radiological provide an integrated measurement result. A single average
exposures to radon-222 decay products in the uranium radon concentration is determined over the entire period dur-
mining industry [1-3]. The methods developed for measure- ing which the monitor was exposed.
ments in the uranium mining industry still form the basis for More sophisticated monitoring instrumentation is avail-
most methods used today in nonindustrial indoor environ- able for measurement of radon by researchers and compa-
ments. However, improvements have been made to the in- nies that provide radon measurement and mitigation ser-
strumentation, incorporating advanced technology to im- vices. Scintillation cells are used widely for measuring radon.
prove sensitivity and other performance parameters, ease of They have been in use since the early 1950s. A scintillation
use, and size. There have been substantial advances in the cell consists of a container that has its interior surfaces lined
development of passive sampling devices, which are rela- with a phosphor. Alpha particles produced in the cell during
tively low cost and easy to use by homeowners and in large- the decay of radon strike the phosphor, generating light. A
scale screening surveys. Research in the area of radon decay photomultiplier/scaler assembly is used for the measure-
product measurements has advanced significantly, resulting ment. The cells can be used to collect grab samples of air for
in improved understanding of their characteristics and devel- analysis. Alternatively, the cells are used in a flow-through
opment of improved measurement methods. Advances in mode to make "continuous" measurements of radon. Contin-
radon and radon decay product measurement technology uous radon monitors are available from a number of manu-
over the last 40 years have resulted in reliable, easy to use, facturers and are used extensively by the radon mitigation
portable, and relatively low-cost methods.
industry.
There are a number of methods available for measurement
Another method available for measurement of radon is the
of radon that cover a wide range of cost and complexity.
pulse ion chamber. Pulse ion chambers had previously been
Probably the most widely used method at this time, in terms
used predominantly by researchers for measurements in the
of the number of measurements performed, is the activated
laboratory or in calibration programs because they are highly
carbon monitor (also referred to as the charcoal canister).
accurate. However, continuous monitors are now available
This device has been used extensively for screening measure-
that employ the pulse ion chamber technology.
ments to determine if there are elevated radon levels in a
A passive integrated radon measurement device based on
building. The popularity of this device results from its low
cost, ease of use, and short sampling period. A homeowner electret technology is also commercially available. An electret
can easily use the device to perform a test over a two- to is a piece of dielectric material exhibiting a quasi-permanent
seven-day period. The cost to the homeowner is generally less electrical charge. The reduction in charge is used for mea-
than $20. These same features have also made it attractive for surement of radon. Electrets can be used over exposure pe-
large-scale screening surveys. The monitor consists of a bed riods ranging from hours to months. The commercial device
of activated carbon usually contained in a small metal canis- is marketed to radon measurement companies.
ter. Sampling is initiated by removing the lid. Costs for the Radon decay products are not routinely measured for pur-
analytical instrumentation are also relatively low. As a result, poses of screening to assess health risks because the measure-
a number of companies have begun providing analytical ser- ments are generally more costly and complex than measure-
vices for the monitor, making it widely available. ments of radon. The technology for measuring radon decay
The next most popular monitor for radon measurements products, however, is well established as a result of extensive
by homeowners and in large surveys is the alpha-track moni- development of instrumentation for use in the uranium in-
tor. This monitor is also relatively low cost and easy to use. Its dustry. The simplest and most widely used method involves
sampling on a filter and counting the gross alpha activity after
~Senior scientist and manager, Science Department Acunex Envi- a selected decay period. Extensive development work has
ronmental Corporation, P.O. Box 13109, Research Triangle Park, NC been performed to optimize this method. Electrets have also
27709. been used for measurement of radon decay products.
49
50 MANUAL ON RADON
Radon progeny integrating sampling units (RPISUs) are TABLE 1--Factors affecting choice of measurement methods and
commercially available. The units incorporate a sampling instruments.
pump, filter, and detector. Newer units incorporate micro- Factor Example Variables
computers and data acquistion systems to facilitate un- Measurement of concentrations
Measurement objectives
attended sampling and data acquisition over selected time Source identification
periods. Continuous working level (WL) meters are also avail- Emanation rates
able commercially. The units employ solid-state detectors Health effects measurements
and microcomputers. Integral algorithms are used to esti- Measurement parameter Radon-220
Attached radon decay products
mate working levels. Unattached radon decay products
Measurement of unattached radon decay products has Radon-222
been the subject of extensive research during the last few Media Air
years. The technology for these measurements includes diffu- Water
Soil
sion batteries, electrostatic collectors, and screen samplers. Building materials
Instrumentation development in this area is primarily being Scope of measurement Screening
performed at the research level. program Followup
During recent years there has been renewed interest in soil- Number of sites (buildings)
Number of locations/sites
based measurements of radon levels. The objective of re- Desired output Instantaneous
search in this area is to determine if a relationship between Continuous
soil radon levels and transport into buildings can be estab- Integrated average
lished that would facilitate screening of building sites. A Sampling method Active
Passive
number of methods have been developed for measuring
Analysis method On-site
radon in soil gas and radon flux from the soil surface. Laboratory.
This chapter presents an overview of the methods currently Operating specifications Temperature
in use for measurement of radon and radon decay products in Humidity
nonindustrial indoor environments. The emphasis of the Performance specifications Limit of detection
Accuracy
chapter is on measurement of airborne concentrations of Precision
radon-222. However, measurements of radon in water and Sampling duration Grab
measurements of radon flux are also briefly addressed. Short-term
The selection of methods and instruments for measure- Long-term
Method/instrumentation Portability
ment of radon or radon decay products depends on many requirements Power requirements
factors. Some of these factors are summarized in Table 1. The Size
primary factor affecting selection of the measurement Weight
method is the study objective. Measurement of airborne con- Ease of use
centrations of radon, for example, can be accomplished by a Availability
Cost
variety of methods, ranging from measurements with expen-
sive continuous monitoring devices to collection with simple,
low-cost passive samplers for subsequent laboratory analysis.
riod during which continuous measurements were per-
Health effect measurements for lung dose calculations re-
formed, or (3) by collecting a sample over a prescribed period
quire use of substantially more sophisticated measurement
and performing a single analysis of that sample. The latter
devices. Similarly, selection of methods for measurement of
category of measurement, for example, represents the output
source emanation rates requires consideration of different
from measurements with charcoal canisters or alpha-track
methods than for other measurement objectives. However,
detectors. Therefore, various methods can be used to obtain a
there may be substantial overlap in the use of various meth-
desired output, although not always in a cost-effective man-
ods to meet different monitoring objectives.
Some factors, for example the media to be sampled, have ner. A series of grab samples may be used to obtain an esti-
an obvious impact on method selection. Other factors, such mate of the annual indoor radon concentration, but this ap-
as operating specifications, may not impact selection so sig- proach is more costly than exposure of a single alpha-track
nificantly as to preclude the use of a method, but must be detector for a one-year period. Some methods can only be
addressed specifically with respect to sample analysis or data used for instantaneous measurements; a scintillation cell is
interpretation. For example, the effect of water vapor on the filled over a short time period at a site and analyzed. Other
performance of charcoal canisters must be considered' if the methods, such as the charcoal canister monitor, have a mini-
canisters are used for special tests under extreme conditions mum and maximum exposure duration and can only be used
such as measuring radon in a sump or other moist environ- for an integrated measurement, generally over two to seven
ment. Factors such as instrument portability, ease of use, and days. This measurement method, therefore, cannot provide
cost per measurement are significant factors for screening instantaneous outputs, nor can the integration period be ex-
large numbers of buildings. tended beyond approximately seven days, making it unsuit-
Sampling duration and desired output may appear to be able for direct measurements of annual average radon con-
the same factors, since an instantaneous output is obtained centrations.
by an instantaneous, or grab, sample. However, an integrated Measurement methods for radon and radon decay pro-
average can be obtained by (1) averaging the results of a ducts have historically been categorized on the basis of the
series of grab samples, (2) integrating over a prescribed pe- sampling duration--instantaneous (grab sampling), continu-
MEASUREMENT METHODS AND INSTRUMENTATION 51
ous, or integrated. Instantaneous methods involve collection energy, visible or ultraviolet light is emitted from the crystal
of a sample at a single point in time; the measurement result and measured.
represents the concentration at the collection site at that "in- Instrumentation that utilizes these basic principles of mea-
stant" in time. Continuous measurement methods involve re- surements are further described in the following sections.
peated collection and analysis over a series of "instants" in
time, allowing assessment of temporal variations of concen-
tration. Integrated measurement methods involve collection METHODS AND INSTRUMENTATION FOR
of the sample over some prescribed duration of time. The M E A S U R E M E N T OF A I R B O R N E R A D O N
single composite sample is analyzed to provide a single mea-
surement value that represents the integrated average con- There are a number of methods available for measurement
centration during the duration of the measurement period. of radon in air. Many of these methods are established, well-
The use of instantaneous, continuous, and integrated meth- documented methods with a proven history of field perfor-
ods to describe radon and radon decay product measure- mance. The methods are based on measurement principles
ments is a convenient and logical categorization that is main- applied in the 1950s. Recent advances in these measurement
tained in the following presentation. methods consist of improved performance (e.g., sensitivity)
and greater convenience in their use by application of im-
proved electronics for signal processing and data acquisition.
P R I N C I P L E S OF R A D I A T I O N Currently available measurement methods, presented below
MEASUREMENTS in the categories of grab sampling, continuous monitors, and
integrated sampling methods, are summarized in Table 2.
The occurrence of radon-219, radon-220, and radon-222 in
nature as members of the primordial actinium, thorium, and Grab Sampling
uranium series was introduced previously. The discussion
included physical considerations that affect the abundance of Scintillation Cells
radon in the environment and the occurrence of radon decay One of the most widely used and accepted methods for
products indoors. The following discussion highlights the measurement of radon both in the laboratory and the field is
properties of radon and radon decay products that impact the scintillation cell. Scintillation cells, also referred to as
their measurement. Emphasis in this discussion is on the Lucas cells in recognition of development work by H. F.
properties of radon-222 and its decay products. The term Lucas [4], have been in use since the 1950s [5,6]. Scintillation
"radon" as used in the following discussion represents cells (flasks) consist of a plastic, metal, or glass container that
radon-222 unless specifically stated otherwise. has the interior surfaces coated with a thin layer of silver-
Methods for measuring radon and its decay products are all activated zinc sulfide phosphor. Either one or two sampling
based on detection of emissions from radioactive decay, ei- ports with valves are fitted to the flask to permit filling with
ther by measurement of alpha particles emitted, detection of the test atmosphere. Scintillation cells currently in use are
gamma emissions, or less commonly, by measurement of predominantly right circular cylinders that range in volume
beta emissions. from 0.09 to 2.0 L. Costs for commercial cells range from $50
The alpha particle emitted by the decay of radon or its for plastic cells to $400 for glass or metal. With proper care,
decay products can be detected when a current (pulse) is the cells can be used for several years.
produced in an ionization chamber. The ionization chamber Some researchers use Tedlar or Mylar bags for sample col-
operates on the principle of ionizing gas inside the detector lection and subsequent transfer to scintillation cells in the
and measurement of the current flow induced by collection of laboratory. This method provides acceptable results. How-
air ions formed during radioactive decay. ever, plastic scintillation cells are low in cost. Their use for
Alpha particles can also be detected by the scintillations direct collection of the sample is more attractive since the
produced when striking a suitable phosphor, such as silver- potential for contamination during sample transfer is mini-
activated zinc sulfide [ZnS(Ag)]. In this case, the striking of mized.
the phosphor by alpha particles produces light that can be For field use, the cells can be evacuated in the laboratory,
converted to electric current and multiplied to measurable then sent to the sampling site where they are filled by opening
levels by a photomultiplier tube to produce electrical pulses the valve. Alternatively, a small pump can be used. The inlet
that can be counted by a discriminator/scaler. Scintillation to the cell normally is fitted with a filter to remove radon
methods are in common and widespread use for radon mea- decay products during filling. The sampling time is recorded,
surements. then the cell is sent back to the laboratory or analyzed on-site.
Radon decay product concentrations are determined by Measurement of radon with the scintillation cell is accom-
counting the alpha, beta, or gamma activities. Gross activities plished with a photomultiplier tube optically coupled to the
may be measured with simple scintillators, or activities at- transparent window of the cell. Alpha particles produced in
tributable to individual decay products can be determined by the cell strike the phosphor, generating light that is converted
spectroscopic methods that rely on differences in the energies to an electric current by the photomultiplier tube. For the
and half-lives of the decay products. analysis, a delay of at least 3 h allows for the in-growth to
Energy from gamma rays is utilized for measurements radioactive equilibrium of the radon decay products, Po-218
with scintillometers that operate on the principle of absorb- and Po-214. The scintillations from the radon/radon decay
ing energy from the gamma rays in fluorescent material made products are then counted with the photomultiplier tube/
from sodium iodide in a crystal form. Upon absorbing the scaler assembly.
52 MANUAL ON RADON
T A B L E 2--Measurement methods for airborne radon.

Sampling C a t e g o r y Method/Instrument Measurement Principle Notes References
Grab Scintillation cell Alpha scintillation counting Low cost field use 4,5,6
Grab/continuous Ionization chamber Current (pulse) counting Suitable for field use 9
Grab Liquid scintillator Liquid scintillation counting Samples collected in gas 11
sampling bags are
bubbled through
scintillation solution
Continuous Flow-through scintillation Alpha scintillation counting Radon is passed 12,13,14
cell monitor through the cell
continuously
Continuous Passive diffusion Po-218 collected - - 18
electrostatic monitor electrostatically on
scintillation detector
Continuous Diffusion radon only Radon decay products 20
monitor removed by electret; alpha
scintillation counting
Integrated Alpha track detector Alpha particles damage Most commonly used 22,23,24,
sensitive film on which for 1 to 12 month 25,26
"tracks" can be counted durations; passive
sampler
Integrated Activated carbon monitor Radon adsorption on Short-term (2 to 7-day) 31,32,33
activated carbon; analysis measurement device;
by gamma counting passive sampler
Integrated Electrets Radon diffuses into a Both short-term and 48,49
chamber where ionization long-term electrets
occurs; ions are collected by available
a charged electret; change
in electret charge measured
I n w o r k of Lucas [4] with a 0.1-L cell, the detection effi- the average e r r o r for 66 tests was 18% a n d that the range of
ciency was 75 to 80%, the b a c k g r o u n d c o u n t rate was 0.08 c o m p a n y e r r o r was 3 to 75%. The a u t h o r s of the r e p o r t sug-
counts p e r m i n u t e (cpm), a n d detection efficiency was 143 gested that the r e a s o n for the large variations observed in the
c p m / B q (5 cpm/pCi). The lower limit of detection (LLD) was 1 RMP p r o g r a m m a y be related to inexperience with the instru-
Bq/m 3 (0.03 pCi/L). mentation.
M e a s u r e m e n t errors with scintillation cells are related to
m a l f u n c t i o n of the counting system, i m p r o p e r calibration, Ionization Chambers
a n d leaks in the valves or joints during t r a n s p o r t a n d storage Pulse-type i o n i z a t i o n c h a m b e r s [9,10] have been in use for
of the cells. M e a s u r e m e n t e r r o r (accuracy) a n d p r e c i s i o n m a n y years for the m e a s u r e m e n t of r a d o n in l a b o r a t o r y set-
have been d e t e r m i n e d on a s e m i a n n u a l basis by the U.S. tings. An i o n i z a t i o n c h a m b e r consists of a cylinder with an
D e p a r t m e n t of Energy's E n v i r o n m e n t a l M e a s u r e m e n t s Labo- electric field e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n two electrodes. W h e n filled
ratory (DOE-EML) t h r o u g h their R a d o n l n t e r c o m p a r i s o n with r a d o n - c o n t a i n i n g air, r a d i a t i o n from the decay of r a d o n
Exercise. Results of the R a d o n I n t e r c o m p a r i s o n Exercise a n d r a d o n decay p r o d u c t s ionizes the air, causing a c u r r e n t to
c o n d u c t e d in April 1991 are depicted in Fig. 1. F o r the 34 flow b e t w e e n the electrodes. The c u r r e n t is m e a s u r e d with a
participants, the ratio of the p a r t i c i p a n t (facility) m e a s u r e d solid-state electrometer. Lower limits of detection (LLD) typi-
r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n to the EML reference m e a n concentra- cally are a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 Bq/m 3 (0.1 pCi/L), a l t h o u g h lower
tion r a n g e d from 0.66 _+ 0.04 to 1.58 • 0.05. F o r all b u t three LLDs have b e e n r e p o r t e d [10].
facilities, the ratio was b e t w e e n 0.89 a n d 1.14. As shown in
the figure, the precision of the m e a s u r e m e n t with four cells Solvent Extraction Method
was better t h a n • 10% for m o s t facilities. DOE-EML has An alternative to the scintillation cell that employs a chilled
f o u n d that errors during this exercise are generally attribut- liquid scintillator for m e a s u r e m e n t of r a d o n in air has also
able to leakage of the cells or calculational errors [7]. been r e p o r t e d [11]. In this method, field s a m p l e s of air, col-
Participants in the DOE-EML i n t e r c o m p a r i s o n exercises lected in collapsible gas s a m p l i n g bags or o t h e r suitable con-
include g o v e r n m e n t agency laboratories, university r e s e a r c h tainers, are p a s s e d t h r o u g h 20 m L of a hexane-based liquid
groups, i n s t r u m e n t m a n u f a c t u r e r s , and private r e s e a r c h a n d scintillation solution to extract the radon, w h i c h is highly
testing companies. Many of the p a r t i c i p a n t s have been ac- soluble in cold organic solvents. The extraction system,
tively involved in r a d o n r e s e a r c h a n d m e a s u r e m e n t s for w h i c h consists of a d e s s i c a t o r section, an i m p i n g e r with a
m a n y years, which m a y explain the high levels of a c c u r a c y fritted disk, a n d a v a c u u m p u m p , m u s t be m a i n t a i n e d at
a n d precision r e p o r t e d in this exercise. An analysis of the - 78~ in a dry ice/acetone bath. After a 3-h p e r i o d for r a d o n
results of R o u n d 5 of the U.S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l Protection decay p r o d u c t in-growth, the samples are c o u n t e d with a
Agency (EPA) R a d o n M e a s u r e m e n t Proficiency (RMP) pro- s t a n d a r d liquid scintillation system. Liquid scintillators have
gram, p r e s e n t e d in a r e p o r t by the General Accounting Office a relatively high b a c k g r o u n d c o m p a r e d to ZnS :Ag
(GAO), showed a large v a r i a t i o n in the a c c u r a c y of m e a s u r e - scintillation cells, b u t P r i c h a r d [11] a d d r e s s e d this p r o b l e m
m e n t s with grab s a m p l i n g m e t h o d s [8]. They r e p o r t e d that by long b a c k g r o u n d counts to d e t e r m i n e a s t a n d a r d deviation
1.8
1.4
J
UJ
t~
LL
v
._o
w 0.6
0.2
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Facility Code Number
FIG. 1-Results of the April 1991, DOE-EML radon measurement intercomparison
exercise (ratio of reported mean concentration to mean value obtained at EML by
pulse ionization chamber measurements).
(S.D.) of the background that was considerably less than the been developed by Thomas and Countess [13]. The equations
S.D. of the samples. For a 10-L air sample and a 100-min account for the relative contribution of deposited radon
count, the LLD was 1.5 Bq/m 3. decay products in the current interval and from previous
The liquid scintillation method has advantages similar to measurement intervals. Cell volume, flowrate, and measure-
the scintillation cells with respect t o collection of field sam- ment interval are constants needed for the calculation. Cali-
ples for subsequent analysis in the laboratory. Samples can bration methods for the flow-through system have been de-
be collected and extracted in the field and sent back to the scribed by Thomas and Countess [13] and Busigin et al. [15].
laboratory. The need for a dry ice/acetone bath is an obvious The lower limit of detection for flow-through systems using
disadvantage of the method for field use. The liquid a 30-rain counting period will range from 3.7 to 37 Bq/m 3 (0.1
scintillation counting system is expensive relative to the to 1 pCi/L) [16,17]. Nazaroff et al. [14], using the standard
counting system required for ZnS:Ag scintillation cells. This propagation of errors formula, estimated a standard devia-
method may be an attractive alternative if the counting sys- tion of 0.74 Bq/m 3 for radon concentrations below 111 Bq/m 3
tem is already available. The need to dispose of large quan- (3 pCi/L) using a 180-min counting period for a 0.17-L cell.
tities of liquid scintillation solutions is a limitation of the Performance of continuous radon monitors was reported
method that adds to the cost of the method in terms of both to be highly variable in Round 5 of the RMP program. Ac-
financial resources and its environmental impact. cording to the analysis reported by the GAO [8], the average
error for 99 tests was 25% and the company error ranged
from 0 to 658%. The reason for this large range of error may
Continuous Monitoring Methods be due to participation in the RMP by companies with rela-
Continuous, or repeated short-term semi-continuous, mea- tively limited experience in the use and calibration of contin-
surements are useful in situations where radon concentra- uous radon monitors. Commercial monitors based on flow-
tions change significantly or vary rapidly over time. Continu- through scintillation cells are available in a price range of
ous measurements are most widely used for research $400 to $5000.
applications. For example, continuous measurements are
valuable in studies of the effects of various impact parame- Pulse Ion Chamber Monitors
ters, such as ventilation rate or pressure differentials, on in- Pulse ion chamber technology has also been utilized for
door radon concentrations. continuous measurement of radon. Until recently, ionization
chambers were not widely used for field measurements. They
Continuous (Flow-Through) Scintillation Cells have been most commonly used for laboratory applications
Scintillation cells (ZnS :Ag) can be fitted with a filtered inlet and in calibration programs because they are highly accu-
and an air pump for use in a flow-through mode to make rate. However, continuous radon monitors that employ
continuous measurements of radon [12-14]. The cell is cou- pulsed ion chamber alpha detectors are now commercially
pled to a photomultiplier tube with associated electronics to available. One manufacturer's monitor, for example, com-
count the scintillations from the cell on a continuous basis. bines a phase-shifted, negative feed-back electrometer and an
The radon decay products (Po-218 and Po-214) deposit on the ultra-low capacitance open grid chamber design. Air is de-
cell walls during flow-through. Since they have an effective livered to an internal detector by a pump or by passive diffu-
half-life of approximately 30 rain, a correction must be made sion. Radon decay products are electrostatically removed and
to account for the activity of previously deposited radon prevented from entering the internal pulsed ion sensing vol-
decay products. A set of equations to calculate the average ume. As a radon atom decays within the sensing volume of
radon concentrations for time periods of 30 rain or less has the chamber, a "burst" of ions is produced and is converted to
54 MANUAL ON RADON
electrical pulses in the electrometer. These pulses are grating samplers for measurements over periods ranging
counted. from one to twelve months. But, ATDs can be used for mea-
Commercial instruments are portable, have low power re- surements over even shorter periods if the radon concentra-
quirements, and are relatively low cost (approximately tion is high.
$2000). Instruments are available with a sensitivity of 0.008 Geiger, in 1967, reported on a badge employing cellulose
cpm per Bq/m 3 and a dynamic range of 18 to 18 000 Bq/m 3. nitrate film for measuring radon [21]. The badge, termed a
One manufacturer has reported accuracy of + 3.5% and pre- solid state nuclear track detector, allowed radon to diffuse
cision of _+4.1% at a concentration of 292 Bq/m 3 (7.9 pCi/L) into a central cavity where the film was contained. During
in chamber tests. decay, alpha particles from radon and its decay products
impacted the film, causing "alpha tracks." The film was subse-
Diffusion-Electrostatic Radon Monitor quently etched with an alkali solution to enlarge the tracks,
Diffusion-electrostatic radon monitors [18,19] are diffu- which were then counted with optical microscopy. By use of
sion-based devices for which detection of radon is based on standardized exposures to radon, the detectors could be cal-
the electrostatic collection of Po-218. Radon, but not thoron ibrated; the number of tracks was shown to be directly pro-
or radon decay products, diffuses through a foam membrane portional to the radon concentration.
into a 1-L or larger hemisphere. Positive charged Po-218, The ATD method was further developed during the 1970s
formed from the decay of radon, is drawn electrostatically to and 1980s by several investigators [22-26]. However, the ba-
a layer of aluminized Mylar covering a phosphor. Alpha parti- sic measurement principle and detector geometry are still
cles from the decays of Po-218 and Po-214 are counted by a used in all commercial ATDs. Major developments to im-
scintillation detection system. prove performance have been the use of allyl diglycol carbon-
The lower limit of detection for a commercially available ate (CR-39) film, electrically conducting plastic containers,
model is 18 Bq/m 3 (0.5 pCi/L) for a 10-rain counting period. and improved etching methods.
The device is affected by humidity, possibly as a result of ATDs consist of a small container, generally constructed of
Po-218 neutralization. To overcome humidity problems, con- plastic, that contains a piece of film. Electrically conductive
stant flow through the chamber with a pump and an in-line plastic is used by some manufacturers to minimize charge
dessicant column on the inlet can be used. The humidity effects from predominantly positively charged radon daugh-
effect should be less than 10% in the 30 to 50% relative ter products. Detector design wwies; for example, one manu-
humidity range. facturer uses a hemispherical cup that purportedly provides
more uniform distribution of tracks on the film. All ATDs
Diffusion Radon Only Monitor include a filter that allows radon to diffuse into the detector
This monitor uses electrostatic collection with an electret but prevents entry of dust and radon decay products.
in a scintillation flask to prevent detection of radon decay Performance of ATDs is strongly affected by the quality of
products; only scintillations from the radioactive decay of the film. Cellulose nitrate and polycarbonate can be used, but
radon are counted [20]. The LLD is approximately 3.7 Bq/m 3 CR-39 is currently the most widely used film. Dosimetry
for a 60-rain counting interval. The reported measurement grade CR-39 material is used to minimize background tracks
error is + 23% at 40 Bq/m 3. The instrument is not commer- (due to imperfections in the material) and background varia-
cially available. tion. Etching methods may affect the precision and accuracy
of the method. According to one manufacturer's literature,
electrochemical etching improves precision because it pro-
Integrated M e a s u r e m e n t Methods
duces larger tracks that are easier to distinguish from back-
Measuring radon in thousands of structures to assess ground tracks (imperfections) in the film.
health risks due to radon exposure has resulted in widespread To determine radon concentration, ATDs are calibrated by
use of simple passive sampling devices for integrated mea- exposure for fixed time periods to known concentrations of
surements. These devices are low cost, small, and easy to use, radon in environmental chambers. Calibration factors are
making them ideal for use by homeowners. Because they can derived by dividing track density by the radon exposure (con-
be deployed by building occupants, transferred by mail, and centration x time) for each lot of film. In early studies, the
analyzed at central laboratories, such devices also facilitate sensitivity of one type of detector was reported by Alter and
performance of large-scale surveys at relatively low cost. Fleischer [25] to be 0.0010 tracks per mm 2 per Bq/m 3. Back-
When used properly, the passive samplers generally provide ground track densities of 0.3 to 0.8 tracks per mm 2 have been
reliable results. Extensive research has documented the per- reported. For a measurement of 17.25 mm% the sensitivity
formance of these simple measurement methods. The limita- was reported to be 7.4 Bq/m 3 for a one-month exposure [25].
tions of these devices are now well-recognized and ade- The performance of ATDs has been examined by a number
quately documented. This section provides descriptions of of researchers. The statistical accuracy has been reported
the available methods, their advantages, and their limita- [26] to range from 10% for a one-year exposure at 1110 Bq/m 3
tions. to 42% for a three-month exposure to 18.5 Bq/m 3 (0.5 pCi/L),
as shown in Table 3. Exposures of ATDs in controlled envi-
Alpha-Track Detectors ronment chambers have shown that they occasionally per-
One of the most widely used integrating samplers for both form to theoretical expectations, but more frequently show
screening and follow-up measurements is the alpha-track de- much greater variability than predicted. Exposure results re-
tector. The device is small, low cost, and easy to use. Alpha- ported by Pearson [27], for example, showed that the ratio of
track detectors (ATDs) are generally used as long-term inte- the mean radon concentration (of six to eight detectors) re-
M E A S U R E M E N T METHODS AND INSTRUMENTATION 55
TABLE 3--Statistical accuracy of ATDs. the s a m p l e r is o p e n e d by removing the lid o r a foil cover.
Radon Concentration Accuracy R a d o n diffuses into the charcoal b e d passively by m o l e c u l a r
Bq/m3 pCi/L 3 month 1 year diffusion. Following s a m p l e collection, the device is r e t u r n e d
to a l a b o r a t o r y where g a m m a rays e m i t t e d by the r a d o n decay
18.5 0.5 42% 21% p r o d u c t s are quantified by simple g a m m a detection methods.
37 1.0 29% 17%
111 3.0 20% 17% Charcoal was shown to be useful in a m e t h o d to a d s o r b
370 10.0 19% 10% r a d o n by R u t h e r f o r d [29] in 1900. He suggested that charcoal
1110 30.0 11% 10% be used for passive a d s o r p t i o n to m e a s u r e r a d o n in air a n d
e m a n a t i o n rates from soil. Pensko [30] in 1983 e x a m i n e d the
factors that influence p e r f o r m a n c e of charcoal for r a d o n col-
p o r t e d versus the actual c o n c e n t r a t i o n r a n g e d from 0.67 to lection, w h i c h included the weight of the charcoal, exposure
1.27 (Table 4). Precision, expressed as the coefficient of varia- duration, w a t e r adsorption, a n d g a m m a s p e c t r o m e t r y mea-
tion, r a n g e d from 13 to 65% a n d was generally higher t h a n s u r e m e n t accuracy. He suggested that a canister containing
expected b a s e d on counting statistics only. Oswald [28], at 150 g of charcoal could achieve a sensitivity of 1 Bq/m 3 with
the s a m e conference, r e p o r t e d biases of 0.95 a n d 0.91 for two an error of + 50%.
types of ATDs a n d s t a n d a r d deviations of 14.2 a n d 15.6 tested In 1984, George [31] r e p o r t e d test results on the perfor-
in R o u n d 4 of the RMP p r o g r a m . These results were b a s e d on m a n c e of an ACM design that has b e e n the basis for the open
s a m p l e sizes of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 70 and 200 for the two types of face ACMs n o w in w i d e s p r e a d use. In his original work,
detectors. It should be n o t e d that in tests r e p o r t e d by P e a r s o n George used an M11 gas m a s k canister that c o n t a i n e d ap-
[27], the ratio of r e p o r t e d to actual c o n c e n t r a t i o n s r a n g e d p r o x i m a t e l y 150 g of activated carbon. F o r this canister,
from less t h a n 0.2 to a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3.5 for the n e w e r type of George r e p o r t e d an LLD of 11 Bq/m 3 (0.3 pCi/L) for a three-
d e t e c t o r (Fig. 2). day exposure period. He suggested that m e a s u r e m e n t accu-
Recently a new a l p h a - t r a c k detector has been m a d e avail- racy should be _+20% using empirically derived c a l i b r a t i o n
able by a m a j o r foreign m a n u f a c t u r e r . The d e t e c t o r uses factors with corrections for w a t e r a d s o r p t i o n a n d that differ-
LR115 film as a b a r e nuclear t r a c k detector. R e p o r t e d sensi- ences between m e a s u r e m e n t s with p a i r e d canisters should be
tivity is 10 Bq/m 3 for a 30-day exposure. Previous studies have less t h a n 10%.
s h o w n that b a r e nuclear track detectors have p o o r p r e c i s i o n George [31] also r e p o r t e d that tests with a 5-cm-high cylin-
a n d that c a l i b r a t i o n for r a d o n m e a s u r e m e n t s is i m p a c t e d drical c o n t a i n e r with a cross-sectional area of 80 c m 2 h a d a
significantly by variations in e q u i l i b r i u m factors. However, higher a d s o r p t i o n capacity t h a n the M 11 canister. The canis-
the literature for the new detector suggests that it resists ter is a cylindrical metal c o n t a i n e r 5 c m high a n d 10 c m (4 in.)
radioactive particles deposited on the surface. P e r f o r m a n c e in diameter. A c h a r c o a l b e d 4.5 c m in depth is r e t a i n e d in the
studies of this new detector have not b e e n r e p o r t e d in U.S. canister by a metal screen secured with a retaining ring. The
scientific literature. lid on the canister is r e m o v e d to initiate s a m p l e collection.
The t e r m "open face" is used for this ACM b e c a u s e the lid is
Activated Carbon Monitors r e m o v e d to expose the entire top surface of the c h a r c o a l bed,
Activated c a r b o n m o n i t o r s (ACMs) have gained w i d e s p r e a d allowing r a d o n to diffuse into it at a rate d e p e n d e n t on differ-
p o p u l a r i t y as a low-cost, easy-to-use m e t h o d for p e r f o r m i n g ences in r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n between the c h a r c o a l b e d a n d
short-term screening m e a s u r e m e n t s of r a d o n indoors. The the a t m o s p h e r e . Alternatively, diffusion can be restricted
low cost of ACMs for the u s e r is a result of the relatively with a diffusion b a r r i e r as d e s c r i b e d in a following para-
simple s a m p l i n g a n d analysis m e t h o d s associated with the graph. Open face canisters have been used for exposure pe-
device. The s a m p l e r can be c o n s t r u c t e d at a cost of a few riods of 24 to 120 h, although EPA r e c o m m e n d s a d u r a t i o n of
dollars for m a t e r i a l s a n d labor. S a m p l e collection is simple; 48 h to m i n i m i z e w a t e r v a p o r effects.
TABLE 4--Results of chamber exposures of ATDs.

Monitor Type No. of Reported Radon Mean Coefficient of Variation
& Batch Detectors Actual Radon Observed Expected~
A-1 59 0.75 51% 23%
A-2 42 1.32 59% 16%
A-3 55 0.96 25% 17%
A-4 18 0.67 47% 20%
B-1 50 0.81 31% 11%
B-2 33 0.96 36% 10%
B-3 50 0.91 52% 9%
C-1 51 0.95 65% 21%
C-2 32 1.27 40% 20%
C-3 29 1.07 18% 17%
C-4 10 0.92 17% 17%
C-5 24 0.98 13% 15%
All C 143 1.04 45% 19%
D-all batches 46 1.15 36% 24%
""Expected"coefficientof variation based on the counting statistics of the net number of tracks from a
120 pCi-day/Lexposure.
56 MANUAL ON RADON
50 ranges. Rector et al. [34] used a single channel to determine

total activity over the entire energy range encompassing the
peaks for Pb-214 and Bi-214. Counting times are typically 10
40 to 30 rain per sample.
Liquid scintillation methods have been proposed as an
o~ alternative for analysis of activated carbon samples. Prichard
E 30 and Marien [35] described a method that involved extraction
Z of 10-g samples of carbon with toluene, addition of fluor
solution, and counting in an alpha scintillation cell. The
Cr
20 accuracy and precision of the analysis method were good, but
as the authors noted, the method involves considerable sam-
pler manipulation. Schroeder et al. [36] recently reported a
10 simpler liquid scintillation method. They used a commercial
dessicant can (2 g) and activated carbon can (2 g) in a vial for
sampling. In the laboratory, 15 mL of a toluene-fluor solution
0 FT"2"TR I IP2"27R I I
is added to the carbon. Once chemical and radiological equi-
0 1 2 3 4 librium are reached, liquid scintillation counting is per-
formed. The method gave reliable results with sensitivity of
Ratio of Measured/Actual Radon Concentration
675 cpm per BqlL and has passed the RMP test program.
FIG. 2 - F r e q u e n c y distribution of measurement results for al-
Both methods can be used to obtain reliable radon measure-
pha-track detectors exposed in a chamber (adapted from Ref
27). ments. The sample materials are low in cost, but analysis
costs are substantially higher than the gamma-counting
methods used for activated carbon monitors due to labor
Variations on the 10-cm-diameter open face ACM exist. costs associated with sample handling, reagent costs, and the
One variation uses a canister of smaller size, 7.5 cm (3-in.) high cost of the liquid scintillation counters. Another major
diameter. Advantages of the smaller canister are slightly disadvantage of the method is that large quantities of radio-
lower materials costs and lower costs for mailing. The pri- active fluor solutions are generated which must be disposed
mary limitation of the smaller canister is less adsorptive ca- of.
pacity and a resultant requirement for longer analysis (count- Because ACMs and DBCAs are so widely used, it is appro-
ing) periods. A second variation on the open face ACM is a priate to discuss the factors that affect their performance. An
sampler that consists of a paper container, often described as understanding of these factors and the limitations of this
an oversized tea bag, that contains charcoal. The sampler is measurement method is essential to decisions regarding the
suspended for radon collection; diffusion occurs through utility and application of resultant measurement data to meet
both sides of the bag. The device has been in use for many specific measurement objectives.
years and has exhibited performance comparable to other The concentration of radon measured with an ACM or
ACMs. It has exhibited acceptable performance in all rounds DBCA is calculated as follows:
of the RMP program.
As noted above, the rate of diffusion of radon into the Rn = Net cpm (1)
canister can be controlled by use of a permeable membrane. (Ts)(E)(CF)(DF)
A practical, low-cost passive activated carbon sampler that
incorporates a diffusion barrier was developed by Cohen et where
al. [32,33]. Their sampler consists of a 2.5-cm-high, 7.6-cm-
diameter metal can containing 25 g of charcoal. A diffusion Rn = radon concentration in pCi/L,
barrier consisting of nylon screen is glued over a 1.9-cm hole Net cpm = gross cpm minus background cpm (counts
in the lid of the can. A dessicant bag is taped to the screen to per minute),
remove water. The diffusion barrier charcoal absorber Ts = canister exposure time (minutes),
(DBCA) has two major advantages. Because of the dessicant, E = detector efficiency (cpm/pCi),
water vapor adsorption effects and time integration problems CF = calibration factor (empirically derived), and
are minimized. (Both problems are discussed below.) The DF = delay factor (minutes) from the midpoint of
major disadvantage is that the restricted sampling rate re- exposure to the start of counting.
sults in lower count rates. The combined low sampling rate In practice, the calibration factor used is related to the
and small size requires counting up to four times longer than exposure period and an adjustment factor for water vapor
for other ACMs. adsorption. Detector efficiency (E) and calibration factor
Analysis of ACMs and DBCAs is accomplished by a gamma (CF) may be combined in a single, empirically derived, cali-
ray detector. Typically a NaI(T1) detector with a 8 by 8 cm bration factor for some analytical systems.
crystal is coupled with a multichannel pulse-height analyzer. Factors that affect canister performance include the fol-
The total radioactivity from the gamma rays of the radon- lowing:
decay products is determined for selected energy ranges.
George [31] measured adsorption peaks of Pb-214 (242, 294, 1. Temperature.
and 352 keV) and of Bi-214 (609 keV). Cohen and Nason [33] 2. Relative humidity.
measured activity in the 220 to 390 keV and 550 to 680 keV 3. Time integration error.
M E A S U R E M E N T M E T H O D S AND I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N 57
4. Type of c a r b o n a n d canister geometry. m a t i c a l m o d e l s a n d m e a s u r e m e n t s c o n d u c t e d by Lee a n d

5. Statistical counting error. Sextro [41]. Canisters were exposed in their tests to time-
6. Calibration error. varying c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in two r o o m s with initial concentra-
tions of 7400 or 1110 Bq/m 3. M e a s u r e m e n t errors as high as
The effect of t e m p e r a t u r e on canister p e r f o r m a n c e has n o t - 90% were observed for o p e n face canisters w h e n they were
b e e n a d d r e s s e d extensively, a l t h o u g h it is well established exposed at high c o n c e n t r a t i o n s for 58 h followed by 58 h at
that t e m p e r a t u r e affects a d s o r p t i o n rates of gases onto car- the low concentration. Under the s a m e protocol, the e r r o r
bon. George [31] r e p o r t e d no discernible differences in re- with the DBCA was - 1 2 % , indicating that the DBCAs do
sponse of the M 11 canister in tests over a t e m p e r a t u r e range integrate b e t t e r t h a n the open face canisters. S i m i l a r mea-
from 18 to 27~ But Ronca-Battista a n d Gray [37] observed a s u r e m e n t errors with ACMs were r e p o r t e d by R o n c a - B a t t i s t a
significant effect of t e m p e r a t u r e on canister p e r f o r m a n c e . a n d Gray [37]. Average r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s were underesti-
M e a s u r e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s differed from actual r a d o n concen- m a t e d by 75% over a four-day exposure to r a d o n concentra-
trations by + 7 % at 10~ - 4 % at 16~ a n d - 2 1 % at 27~ tions that were varied by a ratio of 10:1. W i t h a two-day
during exposures at 50% relative h u m i d i t y (RH). At 80% RH, exposure there was a 54% u n d e r e s t i m a t e .
differences were + 20, + 1, a n d - 23% for exposures at 10, 16, The i m p o r t a n c e of deriving c a l i b r a t i o n factors specific to
a n d 27~ respectively. These results have practical implica- the canister a n d activated c a r b o n being used has been d e m -
tions for i n d o o r m e a s u r e m e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in b a s e m e n t s o n s t r a t e d by George [42]. He m e a s u r e d r a d o n a d s o r p t i o n for
w h e r e lower t e m p e r a t u r e s m a y be e n c o u n t e r e d a n d for sur- different types of c a r b o n a n d canisters over a four-day expo-
veys which c o m p a r e seasonal differences in c o n c e n t r a t i o n s if sure to 1295 Bq/m 3 (35 pCi/L) in a c h a m b e r . Results of these
the m e a s u r e m e n t s are p e r f o r m e d at t e m p e r a t u r e s outside the tests are depicted in Fig. 3. These tests showed that curves for
range used to d e t e r m i n e c a l i b r a t i o n factors for the monitors.
r a d o n a d s o r p t i o n were d r a m a t i c a l l y different for different
The effect of relative h u m i d i t y on canister p e r f o r m a n c e has
types of ACMs. George also r e p o r t e d that collection efficiency
been studied extensively since it is r e c o g n i z e d that w a t e r
was g o o d for m o s t detectors over a three- to four-day period,
v a p o r c o m p e t e s with r a d o n for a d s o r p t i o n sites in the c a r b o n
except for two types of detectors w h i c h h a d substantially
bed; as h u m i d i t y increases, r a d o n collection efficiency de-
r e d u c e d collection efficiency after two days.
creases. George [31] p r o p o s e d that c a l i b r a t i o n curves be de-
P e r f o r m a n c e of activated c a r b o n m o n i t o r s has been evalu-
veloped for o p e n face ACMs over an RH range a n d that w a t e r
ated in a n u m b e r of studies. Most of these studies have
weight gain be used to d e t e r m i n e the a p p r o p r i a t e CF. These
involved a limited n u m b e r of s a m p l e r s or participants. By far
p r o c e d u r e s are used routinely. EPA uses a n a d j u s t m e n t factor
the m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e testing p r o g r a m is the U.S. EPA
to correct the CF b a s e d on weight g a i n by the activated
RMP p r o g r a m . In R o u n d 5, 256 tests were p e r f o r m e d . The
c a r b o n during exposure [38]. F o r a 48 h d u r a t i o n sample, the
a d j u s t m e n t factors would be a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.105, 0.096, a n d average e r r o r was 19%, a n d the c o m p a n y error r a n g e d from 1
0.075 L/min for RHs of 20, 50, a n d 80%, respectively. Adjust- to 133% [8]. White et al. [43] r e p o r t e d that their analysis of
m e n t factors, however, will be specific to the activated c a r b o n the RMP results from 1987 a n d 1988 s h o w e d that for m o s t
m o n i t o r used. Controlled tests m u s t be p e r f o r m e d to deter- m e t h o d s the m e d i a n bias was between - 10 a n d + 10%. F o r
m i n e the factors a p p r o p r i a t e for use with different types of c h a r c o a l canisters, 54% of the p a r t i c i p a t i n g c o m p a n i e s h a d
monitors. an absolute relative bias of less t h a n 10%. But 12% of the 224
One advantage of the DBCA is that its design m i n i m i z e s c o m p a n i e s for w h i c h the d a t a were available h a d a bias
w a t e r v a p o r a d s o r p t i o n effects. Cohen f o u n d that the average greater t h a n 30%. Sixty-eight p e r c e n t of the 224 c o m p a n i e s
h u m i d i t y correction factor for the DBCA was 7.7% p e r g r a m h a d a relative m e a s u r e m e n t error less t h a n 10%. They also
of w a t e r weight gain [39]. W e i g h t gain by the DBCA was p e r f o r m e d an analysis of 480 duplicate activated c a r b o n
r e p o r t e d to range from less t h a n 0.4 to a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2.1 g m o n i t o r s exposed in h o m e s during the state i n d o o r r a d o n
a n d was related to the m o n t h of sampling. Cohen, therefore, survey (15 states). The m e a n coefficient of variation for 278
used a h u m i d i t y correction factor d e p e n d e n t on the m o n t h of
s a m p l i n g r a t h e r t h a n on an actual m e a s u r e m e n t of w a t e r
Open Face, 70g Activated Carbon
I
weight gain, w h i c h he believed gave results correct to a 3.3%
s t a n d a r d deviation. This p r o c e d u r e is b a s e d on results from a O 6.5 Open Face, 75g Activated Carbon
6
fairly sizable d a t a base, b u t it m a y be b i a s e d if m o s t s a m p l e s ~- 5.5
Limited Open Face, 50g Activated Carbon
are from the N o r t h e a s t e r n a n d M i d w e s t e r n g e o g r a p h i c re- Limited Open Face, 75g Activated Carbon
gions. The e r r o r associated with this correction p r o c e d u r e R4s 4 t
m a y be larger for s o m e geographic areas b e c a u s e of differ- 3.5
ences in relative humidity. 3
A d s o r p t i o n of r a d o n is a reversible process; d e s o r p t i o n of
,~ 2.5 -
r a d o n f r o m the activated c a r b o n occurs continually at a rate 1.5
1I
d e p e n d e n t on differences in c o n c e n t r a t i o n b e t w e e n the car-
0.5'
b o n b e d a n d the a t m o s p h e r e . One of the advantages of the 0 I I I
DBCA is that its t i m e integration constant is three to five days 24 48 72 96 120
[39] c o m p a r e d to 14 to 16 h for o p e n face canisters [40]. As a Exposure Period (Hours)
result, the e r r o r associated with m e a s u r e m e n t s u n d e r ex- FIG. 3-Differences in radon adsorption by different types of
t r e m e variations in r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n should be lower for activated carbon and canister configurations (adapted from Ref
the DBCA t h a n the ACM. This was confirmed b o t h by m a t h e - 42).
58 MANUAL ON RADON
pairs exposed at concentrations between 4.1 and 74 Bq/m a The electret radon monitor is possible because of the excel-
(0.11 to 2.0 pCi/L) was 14.7%. For the concentration range of lent stability of the electret. Tests have shown that surface
78 to 148 Bq/m 3 (2.1 to 4.0 pCi/L), the mean coefficient of potential is highly stable and not affected by either tempera-
variation was 7.8%, indicating good performance under natu- ture or humidity [50]. The LLD of the electrets was reported
ral conditions of exposure in a large survey. to be 37 Bq/m3-day (1 pCi/L-day) [50]. The performance has
Although the performance of activated carbon monitors is been evaluated in chamber exposure tests and in the RMP
effected by a number of factors, their widespread use can be program. In a recent double blind test [51] of short-term
expected to continue. It is the responsibility of the user to passive monitors, electrets were exposed in a basement for
recognize the limitations of the measurement method and two, five, or 7 days at mean concentrations of 340 or 395
attempt to minimize their effect on accuracy and precision. Bq/m 3. Measurement results were compared to a pulse ion-
This can be accomplished by following standardized proto- ization chamber radon monitor. The average mean absolute
cols such as those recommended by EPA [44]. relative errors (MAREs) for five electrets were 0.045, 0.091,
and 0.052, and the coefficients of variation were 3.9, 11.8, and
Electrets 5.1%.
A passive integrated radon measurement method that has
recently been developed commercially is an ionization cham-
ber with an electret. An electret is a piece of dielectric mate- METHODS AND INSTRUMENTATION FOR
rial exhibiting a quasi-permanent electrical charge. For MEASUREMENT OF RADON DECAY
measurement of radon, the electret is enclosed in a chamber PRODUCTS
made of conductive plastic. Radon that diffuses into the
Radon is measured much more frequently than radon
chamber causes ionization in the chamber as the radon
decay products, The results of radon measurements are often
decays and the ions generated by radon decay products are
used to estimate health risks using estimates of the equilib-
collected by the charged electret. The reduction of charge in
rium factor (usually assumed to be 0.5). The reason for this
the electret is proportional to the integrated radon concentra-
approach is that measurements of radon decay products are
tion over the exposure period.
generally more difficult and costly than radon measurements.
As early as 1955, electrets were proposed for use as gamma
However, methods for the measurement of radon decay prod-
dosimeters [45], but the suggestion was not practical because
uct concentrations have been available for many years. Meth-
the reduction of charge was not stable for the available
ods developed for use in the uranium industry have now been
electret materials. Bauser and Range [46], in 1978, were able
optimized for use at levels that are found in nonindustrial
to develop a functional ionization chamber using Teflon TM
indoor environments.
electrets. Subsequently, electrets were used for measurement
In the measurement of radon decay products, two catego-
of X-ray and gamma radiation [4 7] and a personnel dosime-
ries of decay products, the attached fraction and the unat-
ter was designed by Gupta et al. [48].
tached fraction, are addressed. As Rn-222 decays, Po-218
Development of a prototype electret for radon monitoring
appears as a singly charged positive ion. The ion undergoes
was completed in 1987 [49,50]. The commercial product has
chemical changes and the resulting molecules can attach to
been tested extensively and has met the EPA RMP acceptance
particulate matter present in the atmosphere. As a result,
criteria. Electrets are available for short-term or long-term
Po-218 and its decay products (Pb-214 and Bi-214) occur as
measurements. Both have a useful range of approximately
both attached (to particles) and unattached. The unattach-
600 V. With the short-term electret, a one-day exposure to a
ed fraction may consist of positively charged, negatively
concentration of 37 Bq/m 3 (1 pCi/L) discharges the electret by charged, or neutral species. Terms used to describe this frac-
approximately 2 V. Electrets are also sensitive to background tion have included "free ions," "uncombined," or "unat-
radiation. Kotrappa et al. [50] reported that the response for a tached"; the latter term is consistent with NCRP terminology
one-day exposure at 0.1/xGy/h (I 0 urad/h) was approximately [3] and is currently used by most researchers.
equivalent to a one-day radon exposure at 22.2 to 66.6 Bq/m 3 Radon decay product measurement methods involve sam-
(0.6 to 1.8 pCi/L). The manufacturer of the commercially pling of a known volume of air through a filter on which the
available electrets provides information and procedures for activity of the collected decay products is measured. To deter-
correcting measurement results to account for environmen- mine concentrations of the individual radon decay products,
tal gamma radiation levels, which may vary by geographic three independent gross alpha counts can be used. Alpha
location. spectrometric methods (diffused junction or surface barrier
The short-term electret container is approximately 10 cm detectors and multichannel analysis) can also be used. Cur-
in diameter and 12 cm high. The electret, which screws into rently available methods for measuring radon decay products
the bottom of the container, is metal-coated Teflon TM. The are summarized in Table 5.
potential of the electret is read by the shutter method (capac-
itative probe method); a commercial reader is available for
approximately $1000. The electrets cost approximately $15,
Grab Sampling Methods
and the container (shell) is approximately $35. An electret The simplest approach to measurement of radon decay
can be used repeatedly over its useful voltage range. For ex- products is use of a single alpha count to determine the
ample, the electret could be used approximately 25 times for working level [1 working level (WL) is defined as any combi-
three-day periods at 3 pCi/L, making the electrets particularly nation of radon decay products in 1 L of air that upon com-
cost-effective devices. plete decay to Pb-210 results in the emission of 1.3 • l0 s MeV
M E A S U R E M E N T M E T H O D S AND I N S T R U M E N T A T I O N 59
TABLE 5--Measurement methods for radon decay products.

Sampling C a t e g o r y Method/Instrument Measurement Principle Notes References
Grab Kusnetz/Rolle Alpha count of sample on filter For WL 52,53
Grab Tsivoglou Alpha count of sample on filter For individual decay 54
products or WL
Grab Electret Collection of ions on electret For total potential alpha 7t
energy
Semi-continuous Tsivoglou Alpha count of samples on filters Optimized counting 55,56
modification intervals; use of scaler
Integrating Therrnoluminescence Sample on filter; detection with For 1 to 2 week sample WL 75,76, 77
RPISU TLD monitor WL monitor
Integrating Surface barrier alpha Sample on filter silicon surface WL monitor; data 89,80
detector barrier detector acquisition system for
recording sequential
measurements
of a l p h a energy]. The m e t h o d developed by Kusnetz [52] for Electrets have also b e e n used for the m e a s u r e m e n t of
m e a s u r e m e n t s in u r a n i u m m i n e s a n d modified by others [53] r a d o n decay p r o d u c t s [70, 71]. K o t r a p p a et al. [71] d e s c r i b e d
involves s a m p l i n g on a filter for 2 to 10 rain a n d counting of an a l p h a electret d o s i m e t e r for r a d o n decay p r o d u c t mea-
gross a l p h a activity after a decay p e r i o d of 40 to 90 min. s u r e m e n t s that consisted of a 5-cm d i a m e t e r electret in a
Tsivoglou et al. [54] first d e s c r i b e d a m e a s u r e m e n t tech- cylindrical c h a m b e r that c o n t a i n e d a filter for collection of
nique to m e a s u r e individual r a d o n decay products. An air r a d o n decay products. A k n o w n volume of air was d r a w n
s a m p l e was collected on a filter for five min. Alpha activity across the filter, then the electret was allowed to collect ions
was m e a s u r e d with a r a t e m e t e r at 5, 15, a n d 30 m i n following for at least 3 h after sampling. The charge difference (pre- a n d
sampling. The modified Tsivoglou method, developed by post-sampling) was then measured. The m e t h o d provided a
T h o m a s [55, 56], used a scalar to r e c o r d counts and o p t i m i z e d m e a s u r e of total potential a l p h a energy since a l p h a r a d i a t i o n
counting intervals of 2 to 5, 7 to 15, a n d 25 to 30 m i n after the was m e a s u r e d d u r i n g s a m p l i n g as well as d u r i n g the 3-h
end of air sampling. decay period. F o r an air s a m p l e of 68.4 L, the sensitivity was
F u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t w o r k on the gross a l p h a counting 0.1 WL. F u r t h e r modifications to the electret, the surface
m e t h o d has consisted of p r o c e d u r e s to o p t i m i z e the c o u n t potential reader, a n d the c o n t a i n e r have been p e r f o r m e d by
intervals to increase the sensitivity a n d precision of m e a s u r e - the m a n u f a c t u r e r of the E-PERM TM to develop a n d m a r k e t the
m e n t s for e n v i r o n m e n t a l r a d o n levels. N a z a r o f [57] r e c o m - device.
m e n d e d extending the total m e a s u r e m e n t t i m e from 36 to 60
m i n to i m p r o v e m e a s u r e m e n t precision. The t i m i n g sequence Continuous Monitors
p r o p o s e d for a five-min s a m p l i n g p e r i o d and one-rain delays
was 1 to 4, 7 to 24, and 35 to 55 min after the end of s a m p l i n g R a d o n decay p r o d u c t s can be m e a s u r e d with c o n t i n u o u s
w o r k i n g level meters w h i c h are c o m m e r c i a l l y available.
a n d 2 to 5, 8 to 25, a n d 37 to 55 rain after the end of s a m p l i n g
These i n s t r u m e n t s are b a s e d on technology originally devel-
for a t w o - m i n delay. Other counting intervals have been
o p e d for the u r a n i u m industry. The units o p e r a t e by d r a w i n g
r e c o m m e n d e d to reduce the sensitivity of the m e a s u r e m e n t
an air s a m p l e t h r o u g h a filter onto w h i c h r a d o n decay prod-
to variations in flow rate a n d c o n c e n t r a t i o n fluctuations
ucts are deposited. Alpha particles from the r a d o n decay
[58-60]. Quindos et al. [61] a n d K h a n et al. [62] have rec-
p r o d u c t s are detected by a solid-state d e t e c t o r located at the
o m m e n d e d use of five counting intervals to s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
filter. Commercially-available units are typically e q u i p p e d
m e a s u r e Rn-222 a n d Rn-220 decay products. A simplified
with a m i c r o c o m p u t e r to r e c o r d the n u m b e r of a l p h a parti-
counting m e t h o d that applies for any length of counting has
cles detected, store the data, a n d calculate e s t i m a t e d w o r k i n g
been described by Marley a n d Geiger [63]. It is used for
levels using integral algorithms. The units are generally light-
m e a s u r e m e n t s with c o n t i n u o u s working level monitors. weight, can be o p e r a t e d on b a t t e r y power, a n d are easy to use.
Alpha s p e c t r o m e t r y m e t h o d s are a useful alternative to Lower limits of detection of 0.0001 WL have b e e n r e p o r t e d
gross a l p h a counting methods. W i t h these methods, activities for c o m m e r c i a l monitors. M a n u f a c t u r e r s r e p o r t that accu-
of Po-218 and Po-214 on a filter are d e t e r m i n e d over two r a c y is generally b e t t e r t h a n _+20%. In R o u n d 5 of the RMP
counting intervals. Solid-state detectors are used to distin- p r o g r a m , 75 tests were p e r f o r m e d with c o n t i n u o u s working
guish the 6.00 MeV (Po-218) a n d 7.69 MeV (Po-214) a l p h a level monitors. The average e r r o r was 22%, a n d the range of
energies. Bi-214 c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are a s s u m e d to equal Po-214 c o m p a n y e r r o r was 0 to 518%. W h i t e et al. [43] r e p o r t e d that
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s b e c a u s e they are in equilibrium. 74% of the c o m p a n i e s p a r t i c i p a t i n g in the 1988 RMP h a d a
Martz et al. [64] r e p o r t e d use of a l p h a s p e c t r o m e t r y to relative bias below 20%. Ninety-four p e r c e n t of the tests h a d
m e a s u r e c o u n t rates of Po-218 a n d Po-214 on a filter s a m p l e relative m e a s u r e m e n t errors below 20%.
at 2 to 12 a n d 15 to 30 rain p e r i o d s after sampling. Variations Other m e t h o d s for the c o n t i n u o u s o r s e m i - c o n t i n u o u s
of the m e t h o d have included counting d u r i n g s a m p l i n g [65], m e a s u r e m e n t of r a d o n decay p r o d u c t s have been reported.
use of a two-channel a n a l y z e r for m e a s u r e m e n t s at o n e - m i n Nazaroff [72] described a r a d o n d a u g h t e r carousel for mea-
intervals for 20 rain [66], and o t h e r modifications of either suring Po-218, Pb-214, a n d Bi-214. R a d o n decay p r o d u c t s
the delay p e r i o d before counting or the length of the counting were collected on seven filters that were r o t a t e d to place t h e m
interval [67-69]. u n d e r an a l p h a s p e c t r o m e t e r for counting d u r i n g two inter-
vals. The device had an LLD of 20 Bq/m 3 with a measurement dosimetry models; its measurement in research programs is
uncertainty of approximately 20%. Other instruments for critical to understanding radon decay product dynamics and
measurements of radon decay products that have been de- human exposure.
scribed [73, 74] feature modifications or refinements in filter Measurement of the unattached fraction has been the sub-
positioning, analysis, or data processing. ject of extensive research. Instrumentation used for the mea-
surement have included devices using diffusion, impaction,
and electrostatic deposition methods [3,82], as summarized
Integrated Sampling Methods in Table 6. Chamberlain and Dyson [83] used diffusion tubes
150 and 600 mm long by 18 mm in diameter to determine the
Integrating methods for radon decay products consist of
unattached fraction by loss to the walls. They measured a
three basic components: (1) an air sampling pump, (2) a filter
diffusion coefficient of 0.054 cm2/s for Po-218. Craft et al. [84]
to collect the decay products, and (3) a detector. There are no
passive radon decay product methods; pumps and power (ac used the same type of tube (600 mm long by 37 mm diameter)
in pairs, one with a reference filter on the inlet and the other
or dc) are required for the currently available methods. The
with the filter on the outlet, to determine the unattached
detector may be of a type that is returned to a laboratory for
analysis (e.g., TLD) or, in newer instruments, a solid-state fraction by difference. The unattached fraction has also been
alpha detector integrated with a data acquisition system. measured with diffusion batteries [85] and impaction on par-
A radon progeny integrating sampling unit (RPISU) con- allel plates [86]. Electrostatic collectors have been used in
sisting of a low-volume sampling pump, a membrane filter, studies of the unattached fraction [87], but they must be used
and a thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD) was developed for in conjunction with a diffusion battery to determine the total
use in the uranium industry by Schiager [75, 76] and Franz et unattached fraction since the neutral species are not col-
al. [77]. A similar instrument was developed at EML [78] to lected.
measure environmental levels. Screen samplers have been used widely in recent years for
The sensitivity of the RPISU has been improved by replac- measurement of the unattached fraction. Early work on the
ing the TLD with a surface barrier alpha detector [79,80]. collection efficiency of wire screens was performed in 1972
With this design, the lower limit of detection is 0.00004 WL by Thomas and Hinchcliffe [88], George [89], and others.
for a one-week measurement at 0.2 L/min. Use of a data Based on this work, equations were developed for the effi-
acquisition system allows the instrument to be used as a ciency of screens. Cheng and Yeh [90] and Cheng et al. [91]
continuous WL monitor, with printout of data at fixed inter- also developed equations for collection efficiency for stacks of
vals. The instrument is more expensive ($2000 to $8000) than screens. Van der Vooren [82] noted that collection of the
the TLD device, but is substantially easier to use and can attached fraction of the aerosol results in large measurement
provide information on temporal variation of radon decay errors. Calculated collection efficiencies of 0.05 to 4.3% for
product concentrations. the attached fraction resulted in substantial errors since the
The performance of RPISUs has been evaluated in inter- unattached fraction is usually only a few percent of the total
laboratory comparison programs by the U.S. DOE at the activity.
Technical Measurements Center (TMC) in Grand Junction, Recent studies [92, 93] suggest that the unattached radon
Colorado. Results of an exercise performed in 1985 [81] decay product fraction is an ultrafine particle mode, rather
showed good agreement among RPSIU measurements. The than free molecular polonium. Reineking et al. [93] deter-
means for each of the five groups that participated were mined that there was a Po-218 activity peak in the 1 to 3-nm
within 0.021 WL (one standard deviation) of the mean for all diameter range. Hopke [94] pointed out that classical diffu-
instruments of 0.205 WL. The coefficient of variation for all sion batteries have insufficient resolution for these ultrafine
measurements was 10.4%. In Round 5 of the RMP program, aerosols (0.5 to 3-nm diameter). He suggested use of single
only four companies submitted RPISUs. The average error screens of different mesh numbers separately or in stack
was 27% and ranged from 1 to 80% [8]. configuration for these measurements. Recognizing that the
unattached fraction is an ultrafine aerosol, Ramanurthi and
Hopke [95] used wire screen penetration theory to determine
Measurements of Unattached Radon Decay
Products the wire screen collection efficiency for a number of screen-
face velocity combinations reported in the literature. These
Measurement of unattached radon decay products is not calculations showed underestimation of the unattached frac-
commonly performed in field surveys to estimate human tion of 14 to 48% in the eight studies examined. Based on this
exposure and health risks. The complexity and costs of the work they suggest that appropriate screen-operating parame-
measurement preclude its routine use. However, the unat- ters must be chosen for efficient collection of the ultrafine
tached radon decay product fraction is very important in lung aerosol or that, alternatively, wire screens be used in diffu-
TABLE 6--Measurement methods for unattached radon decay products.

Sampling C a t e g o r y Method/Instrument Measurement Principle References
Grab Diffusion batteries Unattached fraction determined by loss to surfaces; 82,83
may be parallel tubes, parallel plates, or screens
Grab Electrostatic collectors Collection of positive and negative ions 84
Grab Screen samplers Collection of unattached fraction on varying 87-91, 94
number or mesh size of screens
sion battery-type systems to determine activity size distribu- TABLE 7--Soil gas measurement methods.
tion over the 0.5 to 500-nm size range. Method Description References
Measurement of the unattached fraction continues to be an
Radium Laboratory analysis of bulk 98
area in which development of more refined methods is re- content sample in sealed container
quired and anticipated. The development, however, contin- Radon flux Closed accumulator 99
ues to be confined to only a few research groups. Commercial Flow-through accumulator 100-102
development is not anticipated. Adsorption 101,104
Gas extraction Packer probe 110
probes Perrneameter probe 111
Reconnaissance probe 112
M E T H O D S F O R M E A S U R E M E N T OF
R A D O N F L U X A N D SOIL GAS
CONCENTRATION be short compared to the half-life of radon, (2) the concentra-
tion in the accumulator must be much lower than the soil gas
Measurements of radon flux from materials have been per- concentration to prevent back diffusion, and (3) the presence
formed extensively during the last 50 years. Early work in this of the accumulator should not affect the exhalation rate. The
area had geologic or physical/chemical applications for char- final requirement is the most difficult to meet and is the
acterization of materials adsorption rates and surface proper- subject of continuing research.
ties. Much of this work was conducted in laboratory settings The flow-through method is a modification of the accumu-
and has been reviewed by Colle et al. [96]. lation method that attempts to minimize the effect of the
The emphasis of the following discussion is on field mea- accumulator on the test surface and to make the measure-
surements of radon flux (also referred to as exhalation). Mea- ment conditions more realistic. The system described by
surements of radon flux are routinely used in a diagnostic Pearson and Jones [100] involved passage of air through the
mode to identify radon sources, pathways of radon entry, and accumulator vessel at a low rate and collection of the radon in
entry rates. Measurements of soil gas radon concentrations a dry-ice cooled charcoal trap. Variations of the flow-through
have gained increased attention in recent years as builders method utilize direct measurement ,f the radon in the air
seek a technique to characterize building sites prior to con- stream from the accumulator [101,102].
struction. In some locales, radon mitigation systems are now The adsorption method is widely used for measuring radon
being incorporated into the structure if there is a possibility flux. This is also a simple, low-cost measurement method that
of elevated levels of radon in the building. A method, there- uses charcoal to adsorb the exhaled radon. The technique was
fore, that could correlate radon soil gas, soil permeability, reported by Megumi and Manuro in 1972 [103]. They covered
and other physical factors with post-construction radon con- the soil surface to be tested with gauze, upon which a uni-
centration would be particularly attractive because of cost form bed of charcoal was placed and sealed with polyvinyl
savings associated with taking radon preventative actions chloride film. After a 5-h collection period, gamma counting
during building construction. In the following discussion, was used to calculate radon concentrations.
methods for measurement of soil gas are described, but the A much simpler method of sample collection is the use of
utility of the results remains to be established since good charcoal canisters. Countess [104,105] originally used the
correlation between soil gas concentrations and indoor radon M11 gas mask canister, but in current practice larger diame-
concentrations has not been demonstrated. ter canisters are used [101]. Countess embedded the canister
A review of currently available soil-gas measurement tech- in the soil and packed additional soil around it. Analysis was
nologies has recently been prepared by Rector [97]. He pro- performed by gamma-counting methods.
vided a description of technologies for measuring (1) radium The canister method has the advantage of being low cost
content, (2) radon flux from the surface, and (3) radon in soil and easy to use. However, the method has a number of limita-
gas. Methods that he identified for each category of measure- tions that should be recognized. As described in a previous
ment are presented in Table 7. Radium content is typically section, performance of the canister is affected by both tem-
measured by placing a soil sample in a container, allowing a perature and humidity, parameters that may vary substan-
sufficient period to establish radioactive equilibrium, then tially for the range of surfaces that are measured. Use of the
analyzing the sample by gamma spectroscopy [98]. canister on basement walls or floors or for measurements of
Radon flux measurements have been performed by closed flux from soils requires consideration of water vapor adsorp-
accumulation, flow-through accumulation, and adsorption tion effects on collection efficiency. Countess [105] suggested
methods. The closed accumulation method is a basic, easily that canisters exposed to wet soil for several days would not
implemented method that has been widely used. It consists of adsorb enough water to reduce collection efficiency by more
placing a vessel (accumulator) over the surface for periods of than 10 to 15%. But like activated carbon monitors used for
1 to 10 h. The accumulator is sealed to the surface with air sampling, the extent of water vapor effects may be related
appropriate resins or caulk; for soil measurements it may be to the type of carbon [42]. Canisters used for flux measure-
embedded in the soil. Samples are collected for analysis into ments should be calibrated over a wide range of water vapor
evacuated scintillation cells at the end of the period or at concentration and temperature as these parameters may vary
intervals. The length of the accumulation period, size of the more substantially for flux measurements than for indoor air
can, and design of accumulator systems have been highly measurements.
variable; no standard protocol exists for the method. Results of flux measurements with canisters should be
Requirements for the accumulator method described by interpreted with caution. The sampling area with the canister
Wilkening et al. [99] are: (1) the accumulation period should method is small. As a result, spatial variation in flux rates is
62 MANUAL ON RADON
not adequately addressed unless multiple samples are col- expensive instrumentation then the gamma-counting meth-
lected. od. For both of these methods, care should be taken in the
Soil gas measurements have been performed by in-situ collection of the sample to prevent outgassing of radon dur-
measurements and by soil gas extraction methods. In-situ ing the collection process and transport/storage. There are
measurements of soil gas radon concentrations have been currently no published standard methods for sample collec-
performed most commonly by burying passive detectors in tion, storage, handling, or analysis.
the soil at various depths. Fleischer [109] used passive alpha- Measurement of radon in water can also be made in-situ
track detectors buried at different depths to determine soil using passive detectors. Alpha-track detectors have been mar-
radon gradients. Use of alpha track detectors for soil gas keted for many years for measurements of water concentra-
measurements has been reported for a number of studies tions. The device consists of an alpha-track monitor mounted
[107-109]. An alternative to the alpha-track detectors are the in a plastic container placed into the water. The detector
passive electret monitors described previously [49, 50]. Use of measures the radon in the air in the container. An empirically
this technology is feasible, but their performance for mea- derived constant is used to relate the air concentration to the
surement of radon in soil gas has not ye t been well-docu- concentration in the water. The manufacturer reports that
mented. accuracy of the measurement is better than +_10%. The man-
Soil gas extraction methods for measurements of radon in ufacturers of the commercial electret monitors also market a
the soil pore space have been used widely for uranium explo- detector for measurements of radon in water.
ration. The basic technique involves driving a pipe into the
soil to a prescribed depth. Typically a pump is used to draw a
soil gas sample from the hole, and the sample is typically S T A N D A R D I Z A T I O N ACTIVITIES F O R
analyzed by scintillation methods. R A D O N AND R A D O N DECAY
The recent concern about the potential for elevated radon MEASUREMENTS
concentrations in newly constructed building has resulted in
development of new soil gas extraction probes. Tanner [110] As requirements have increased for measurements of
has described a "packer" probe for simultaneous measure- radon and radon decay products, the need to standardize the
ment of radon and soil permeability. The unit is placed in an measurement methods has been recognized. Standardized
augered hole, and the packers that surround the probe are methods are especially important for radon because mea-
inflated to create a seal that prevents surface air from en- surements are now being performed by many commercial
tering the space. Based on analysis of radon concentrations companies in addition to government agencies and research
in air drawn from the soil, simultaneous measurement of soil organizations. Recognizing this need, members of ASTM
permeability, and the estimate of the effective diffusion coef- have been active in developing standard methods, practices,
ficient by means of soil content and moisture content, radon and guides for the measurement of radon and radon decay
availability is estimated. products. This activity has been ongoing in the Radionuclides
Nielsen et al. [111] described a "permeameter" probe for section of Subcommittee D22.05 on Indoor Air. Many docu-
soil gas extraction. It is a small-diameter probe that is driven ments are currently under preparation, revision, or at various
into the soil by hand. Radon concentration is measured by stages of balloting. Documents are currently under develop-
alpha scintillation. A controlled flow extraction system is ment for the following:
used to estimate soil permeability. 1. Sampling and analysis of radon content of the atmosphere
A "reconnaissance" probe for soil gas measurements has (activated carbon methodology).
been described recently by Reimer [112]. This probe is also a 2. Use of alpha-track detectors for measurement of radon in
small diameter (6 to 9-cm) probe. It is driven into the ground indoor air.
to a nominal depth of 75 cm. The probe volume is only 3 cm 3, 3. Determination of radon in indoor air by use of electret
which facilitates collection of samples from the probe with a chambers.
syringe for analysis using alpha scintillation. 4. Determination of radon concentrations in indoor air by
charcoal liquid scintillation analysis.
5. Determination of indoor radon progeny concentrations us-
M E T H O D S F O R M E A S U R E M E N T OF ing radon progeny integrating sampling units.
R A D O N IN WATER 6. Determination of radon decay product concentration and
working level by active filter sampling.
Measurements of radon in water are relatively straightfor- 7. Guide for radon measurement in indoor air.
ward and easily accomplished. One method involves collec- 8. Guide for radon monitoring in school buildings.
tion of water in modified Marinelli beakers made of poly- Development of additional methods is anticipated. These
ethylene or lucite [113]. Analysis of the radon progeny in ASTM methods, practices, and guides, in conjunction with
equilibrium with the water by gamma counting is used to guidance from the EPA, will provide the information needed
determine the radon concentration. The lower limit of detec- to use the measurement methods described in this chapter.
tion of the method is 185 to 445 Bq/m 3 (5 to 12 pCi/L) of
water.
A second method, equally straightforward, is the liquid SUMMARY
scintillation technique [114]. Water collected in the field is
returned to the laboratory where a fluor is added and the As described in this chapter, there are a number of methods
sample is counted. This method requires availability of more available for the measurement of radon and radon decay
products at the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s that occur in n o n i n d u s t r i a l [16] George, A. C., "Scintillation Flasks for the Determination of
i n d o o r e n v i r o n m e n t s . The m e a s u r e m e n t methods vary with Low Level Concentrations of Radon," Proceedings of the Ninth
respect to their p e r f o r m a n c e characteristics, ease of use, a n d Midyear Health Physics Symposium, Health Physics Society,
cost. Most of the methods currently being used are based on McLean, VA, 1976.
established m e a s u r e m e n t principles a n d their performance [17] George, A. C., "Instruments and Methods for Measuring Indoor
Radon and Radon Progeny Concentrations," Indoor Radon, Air
has b e e n well-documented. Relatively simple methods are
Pollution Control Association, Pittsburgh, PA, 1987.
available that h o m e o w n e r s c a n use to perform screening
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64 MANUAL ON RADON
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66 MANUAL ON RADON
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Soil-Gas Radon Concentrations: An Example from Prince
MNL15-EB/Jun. 1994
Radon Measurement Protocols

by Melinda Ronca-Battista 1 and Paul Magno 2
INVESTIGATORS IN FEDERAL AND STATE government, universi- t r a t i o n with season, a n d m o s t studies show t h a t levels are
ties, a n d private i n d u s t r y are m a k i n g r a d o n m e a s u r e m e n t s higher d u r i n g w i n t e r m o n t h s [7,25, 27, 33]; however, there are
using different m e a s u r e m e n t devices p l a c e d in different loca- studies in which i n d o o r levels were h!gher d u r i n g the sum-
tions during various ventilation conditions a n d over different m e r m o n t h s [9,29]. An essential c o m p o n e n t of a protocol is,
time periods. These public h e a l t h officials, mitigators, re- therefore, specifications for the d u r a t i o n of the m e a s u r e -
searchers, a n d building engineers are m e a s u r i n g r a d o n a n d ments. W h e n a p p r o p r i a t e for the p u r p o s e s of the m e a s u r e -
decay p r o d u c t s using a variety of practices, leading to some- ments, the season(s) w h e n the m e a s u r e m e n t s should be per-
times vastly different results even in the s a m e building. It is f o r m e d m a y also need to be specified in the protocol.
i m p o r t a n t for anyone m e a s u r i n g r a d o n to recognize that dif- A n o t h e r essential e l e m e n t of a protocol are r e q u i r e m e n t s
ferent m e a s u r e m e n t practices lead to m e a s u r e m e n t results for s a m p l i n g conditions, including those factors that can
that m a y not be c o m p a r a b l e . The specifications for the fac- affect ventilation rates. R a d o n levels are affected by the venti-
tors that can greatly influence the result of a m e a s u r e m e n t lation conditions in the structure d u r i n g a n d p r i o r to the
are defined as a protocol. It is the intent of this c h a p t e r to m e a s u r e m e n t . Adherence to protocols will help ensure t h a t
assist the r e a d e r in evaluating the type of protocol that is conditions are as r e p r o d u c i b l e as possible. The specifications
a p p r o p r i a t e for his or h e r needs. The c h a p t e r discusses the m a y be as loose as requiring that all w i n d o w s a n d d o o r s be
different p r o c e d u r e s a n d guidelines in use by different groups closed o r as rigorous as specifying the n u m b e r of air changes
b u t does not necessarily r e c o m m e n d their use. p e r hour. Depending on the type of m e a s u r e m e n t a n d its
A clearly specified m e a s u r e m e n t p r o t o c o l is a key e l e m e n t duration, the p r o t o c o l m a y also require that certain condi-
of any study b e c a u s e the p u r p o s e of the m e a s u r e m e n t s tions exist for a t i m e p e r i o d p r i o r to the b e g i n n i n g of the
dictates h o w the m e a s u r e m e n t s should be made. Results of measurement.
r a d o n m e a s u r e m e n t s can easily be m i s i n t e r p r e t e d if the re- The t h i r d c o m p o n e n t of a p r o t o c o l is the location in a
s e a r c h e r does not carefully c o n s i d e r h o w the m e a s u r e m e n t building, b o t h in t e r m s of floor a n d location, w h e r e the mea-
result can be i n t e r p r e t e d a n d m i s i n t e r p r e t e d . Several com- s u r e m e n t is to be made. Protocols need to provide guidelines
m o n p u r p o s e s include m e a s u r e m e n t s m a d e to d e t e r m i n e the for m e a s u r e m e n t location b e c a u s e r a d o n levels are usually
need for mitigation, m e a s u r e m e n t s m a d e to estimate the different in different levels of a house, often being several
long-term exposure of the occupants, m e a s u r e m e n t s for com- times higher in b a s e m e n t s or first floors t h a n on u p p e r floors
p a r i s o n with a s t a n d a r d r a d o n concentration, diagnostic [5,8,19,25,27,30]. F o r certain purposes, m e a s u r e m e n t s m a y
m e a s u r e m e n t s m a d e to investigate r a d o n entry points, a n d be m a d e on several floors of a house. In a d d i t i o n to floor, the
p o s t - m i t i g a t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s m a d e to evaluate the effec- result of a m e a s u r e m e n t can be affected by its p l a c e m e n t
tiveness of r e m e d i a l action. w i t h i n a r o o m , such as w h e t h e r the m e a s u r e m e n t is m a d e
A protocol needs to specify the d u r a t i o n of the m e a s u r e - n e a r a w i n d o w or exterior wall, n e a r the floor, or at face
m e n t and, for m o s t r e s e a r c h projects, the season w h e n the height.
m e a s u r e m e n t should be made. These specifications are nec- Other i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t s of a m e a s u r e m e n t p r o t o c o l
essary b e c a u s e r a d o n can vary greatly d u r i n g the course of a are the type of m e a s u r e m e n t m e t h o d s to be used, the quality
year, a season, a n d even a day. F o r example, in 20 h o m e s in a s s u r a n c e practices to be followed, a n d the intentions for the
Montana, m o n t h l y average r a d o n levels varied from the an- analysis a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of the results. These elements
nual averages b y as m u c h as a factor of three [1]. Similarly, d e p e n d on the type of e q u i p m e n t available, the m e a s u r e m e n t
high fluctuations have b e e n r e c o r d e d in o t h e r studies p r o g r a m being conducted, a n d the p l a n n e d uses of the result-
[2-16,19,20,21,22,23,24]. Although r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ing data.
fluctuate, there is a general p a t t e r n seen in w h i c h r a d o n levels W h e n developing a protocol, there are several i m p o r t a n t
t e n d to b e h i g h e r d u r i n g certain times of the day, such as in considerations. First, the m e a s u r e m e n t p r o t o c o l is d e p e n d e n t
the p r e d a w n h o u r s of the m o r n i n g [24-26]. There has been on the objectives of the m e a s u r e m e n t p r o g r a m . If a large-
c o n s i d e r a b l e d a t a gathered on the variation in r a d o n concen- scale survey or m e a s u r e m e n t effort is being planned, p e r h a p s
significant resources should be e x p e n d e d in o b t a i n i n g m e a -
lHealth Physicist, 14642 S. 25th Place, Phoenix, AZ 85048. s u r e m e n t s f r o m m a n y homes, a n d the protocols for m e a s u r e -
2Health Physicist (deceased), 13821 Flint Rock Road, Rockville, m e n t s in individual h o m e s m a y not call for m u l t i p l e m e a s u r e -
MD 20853. ments. If a small n u m b e r of h o m e s are being investigated, the
67
Copyright9 by ASTM International www.astm.org
68 MANUAL ON RADON
information obtained from each home is more critical and Hourly and Daily Variations
the number and type of measurements per home can be All buildings exhibit diurnal variations in radon concentra-
expanded. tions. Figure 1 shows the hourly radon concentrations in a
Second, the types of measurements that are feasible for the house on the Reading Prong in Pennsylvania over a one-week
study and that are available must be considered. Important
period and is a typical example of the diurnal variation found
considerations include whether the devices will be mailed,
in buildings. In general, the highest concentrations occur in
whether they are to measure radon or radon decay products,
the morning and the lowest concentrations in the afternoon.
and the time period over which the measurements are to take
The magnitude and pattern of these temporal variations dif-
place.
fer widely both between time periods in the same building
Finally, investigators should be aware of the protocols used
and among buildings. Figures 2 and 3 illustrate these vari-
by others, and how different specifications for important
abilities. These figures show the radon concentration in the
elements may affect results, so that results of different studies
can be evaluated for possible comparison. It is critical to same house in Butte, Montana during two different one-week
learn of the protocols used by others during the planning periods during a study conducted to test different measure-
stages of a project, especially if it is important that the data ment protocols [1]. During one of the periods, the hourly
gathered be comparable to data from other projects. radon concentration varied by a factor of less than two (Fig.
This chapter also reviews current practices for quality as- 3), while during the other period it varied by a factor of
surance in radon measurements, with information on cali- almost ten (Fig. 2). The average daily concentration varied by
brating radon measurement devices and intercalibration pro- much smaller factors. In studies in houses in Clinton, New
grams. Jersey, the radon concentration varied by a factor of 100 or
more under various test conditions [2]. These test conditions
involved the operation of fans, which produced changes in
the differential pressure between the areas below the slab and
T H E VARIABILITY OF R A D O N
lowest floor in the house.
The greatest variations in radon concentrations occur in
Temporal and Spatial Variations in Houses
buildings with very high radon levels. It is likely that the
A primary reason measurement protocols are necessary is factors which control the radon entry rates in these buildings
the great variability of radon and radon decay product con- are responsible for the wide fluctuation in the radon concen-
centrations. Radon levels in houses exhibit both temporal tration.
variability (variability over time) and spatial variability (vari-
ability between locations). In general the temporal variability
is greater than the spatial variability. Temporal variations Monthly and Seasonal Variations
often range over several orders of magnitude, while spatial In addition to the short-term variations, radon concentra-
variations are usually a factor of two or three but can in some tions in buildings also exhibit long-term or seasonal varia-
houses range up to one order of magnitude. These variations tions, with the highest concentrations occurring during the
are an important consideration in designing, conducting, and winter months and the lowest concentrations during the
interpreting radon measurement programs. summer months in areas where winter temperatures drop
Temporal variations are influenced by a large number of significantly. A typical example of this variation is Fig. 4,
complex and interrelated factors including radon infiltration which shows the weekly radon concentrations in Test House
rates, pressure differentials, ventilation rates, occupants' life- No. 3 in Butte, Montana over an 18-month period [1]. Figure
styles, and meteorological and soil conditions. Spatial varia- 5 shows the average ratio of the monthly radon concentration
tions are less complex and are generally influenced by the to the yearly concentration in 20 test houses in Butte, Mon-
routes of radon entry and the distribution of air within the tana [1]. From October to May the monthly concentrations
building.
differ from the yearly concentrations by only small amounts
All buildings show hourly, daily, and seasonal variations in
(up to 30%). In the period June through September this dif-
radon levels. Although many buildings exhibit similar pat-
ference can be as great as a factor of three. It is important to
terns of temporal variation, the magnitude and type of these
recognize that these differences are an average between a
variations can differ greatly among buildings depending
group of 20 houses. For individual houses the differences
upon the radon levels and the factors which influence these
variations. particulary between the summer months and the yearly aver-
Much of the information available on temporal variations age can be significantly greater. Similar data on seasonal
of radon in buildings was obtained from northern climates variations have been observed in studies conducted in Colo-
with cold winters. Additional studies are needed to obtain rado [3], South Dakota [4], Maine [5], Pennsylvania and Illi-
information on temporal variations in other areas and nois [6], New York [7], and in other areas [8-10,23,25,27,28].
climates. Also, all of the discussion below dealing with tem- Seasonal variations are believed to be due primarily to two
poral variation relates to buildings where underlying soil is factors: (1) changes in individual living habits which affect
the principal source of radon in the building. When radon in the ventilation rates, i.e., more frequent and longer opening
water or building materials is the major source of radon, of doors and windows and (2) changes in the factors which
different patterns in both the temporal and spatial variations influence the radon entry rates, i.e., changes in pressure dif-
are likely. ferentials.
RADON MEASUREMENT PROTOCOLS 69
3000
2500
2000
r
E
o-
m 1500
04
04
o
1000
(o
rr
500
1 O0 200
W e e k of December 10-17, 1985, H o u r s

FIG. 1-Typical diurnal radon-222 variations in houses.
Spatial Variations Table 3 shows the r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in several r o o m s

R a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in buildings vary d e p e n d i n g u p o n on the first floors of a g r o u p of test houses in Butte, Montana.
the location in the building. B a s e m e n t levels are on the aver- An analysis of these d a t a showed no statistically significant
age a factor of two to three times greater t h a n the r a d o n levels difference in the r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n in different r o o m s on
on the first floor [1,3,6,8,9,11-18,25,27,30]. However, for in- the s a m e level w h e n the analytical e r r o r in the m e a s u r e m e n t
dividual buildings, these differences have been observed to is taken into c o n s i d e r a t i o n [1].
range up to a factor of ten. Table 1 shows the average base- Only small differences have been observed b e t w e e n r a d o n
m e n t to first floor ratios a n d the ranges of these values for a c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in r o o m s on u p p e r floors of houses. B a s e m e n t
n u m b e r of studies. Although b a s e m e n t levels are usually r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s m a y differ significantly b e t w e e n r o o m s
greater t h a n the first floor level, in s o m e buildings the r a d o n b e c a u s e r a d o n entry points can cause spatial differences in
levels in the b a s e m e n t a n d first floor are a b o u t the same. This r a d o n concentration.
m a y result f r o m the type of heating/cooling system in use
w h i c h p r o d u c e s r a p i d circulation of air between these levels.
Also, a few u n u s u a l h o m e s have first floor r a d o n levels that Temporal and Spatial Variations in Schools
can be significantly higher t h a n the b a s e m e n t levels [1]. This T e m p o r a l a n d spatial variations are different in schools
has not been found in the m a j o r i t y of h o m e s a n d m a y be due t h a n those observed in houses. Design a n d o p e r a t i o n of the
t o s o m e u n u s u a l aspect a s s o c i a t e d with the house construc- heating, ventilation, a n d air conditioning systems (HVAC)
tion. a n d the o c c u p a n c y p a t t e r n s can have a significant effect on
M e a s u r e d r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s on the first a n d s e c o n d the t e m p o r a l variations. Also, unlike houses, schools m a y be
floors of a house a n d b e t w e e n r o o m s on the s a m e floor differ built on several adjoining slabs. The joints b e t w e e n slabs m a y
by only small a m o u n t s . Table 2 shows the average first floor offer various entry points for radon, resulting in significantly
to second floor r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n ratios a n d the range of different spatial variations t h a n are observed in houses.
these values for several studies [1, 7,16]. These d a t a were ob- Although i n f o r m a t i o n on the t e m p o r a l a n d spatial varia-
t a i n e d mostly from houses with basements. tions in schools is limited, a n E n v i r o n m e n t a l Protection
70 MANUAL ON RADON
600
E
~r
El 400 - -
(M
r
O
"O
m
tr
200 - -
0
'''''"~'''~'''''''''''i''''~''''*''''`'''""'~''"'"''''~''~''''''''~''~'''~'~'''''''~'''''~''''"'''''''~''''''''~''''~''''~'''''''''''''1''''''~''`'~'''''''''''~
0 24 48 72 96 120 144 168
Week of November 2, 1981, Hours

FIG. 2-Hourly radon-222 concentrations in test house No. 3 in Butte, Montana during the week of 2 Nov. 1981.
Agency study of schools [31] has led to the following prelimi- may have elevated radon concentrations even if other
nary observations and conclusions. rooms have relatively low radon concentrations.
3. Radon concentrations are higher in basement and first
1. Radon concentrations in school rooms vary significantly floor rooms than on upper-level floors.
over time. Changes in the ventilation, occupancy patterns,
and weather conditions can cause short-term concentra-
tions to vary with time by as much as a factor of ten. Figure
6 is an example of the temporal variability of radon con- MEASUREMENT AND SAMPLING ERRORS
centrations in a school room over a several-week period. A
diurnal variation is observed, with the radon concentra- When evaluating the result of a radon measurement, it is
tion increasing during the night and abruptly decreasing in important to consider the uncertainty that should be attached
the morning when the ventilation and occupancy cycle to the result. As has been discussed, there is considerable
begins. On weekends the diurnal cycle persists, but the variability in radon both in space and time. In addition to this
abrupt changes in the morning are absent. The average variability, the measurement result is also uncertain due to
radon concentrations on the weekends were higher than instrument errors. It is the combination of the errors caused
the average concentrations during the week. Because the by spatial, temporal, and instrument variabilities that is im-
temporal variations in a school are so highly dependent portant when considering a measurement protocol.
upon the HVAC system, the magnitude and pattern of As an integral part of the development of their protocols,
these variations may differ greatly between schools. Addi- the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the U.S. Environ-
tional studies are needed to better identify these variations mental Protection Agency (EPA) conducted studies and eval-
and the factors which influence them. uated data on the combination of all the uncertainties that
2. Radon concentration in schools can vary significantly from exist in different types of radon and radon decay product
room to room even on the same floor. Some classrooms measurements. The DOE conducted studies in homes in
600 --
o"
Ul
Ol
Ol
o
"0 400 - -
rt'
200 --
I I t I I I I I I { I I t I I I I I I I I I ' ' ' ' I ' ' ' '1

24 48 72 96 120 144 168
Week of December 28, 1981, Hours

FIG. 3 - H o u r l y radon-222 concentrations in test house No. 3 in Butte, Montana during w e e k of 28 Dec. 1981.
Grand Junction, Colorado, using a variety of measurement Swedjemark [34] also conducted a study to evaluate the
techniques in both occupied and unoccupied homes, with the total error in radon measurement due to both sampling and
objective of determining the optimal protocol in terms of instrument error. Her report reviews the results from a study
measurement device, sampling duration, number of repeated in Sweden in which a variety of measurement techniques
measurements, sampling conditions, and method of calcu- were used over a year. Individual results were compared with
lating results [32]. The protocol had to result in a value that the annual average in the same home. Since the variability of
represented the annual average radon decay product concen- radon measurements was found to be smaller during closed-
tration in that house to within 50% with a 95% confidence. house conditions, the results of this study were used to sub-
The EPA has conducted studies and evaluated data during stantiate Sweden's protocol for measuring radon during the
the development and evolution of its protocols. Data from winter months only, when the overall ventilation is at a mini-
homes in Butte, Montana were evaluated to determine the m u m as compared to milder seasons when windows and
variability of different measurement techniques during dif- doors may be open.
ferent house conditions [33]. The EPA found from this study One critical question for those evaluating data in the devel-
that the variability of measurements made during the winter opment of measurement protocols is how well the result of a
months when homes are kept closed are smaller for all the particular protocol, whether it be a single long-term measure-
methods studied than the variabilities of measurements ment or a series of shorter-term measurements, produces a
made any other time during the year. They also found that the result that represents an annual or longer-term average. The
total measurement uncertainty decreases with increasing U.S. EPA found that the result of a one-day continuous radon
sampling time. Finally, they found that for similar sampling monitor could be used to predict the annual average to within
times, measurements of radon are less variable than mea- 39% in one set of houses studied [33]. The 39% represents the
surements of radon decay products. These conclusions were coefficient of variation (i.e., standard deviation expressed as a
used to develop the initial EPA protocols that have since been percentage of the mean) for one-day measurements made
revised, as discussed in the following section. throughout the year. Assuming that the one-day results are
72 MANUAL ON RADON
600 --
400 - -
~E
U"
m
r
O4
0
"0
n"
200 - -
,,,, I,,,,I,,,,I,,,,I,,,~I,,,,I,,,,I,,,,i,,,,I,,,,I,,,,I,,,,I,,,,I,,,,11,,,I,,,,I
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
October 1981 w April 1983, W e e k s

FIG. 4 - W e e k l y radon-222 concentrations in test house No. 3 in Butte, Montana during period of October 1981 to April 1983.
n o r m a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d a b o u t the a n n u a l average, these d a t a p r o g r a m s for a variety of p u r p o s e s is p r e s e n t e d with exam-

show that a o n e - d a y m e a s u r e m e n t provides a result w i t h i n ples of the protocols that different groups have used.
plus or m i n u s 39% of the a n n u a l average in 68% of the cases
in the study. Similarly, o n e - d a y results are within plus o r
Strategies in Houses
m i n u s 78% of the a n n u a l average in 95% of the cases in the
study. This is a fairly large range, w h i c h is why it is very The first c o n s i d e r a t i o n w h e n p l a n n i n g a n y sort of m e a s u r e -
difficult to e s t i m a t e a n a n n u a l average from the results of a m e n t effort is the p u r p o s e of the m e a s u r e m e n t . It is very
s h o r t - t e r m m e a s u r e m e n t . S w e d j e m a r k found that the result diffficult to use the results of m e a s u r e m e n t s m a d e for one
of a o n e - d a y c o n t i n u o u s r a d o n m o n i t o r could be u s e d to p u r p o s e for a different p u r p o s e after the m e a s u r e m e n t s are
p r e d i c t the a n n u a l average to within 25%. This s m a l l e r vari- completed. The different p u r p o s e s for m a k i n g m e a s u r e m e n t s
ability is due to the fact t h a t she s a m p l e d exclusively d u r i n g m a y vary greatly. F o r example, m e a s u r e m e n t s m a y be m a d e
closed-house conditions, so that the r a d o n levels were m o r e to e s t i m a t e exposure. To do this, the investigator m a y m e a -
stable. sure the average r a d o n o r r a d o n decay p r o d u c t concentra-
tions to w h i c h o c c u p a n t s are exposed over a long time p e r i o d
a n d in several locations. A n o t h e r p u r p o s e for a m e a s u r e m e n t
is to d e t e r m i n e the need for mitigation. A n o t h e r p u r p o s e m a y
MEASUREMENT STRATEGIES be for d i a g n o s i n g r a d o n e n t r y points. These different pur-
poses dictate different m e a s u r e m e n t protocols. F o r example,
This section discusses different strategies u s e d for different it is difficult to use the results of a diagnostic m e a s u r e m e n t to
purposes. M e a s u r e m e n t protocols for residences are re- d e t e r m i n e the need for mitigation.
viewed, as are protocols for m e a s u r e m e n t s in schools a n d In a d d i t i o n to the different p u r p o s e s for m a k i n g m e a s u r e -
workplaces. A discussion of the different c o n s i d e r a t i o n s that ments, the specific needs a n d resources of the investigators
face a r e s e a r c h e r w h e n p l a n n i n g large-scale m e a s u r e m e n t dictate the m e a s u r e m e n t p r o t o c o l to be used. F o r example,
1.4-
12'
e-
0
11)"
8e-
o
0
e-
o 0.8
"1o
n"
L.
e- 0.6
c-
O
0.4
0.2 i i i i 9 9 ' 9 i i i | i i i i
9n vaa Mar. Apr. ~tq axe a~ ~ Se~. oct t~.
Month
FIG, 5-Average ratio of monthly to yearly radon-222 concentrations in 20 test houses in Butte, Montana from
October 1981 to April 1983.
m e a s u r e m e n t s m a y b e m a d e b y a n i n d i v i d u a l h o m e o w n e r to more than one floor in the home. The epidemiological study

assess their potential exposure and whether radon mitigation m a y h a v e as a m a j o r g o a l t h e i n c l u s i o n o f as m a n y c a s e s as
is w a r r a n t e d , o r e x p o s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s m a y b e m a d e as p o s s i b l e i n t h e s t u d y , so o n l y o n e m e a s u r e m e n t p e r h o m e
part of an epidemiological study. Although both purposes are may be conducted.
for exposure assessment, an individual homeowner may be T h i s s e c t i o n will r e v i e w t h r e e d i f f e r e n t p r o t o c o l s f o r m a k -
able to expend more resources and make measurements on ing measurements in homes. There are two protocols that
TABLE l - - R a t i o of b a s e m e n t to first floor radon concentrations in houses.

Basement/First
Location No. of Houses Flool~ Range Reference
Montana 19 2.2 _+ 1.7 0.4-5.4 [1]
New York and 17 1.9 _+ 0.8 1.0-4.0 [16]
New Jersey
New York 22 2.7 _+ 1.8 0.9-8.2 [7]
Colorado 15 2.2 _+ 1.1 1.0-4.7 [17]
Maryland and 80 2.4 NA [18]
Pennsylvania
Maryland 53 2.4 NA [13]
NA = Individual results not available.
aEn'ors represent one standard deviation.
TABLE 2--Ratio of first floor to second floor radon concentrations in houses.

First Floor/Second
Location No. of Houses Floor~ Range Reference
Butte, Montana 8 1.3 _+ 0.3 0.9-1.7 [1]
New York and 7 0.92 _+ 0.19 0.6-1.2 [16]
New Jersey
New York 16 1.0 _+ 0.2 0.6-1.3 [7]
aErrors represent one standard deviation.
TABLE 3--Radon concentrations in different rooms on first floors The DOE considers that a m e t h o d provides reasonable as-
of houses in Butte, Montana [1]. surance if it estimates the a n n u a l average radon-decay prod-
Radon Concentration,B q / m 3 uct c o n c e n t r a t i o n to within 50% at least 95% of the time. This
Test
House No. LivingRooma Bedroom Kitchen m e a n s that the coefficient of variation of the m e a s u r e m e n t
should be less t h a n or equal to 25%. Devices deployed for
2 890 740 630
4 85 ... 78 i n t e r m i t t e n t sampling are required to d e m o n s t r a t e a coeffi-
5 1300 1300 1100 cient of variation of 18% or less. The DOE studied repeated
6 700 670 700 m e a s u r e m e n t s made i n actual homes to develop a protocol
7 370 370 ... that yields results that meet these criteria. The first such
8 410 330 410
9 370 300 410 study was of 33 homes in G r a n d Junction, in which R a d o n
10 430 370 ... Progeny Integrating S a m p l i n g Units (RPISUs) were used to
12 410 ... 630 make repeated m e a s u r e m e n t s over a year. The researchers
13 780 740 ... r a n d o m l y chose six sets of m e a s u r e m e n t s made at t w o - m o n t h
14 440 ... 700
15 330 -.. 410 intervals a n d c o m p a r e d the average of the six to the overall
16 90 ... 85 a n n u a l average. The DOE researchers d e t e r m i n e d that the
17 220 300 ... coefficient of variation for the six-sample average was 20%,
18 190 110 ... with 12% due to sampling error, 13% to precision, a n d 10% to
19 1200 1100 1400
20 740 780 630 bias [32].
This study led to the six-sample m e t h o d for estimating
OAlsoincludes familyrooms and dining rooms. a n n u a l averages. I n this protocol, a RPISU is used to make
one-week m e a s u r e m e n t s (of at least 100 h in d u r a t i o n each)
have been r e c o m m e n d e d by the U.S. government, a n d both spaced evenly t h r o u g h o u t the year (a m i n i m u m of four weeks
are designed for different purposes. The first is the protocol apart), a n d the average is used as the a n n u a l average [36]. The
r e c o m m e n d e d by the U.S. DOE Office of Remedial Action DOE also evaluated the Eberline WLM-1 r a d o n decay prod-
a n d Waste Technology, a n d the second described here is the uct m o n i t o r a n d f o u n d it acceptable for s u b s t i t u t i o n as the
revised protocol r e c o m m e n d e d by the U.S. E n v i r o n m e n t a l RPISU according to these same protocols [32].
Protection Agency (EPA). As such protocols are being refined Similar studies were conducted with other types of mea-
continuously, it is r e c o m m e n d e d that these federal agencies s u r e m e n t methods, including diffusion barrier charcoal can-
be contacted for the latest i n f o r m a t i o n before initiating any isters [37], alpha-track detectors, c o n t i n u o u s working level
m e a s u r e m e n t efforts i n t e n d e d to be in c o n f o r m a n c e with a n d r a d o n monitors, a n d grab sampling. The DOE Technical
these protocols. M e a s u r e m e n t s Center (TMC) evaluated these results a n d de-
t e r m i n e d that these are acceptable methods, following the
specific protocols reviewed below. A device that could n o t
U.S. D O E Protocols
produce a reliable estimate of the a n n u a l average a n d was
The DOE protocols are written for use as DOE remedial rejected was the Passive E n v i r o n m e n t a l R a d o n Monitor [35].
action programs, including the G r a n d J u n c t i o n Remedial The DOE protocols specify that the r o o m in which the mea-
Action Project, the Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action s u r e m e n t is to be made is that r o o m which is expected to
Program, a n d the U r a n i u m Mill Tailings Remedial Action c o n t a i n the highest r a n d o n decay product concentration.
Project [35]. These are homes where the DOE has conducted Rooms not currently occupied, including storerooms a n d
mitigation to reduce indoor r a d o n decay product concentra- basements, should be included. The DOE provides locations
tions. The protocols are written to provide procedures for that should be considered for the m e a s u r e m e n t location in
providing "reasonable assurance that the average r a d o n relative order of importance. These are (1) the lowest r o o m in
decay product c o n c e n t r a t i o n within a structure is either the structure, (2) the r o o m with the highest g a m m a radiation
above, at, or below the standards (near 0.02 WL) currently levels, (3) the r o o m with the lowest ventilation rate, (4) the
established for remedial action programs." room with the smallest surface-to-volume ratio (surface in-
The DOE wrote a central protocol a n d periodically, as cludes furnishings). The DOE r e c o m m e n d s that, if no one
different methods become available a n d are studied, issues such room is found, m e a s u r e m e n t s be made in two rooms
additional d o c u m e n t s for applying specific m e a s u r e m e n t a n d the result from the r o o m with the highest r a d o n concen-
methods. These additional d o c u m e n t s are m e a n t to be used tration be used.
in c o n j u n c t i o n with the central document. Several supple- The DOE advises that the location in the r o o m for the
m e n t a r y methodology reports are also briefly reviewed, m e a s u r e m e n t be chosen so that it is away from moving air
RADON M E A S U R E M E N T PROTOCOLS 75
200
ME
150
O"
r
r
O
"O t00
tO
tr
50
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
March 1989, Days

FIG. 6-Hourly radon-222 concentrations in test school during March 1989.
sources, about 45 cm from any surface, and closer to the than six times the standard, no further measurements need to
inside than the outside walls. be made. If the first few results are low enough so that the
The DOE issued two protocols for using alpha-track detec- average of the measurements yet to be made would have to be
tors to estimate annual radon decay product concentrations. at least twice the highest result so far for the full-year average
The first is the Kodak-Pathe method, in which cellulose ni- to exceed the standard (and no more than one of these re-
trate film is exposed without filters and the film is etched in maining measurements would be made during the winter
sodium hydroxide according to the normal commercial pro- months) the measurements may be terminated [40].
cess. The exposure period is one year. If the Kodak-Pathe The Prompt Alpha-Track method allows for the estimation
technique is used, additional criteria for the location of the of the annual average radon concentration from the average
measurement are that sunlight never shines on the film, noth- of alpha-track measurements as short as two months, if the
ing is placed within 60 cm of the film, and the film is never midpoint of the measurements are close to April 2 or October
touched or scratched during the exposure. The second DOE 2 [41].
protocol for alpha-track detectors is the Filtered-Cup meth- The DOE also issued protocols for grab radon sampling
od, in which alpha-sensitive material is sealed in a container under very specific circumstances [42]. This is when the
with a filtered opening that allows entry of radon gas [39]. building to be evaluated has a very high ventilation rate. The
These types of detectors are widely available. The exposure DOE reasons that there is a chance that the building, if used
period is also one year. (See chapter 4 for additional details for a different purpose or by a different occupant, will have
on alpha-track detectors.) substantially decreased ventilation rates at some point in the
Two measurement methods that can be made over less future, and the radon decay product concentrations could
than a year have been issued by DOE only for use in Mesa increase. If the radon decay product concentrations are de-
County, Colorado. These methods are based on extensive termined using one of the procedures described above, and if
studies of test houses in Grand Junction in Mesa County. the ventilation rates are very high, then a radon grab method
These are the Abbreviated RPISU and the Prompt Alpha- can be used. In this method, two radon grab measurements
Track methods. The Abbreviated RPISU method allows the are made at different times. Only one measurement should be
series of measurements to be terminated if one of the follow- made during winter months. The following criteria are used
ing two conditions occurs. If the levels are high enough so to evaluate the results of the two grab measurements, and the
that the sum of the first few (at least two) results is greater results should be used as the annual average only if it is at
76 MANUAL ON RADON
least twice the result found previously using another method. The EPA also conducted research on how the public re-
The criteria for evaluating the grab results are: (1) if the radon sponds to information about radon [43] and found that the
grab results differ by less than 30% of their mean, use the original recommendations presented in the 1987 protocols
mean; (2) if the radon grab results differ by more than 30% of were not being implemented by the public, in part because
the mean, and both radon grab results are either higher or the two-step process allowed homeowners to "drop out" of
lower than the radon decay product standard, use their mean; the testing process, and in part because most homeowners
(3) if the radon grab results differ by more than 30% of their were not willing to perform a twelve-month measurement.
mean and bracket the radon decay product standard, make a Although EPA recognized the technical superiority of long-
third radon grab measurement during the months when term versus short-term testing, EPA decided to accept that
above-average concentrations are expected and use the mean the public had proven its unwillingness to conduct long-term
of all three grab measurements as the annual average esti- measurements. The statistical model applied by EPA evalu-
mate. ated the rates of false positive and false negative errors when
There are also specific criteria for the conditions that must the results of various testing options (in terms of measure-
exist prior to and during a grab radon measurement made ment duration(s), location(s), and strategy) were compared
according to the DOE protocol. At least 12 h prior to and to an "action level" triggering mitigation. The protocol that
during sampling, all doors and windows must be closed, all the EPA recommends in its 1992 guidance is based on the
ventilation systems must be turned off, the building should, if results of that analysis and is intended to maximize the total
possible, be unoccupied, surface winds should be less than 10 risk reduction the public may gain through future measure-
miles per hour, and the atmospheric pressure must be stable. ment and mitigation while minimizing error [43].
The DOE protocols include requirements for quality assur- The protocol recommended by the EPA for use by home-
ance measurements. These include making 5% of the mea- owners to assess the need for mitigation is as follows. Initial
surements in duplicate and several percent of the measure- measurements should be short-term tests placed in the lowest
ments as controlled exposures for calibrations. (Quality lived-in level of the home and performed under closed-build-
assurance measurements including duplicate measurements ing conditions. Short-term tests are conducted for 2 to 90
and calibration are discussed later in this chapter.) The num- days. Closed-building conditions should be initiated at least
ber of background measurements are also specified for each 12 h prior to testing for measurements lasting less than four
technique in the DOE protocols. days and are recommended prior to tests lasting up to a week.
If the short-term measurement result is equal to or greater
U.S. EPA Protocols than 150 Bq m 3 (4 pCi/L) or 0.02 WL, a follow-up measure-
The EPA has issued several reports on measurement proto- ment is recommended. Follow-up measurements are con-
cols for residences, with initial protocols issued in 1987. ducted to confirm that radon levels are high enough to war-
Since then, the EPA has revised its philosophy and objectives rant mitigation. If the result of the initial measurement is
for measuring radon in homes, as described in documents below 150 Bq m -3 (4 pCi/L) or 0.02 WL, a follow-up test is not
published in 1992 [43] and 1993 [44]. The EPA report issued necessary; however, the homeowner may want to test again
in January of 1987 [45] describes the initial measurement sometime in the future, especially if a lower level of the house
strategy and is reviewed in published literature [46]. This becomes more frequently used.
section reviews the revised 1992 strategy recommended by The duration of the follow-up test depends upon the results
the EPA. of the initial measurement. An initial result of 370 Bq m 3 (10
The EPA has also issued technical reports describing differ- pCi/L) or 0.05 WL or greater should be followed by a second
ent radon and radon decay product measurement methods, short-term test under closed-building conditions. If the result
including technique-specific instructions and quality assur- of the initial measurement is between 150 and 370 Bq m 3 (4
ance guidance. EPA periodically issues revised versions as and 10 pCi/L) or 0.02 and 0.05 WL, the follow-up test may be
new methods are developed [47,48]. made either with a short-term or a long-term (longer than 90
In the 1992 recommendations, EPA presents guidance for days) test.
individual homeowners or for those undertaking large-scale The EPA recommends mitigation to reduce radon levels if
measurement efforts for the purpose of determining the need the average of the initial and follow-up radon measurements
for mitigation. The EPA prepared the recommendations to is greater than 150 Bq m -3 (4 pCi/L) or 0.02 WL. If the follow-
assist homeowners and others making measurements to ob- up test was a long-term test and the result is greater than 150
tain results that produce as few erroneous conclusions (e.g., Bq m -a (4 pCi/L) or 0.02 WL, the EPA recommends mitiga-
to mitigate when it is not warranted or to decide not to tion.
mitigate when it is warranted) as possible. The EPA protocols specify that measurements made for the
The EPA investigated a variety of options for testing, in- purpose of determining the need for mitigation be made in
cluding various "action levels," testing locations, durations, (1) the lowest lived-in area in the house, and (2) for short-
and ventilation conditions. The EPA used results from the term measurements only, during closed-house conditions.
National Residential Radon Survey [49] on the distribution of Potential locations for measurements include family rooms,
annual average radon levels and results from the State Radon living rooms, dens, playrooms, and bedrooms. The EPA rec-
Surveys [50] and other data on short-term measurements in ommends that measurements not be conducted in kitchens,
conjunction with a statistical model [43]. This model was laundry rooms, or bathrooms because of the likelihood that a
used to investigate each possible protocol in terms of how fan may temporarily alter radon or WL concentrations, and
frequently it would result in homeowners making a correct that humidity and small airborne particles may affect the
decision on the need for mitigation. response of some detectors. The EPA's guidance for the loca-
R A D O N M E A S U R E M E N T PROTOCOLS 77
tion of the m e a s u r e m e n t within the r o o m includes that the 1. R a d o n should be m e a s u r e d in all school r o o m s t h a t are on
m e a s u r e m e n t be further t h a n 90 c m f r o m exterior doors a n d o r b e l o w g r o u n d level a n d that are frequently used, includ-
windows, further t h a n 30 c m f r o m the exterior wall of the ing classrooms, offices, cafeterias, libraries, a n d gymna-
building, at least 50 c m f r o m the floor, a n d at least 10 c m siums.
from o t h e r objects. 2. If a school does not have individual classrooms, m e a s u r e -
The EPA defines closed-building conditions as those exist- m e n t s should be m a d e at least every 200 ft 2 (18.58 m2).
ing w h e n w i n d o w s on all levels a n d external doors are closed 3. If all ground-floor r o o m s c a n n o t be tested, t h e n the r o o m s
(except d u r i n g n o r m a l entry a n d exit). Internal-external air m o s t likely to c o n t a i n elevated r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
exchange systems (other t h a n a furnace) su.ch as high-vol- should be selected, including r o o m s isolated f r o m the cen-
ume, whole-house, a n d w i n d o w fans should n o t be operating. tral ventilation system, r o o m s on o r n e a r structural joints,
However, attic fans i n t e n d e d to control attic a n d not whole- r o o m s with a large floor/wall joint, a n d r o o m s t h a t have
b u i l d i n g t e m p e r a t u r e o r h u m i d i t y should continue to oper- significant cracks in the floor slab.
ate. C o m b u s t i o n o r m a k e - u p air supplies should not be
closed. N o r m a l o p e r a t i o n of p e r m a n e n t l y installed h e a t re- The EPA r e c o m m e n d s that screening m e a s u r e m e n t s in
covery ventilators a n d r a d o n r e d u c t i o n systems m a y also con- schools should be m a d e d u r i n g the cooler m o n t h s of O c t o b e r
tinue to operate. S h o r t - t e r m tests lasting just two to three t h r o u g h March. In w a r m e r climates, m e a s u r e m e n t s should
days should n o t be c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g u n u s u a l l y severe s t o r m s still be m a d e d u r i n g the cooler m o n t h s w h e n w i n d o w s a n d
o r p e r i o d s of unusually high winds. d o o r s are m o r e likely to be kept closed.
The EPA r e c o m m e n d s t h a t closed-house conditions be The EPA protocols for r a d o n m e a s u r e m e n t s in schools are
m a i n t a i n e d for at least 12 h before starting a m e a s u r e m e n t similar to those for r a d o n m e a s u r e m e n t s in homes: b o t h
that is to last less t h a n four days. Closed-house conditions are include a screening m e a s u r e m e n t as an initial test, followed
n o t necessary d u r i n g m e a s u r e m e n t s lasting longer t h a n 90 by a c o n f i r m a t o r y m e a s u r e m e n t before a n y p e r m a n e n t reme-
days. dial a c t i o n is taken. The EPA r e p o r t discusses two options for
The EPA also presents r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for quality assur- screening m e a s u r e m e n t s , the two-day (charcoal canister o r
ance in m e a s u r e m e n t s . These are p r e s e n t e d in several EPA s h o r t - t e r m electret ion c h a m b e r ) o p t i o n a n d the t h r e e - m o n t h
d o c u m e n t s [44, 48, 51]. In brief, they consist of m a k i n g dupli- (alpha track d e t e c t o r o r long-term electret ion c h a m b e r ) op-
cate m e a s u r e m e n t s in 10% of the m e a s u r e m e n t locations, o r tion.
50 p e r month, whichever is smaller; p e r f o r m i n g b a c k g r o u n d If using a t w o - d a y screening m e a s u r e m e n t , the r e c o m -
m e a s u r e m e n t s as a few p e r c e n t of the total n u m b e r of m e a - m e n d e d protocols are as follows:
surements; c o n d u c t i n g spiked o r k n o w n exposure m e a s u r e -
m e n t s at a rate of three p e r 100 m e a s u r e m e n t s , with a mini- 1. A two-day m e a s u r e m e n t should be m a d e d u r i n g the week-
m u m of three p e r y e a r a n d a m a x i m u m r e q u i r e d of six p e r end, with the ventilation system o p e r a t i n g n o r m a l l y as it
month; a n d c o n d u c t i n g r o u t i n e . i n s t r u m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e does during the week. W i n d o w s a n d doors should be kept
checks. The EPA also p r e s e n t s r e c o m m e n d e d practices for shut.
furnishing results a n d i n f o r m a t i o n to c o n s u m e r s [44]. 2. If the result of a two-day screening m e a s u r e m e n t is g r e a t e r
The EPA has also issued g u i d a n c e for p e r f o r m i n g r a d o n t h a n a b o u t 740 Bq m -3 (20 pCi/L), then c o n f i r m a t o r y m e a -
m e a s u r e m e n t s specifically for real estate t r a n s a c t i o n s [44]. s u r e m e n t s should be m a d e d u r i n g conditions as s i m i l a r as
These guidelines p r e s e n t t h r e e strategies for m e a s u r e m e n t s possible to those that existed during the screening m e a -
surement. Confirmatory tests should be c o n d u c t e d over a
m a d e in the lowest level of the h o m e suitable for occupancy.
t w o - d a y to four-week period. The EPA r e p o r t r e c o m m e n d s
This is defined as the lowest level that is currently lived in, o r
that the s h o r t e r t i m e p e r i o d for c o n f i r m a t o r y tests should
a lower level, such as a b a s e m e n t , w h i c h a b u y e r could use for
be used w h e n the result of the screening m e a s u r e m e n t was
living space w i t h o u t renovations. The strategies for real es-
high, for example, greater t h a n a b o u t 3700 Bq m -3 (100
tate testing are specific in t e r m s of m a k i n g the m e a s u r e m e n t s
pC i/L ).
t a m p e r - r e s i s t a n t a n d allowing the detection of t a m p e r i n g .
3. If the results of a t w o - d a y screening m e a s u r e m e n t are be-
The options are too detailed to discuss here a n d are p r e s e n t e d
tween a b o u t 150 Bq m -3 (4 pCi/L) a n d 740 Bq m -3 (20
in EPA p u b l i c a t i o n s [44,48].
pCi/L), then c o n f i r m a t o r y tests should be m a d e over a nine
to twelve-month period.
4. If the results of a t w o - d a y screening m e a s u r e m e n t are less
Strategies in Schools and Workplaces t h a n a b o u t 150 Bq m 3 (4 pCi/L), then school officials need
to c o n s i d e r on a case-by-case basis w h e t h e r further m e a -
Strategies in Schools s u r e m e n t s are necessary. The EPA cautions t h a t long-term
The EPA has assisted schools in testing for r a d o n in a health risks for c o n t i n u o u s exposure to levels n e a r 150 Bq
n u m b e r of states a n d will continue assisting school districts m -3 (4 pCi/L) are still significant.
to c o n d u c t surveys of schools t h r o u g h o u t the country, Ele-
vated r a d o n levels have b e e n f o u n d in schools in Virginia, A screening m e a s u r e m e n t m a d e over a t h r e e - m o n t h p e r i o d
Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Florida, Tennessee, a n d should also be m a d e d u r i n g the winter. There is one signifi-
o t h e r states. EPA has issued a r e p o r t on r a d o n in schools [31 ] cant difference b e t w e e n the E P A - r e c o m m e n d e d a c t i o n b a s e d
that discusses the results of these studies a n d presents proto- on the result of a t h r e e - m o n t h m e a s u r e m e n t a n d that b a s e d
cols for r a d o n m e a s u r e m e n t s in schools. The guidelines for on the result of a two-day m e a s u r e m e n t . If the results of a
selecting the r o o m s to be m e a s u r e d are s u m m a r i z e d below: t h r e e - m o n t h screening m e a s u r e m e n t are greater t h a n a b o u t
78 MANUAL ON RADON
740 Bq m -3 (20 pCi/L), EPA r e c o m m e n d s that school officials of a certain c o n s t r u c t i o n type. These studies are usually
i m m e d i a t e l y begin investigating possible r a d o n entry points called surveys, a n d this section will review factors t h a t m u s t
by c o n d u c t i n g diagnostic m e a s u r e m e n t s . be c o n s i d e r e d w h e n p l a n n i n g a survey, as well as the proto-
The EPA r e p o r t also gives school officials r e c o m m e n d a - cols used by several different groups.
tions for r e m e d i a l action, as well as guidelines for h o w There are o t h e r p u r p o s e s for m a k i n g m e a s u r e m e n t s in
quickly r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s should be reduced. m a n y buildings, including assessing the effects of different
variables such as climate or geology on r a d o n levels o r epide-
Strategies in Workplaces miological studies. However, those can dictate very specific
There is an increase in the n u m b e r of office buildings being m e a s u r e m e n t protocols, a n d examples are not discussed
tested for radon. The most notable p r o g r a m for r a d o n mea- here.
s u r e m e n t s in workplaces is m a n d a t e d by Section 309 of the
1988 U.S. I n d o o r R a d o n A b a t e m e n t Act. In this law, Congress Important Factors for Surveys of Geographic Areas
called on each federal g o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t o r agency t h a t An exhaustive discussion of the factors that should be con-
owns federal buildings to c o n d u c t a study to d e t e r m i n e "the s i d e r e d w h e n p l a n n i n g a survey is outside the scope of this
extent of r a d o n c o n t a m i n a t i o n in their buildings." The stud- book. However, there are several issues that a n y o n e p l a n n i n g
ies are to be b a s e d on design criteria specified by the EPA a r a d o n survey designed to c h a r a c t e r i z e the r a d o n levels in a
A d m i n i s t r a t o r a n d shall include testing of a representative g e o g r a p h i c a r e a should be a w a r e of. The m o s t i m p o r t a n t
s a m p l e of buildings in each high-risk a r e a identified by the issue that is often overlooked is the n a t u r e of the process by
EPA. which buildings are selected. An expert on survey design
The EPA has issued p r e l i m i n a r y guidance to federal agen- should be consulted to assist in the p l a n n i n g of a survey
cies for r a d o n m e a s u r e m e n t s in n o n r e s i d e n t i a l buildings. b e c a u s e it is i m p o s s i b l e to o b t a i n statistically m e a n i n g f u l
These are as follows: results from a survey that is n o t c o n s t r u c t e d from a s a m p l e of
h o m e s b a s e d on s o m e r a d o m o r systematic s a m p l i n g scheme.
1. M e a s u r e m e n t s should be m a d e in all o c c u p i a b l e (at least Conversely, it is often surprising h o w useful such a s a m p l e
520 h p e r year) r o o m s that are in g r o u n d contact, with a can be in generating estimates of average r a d o n levels for a
m i n i m u m of one d e t e c t o r p e r 2000 ft 2 (185.8 m2). p a r t i c u l a r p o p u l a t i o n of h o m e s o r even a small s u b g r o u p of
2. M e a s u r e m e n t s should also be m a d e in the u n o c c u p i e d homes. These estimates can include confidence intervals.
r o o m s in g r o u n d contact, with at least one d e t e c t o r p e r The first factor to be defined is the target population. This is
2000 to 5000 f t 2 (185.8 to 464.5 m2). those h o m e s that the survey is m e a n t to represent. This m a y
3. If the lowest o c c u p i e d a r e a is not in g r o u n d contact, a be all the h o m e s in a p a r t i c u l a r area. This definition m a y have
m i n i m u m of one d e t e c t o r p e r 2000 to 5000 ft 2 (185.8 to to be revised, however, w h e n the logistics of o b t a i n i n g a
464.5 m 2) should be u s e d for each o c c u p i e d floor. representative s a m p l e of h o m e s f r o m all the h o m e s in an a r e a
4. Detectors should not be p l a c e d n e a r elevators, stairs, a n d is considered. F o r example, if the s a m p l e of h o m e s to be
utility chases. chosen is b a s e d on a s a m p l e of telephone n u m b e r s , the target
5. There should be at least one d e t e c t o r p e r floor. p o p u l a t i o n can be only those h o m e s in a p a r t i c u l a r a r e a that
6. M e a s u r e m e n t s should be m a d e d u r i n g the winter heating have listed telephone n u m b e r s .
season. The next m e c h a n i s m to be d e c i d e d u p o n is the m e t h o d of
7. M e a s u r e m e n t s c o n d u c t e d for longer t h a n one m o n t h selecting the s a m p l e of h o m e s to be m e a s u r e d . This can be
s h o u l d be m a d e u n d e r n o r m a l building conditions. d o n e using telephone n u m b e r s , either by p u r c h a s i n g a list of
8. S h o r t - t e r m tests (less t h a n one m o n t h ) should be m a d e t e l e p h o n e n u m b e r s from a m a r k e t i n g firm [50] o r using the
with w i n d o w s closed a n d ventilation systems o p e r a t i n g r a n d o m - d i g i t - d i a l technique [52]. Other m e t h o d s include ob-
n o r m a l l y b u t with m i n i m u m outside air intake. taining a r a n d o m o r systematic s a m p l e of h o m e s from lists of
9. W r i t t e n quality a s s u r a n c e plans should be established by registered m o t o r vehicles o r from o t h e r lists of households.
each agency, including the use of duplicates a n d blanks, The p r o t o c o l for m e a s u r e m e n t a n d the m e a s u r e m e n t tech-
a n d spikes if possible. nique to be used is d e p e n d e n t on the p u r p o s e s of the survey
a n d the c o n s t r a i n t s in time o r budget of the investigators.
The EPA is assisting federal agencies in the d e v e l o p m e n t S o m e surveys are l i m i t e d to m e t h o d s that use devices that c a n
a n d review of their testing plans. It is a n t i c i p a t e d that testing be mailed; others are limited to a short t i m e period.
in c o m m e r c i a l workplaces will use m e a s u r e m e n t protocols
that are s i m i l a r to the protocols established for federal agen-
cies. QUALITY ASSURANCE PROTOCOLS
In a n y m e a s u r e m e n t process, it is essential t h a t the quality
Strategies for Large-Scale Measurement
of the m e a s u r e m e n t results is v a l i d a t e d by a p p r o p r i a t e proce-
Programs
dures. P r o c e d u r e s used to d e t e r m i n e the quality of d a t a in
There are m a n y reasons for a large-scale survey involving t e r m s of precision, bias, a n d sensitivity are t e r m e d quality
m e a s u r e m e n t s in m a n y buildings. F o r example, the p u r p o s e control procedures. Quality control p r o g r a m s for r a d o n m e a -
of such a study could be to c h a r a c t e r i z e a p a r t i c u l a r p o p u l a - s u r e m e n t s in structures consist of five m a j o r c o m p o n e n t s : (1)
tion of homes, often those in a specific area. The study m a y c a l i b r a t i o n of the i n s t r u m e n t o r d e t e c t o r system, (2) r o u t i n e
also have as a goal the c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of a subset o f h o m e s , i n s t r u m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e a n d b a c k g r o u n d checks, (3) analysis
for example, all those in a s m a l l e r g e o g r a p h i c a r e a o r all those of k n o w n samples, (4) analysis of replicate o r d u p l i c a t e sam-
R A D O N M E A S U R E M E N T PROTOCOLS 79
ples, and (5) analysis of blank samples. These quality control The DOE Technical Measurements Center (TMC) also runs
procedures are only part of an overall quality assurance pro- extensive programs in radon instrumentation and method
gram designed to ensure the validity of the measurement evaluation and calibration. TMC provides interlaboratory
results. A quality assurance program includes: radon decay product comparisons [58] as well as commercial
services for exposing radon and decay product measurement
1. Quality assurance objectives--The objectives of the mea- devices.
surements should be defined for bias, precision, sensitivity The Argonne National Laboratory provides QA support and
(lower limit of detection), and, where applicable, data research, but not to commercial clients on a routine basis.
completeness (the proportion of valid results to attempted The U.S. Bureau of Mines has long been involved in the
measurements). development and testing of radon and decay product mea-
2. Custody procedures--There should be procedures that re- surement methods. They do not, however, provide routine
duce lost data. Strict chain-of-custody procedures also en- exposures to the private sector.
sure the admissability of data as legal evidence. There are a number of private facilities in the United States
3. Internal quality control checks--The five components men- that offer radon exposure services. At several of these facili-
tioned previously should be described in the standard ties, service contracts are offered to provide routine expo-
operating procedures. sures on a monthly or quarterly basis for laboratory QA pro-
4. Performance and systems audits--Audits are used to deter- grams, generally for passive detectors. Radon concentrations
mine the accuracy of the total measurement system and its are traceable to DOE-EML via the EML intercomparison
components and to assess the ability of the system to meet
program and to the EPA chambers through intercomparison
the objectives of the measurements as they were defined in
and the EPA National Radon Measurement Proficiency Pro-
Item 1.
gram.
5. Plans for corrective action--Written plans for corrective
Radon sources are also available commercially for labora-
actions in the advent of equipment malfunction or unsatis-
tories who operate their own chambers. A Canadian com-
factory results of internal quality control checks should be
pany provides radon and decay product standardization
prepared prior to beginning the measurements.
products based on a dry powder radium source. This com-
Each individual laboratory is responsible for developing a pany provides sources that can be transferred to a scintil-
quality assurance program. The program should contain lation cell, sealed sources, flow-through sources, and a pas-
written procedures to establish QA objectives and procedures sive source for chamber releases. Also available from this firm
for meeting those objectives. A system for documenting qual- is a sealed source configured in a 10-cm-diameter cylindrical
ity assurance measurements must also be developed. There container of similar geometry to the 10-cm, open-face char-
are a number of reports that contain information on QA coal canister, which can be used as a check source for gamma
procedures, including those published by the EPA [51,53, 54], counting of charcoal canister systems.
in a book on quality assurance by Taylor [55], and in an There are several organizations in the United States that
article by Goldin [56]. currently provide calibration support to groups measuring
The following sections review each of the five components radon and its decay products. The National Institute of Stan-
of internal quality control measures. dards and Technology (NIST) provides standard reference
materials (SRM) solutions of Rn-226 for calibration of instru-
ments measuring Rn-222. The solutions of Rn-226, in a weak
acid, with a carrier, readily release radon when nitrogen or
Calibration
other gases are bubbled through the solution. The standard-
Calibration measurements are needed to determine the ized solutions, available in several concentrations, can be
conversion factor to be used to convert the measured units to used to calibrate scintillation cells or ionization chambers.
a radon concentration. Direct reading instruments and detec- NIST does not provide SRMs for radon decay products.
tor systems should be calibrated by exposure to known con- Calibrations of instrumentation for measurements of radon
centrations in a standardized radon calibration chamber. The decay products are generally accomplished by exposing the
chamber used should be one that has participated in in- instruments in chambers with known concentrations of
tercomparison tests with other radon calibration chambers. radon decay products. Similarly, continuous radon monitors
These calibration factors should be determined over a range and passive detectors are calibrated by exposure in chambers
of radon concentrations. where radon concentrations are verified by methods trace-
The U.S. DOE provides calibration facilities for both re- able to SRMs.
search and commercial users. The Environmental Measure- The major organization involved in the quality control as-
ments Laboratory (EML) has for years been involved in the pects of radon measurements by the commercial sector is the
development and testing of methods and instrumentation for EPA. The Office of Radiation Programs in Washington, DC
measuring radon and its decay products. The EML chamber administers the National Radon Measurement Proficiency
is used routinely to evaluate measurement devices. EML Program [59], which is a voluntary program designed to
hosts a semiannual radon intercomparison exercise [57] in demonstrate the participant's competence to measure radon
which participants submit scintillation flasks to be filled with or decay products. The EPA does not accredit, certify, or
radon for analysis by the participant. Participants in this endorse specific companies or methods, but provides a list of
voluntary program include government, academic, and com- organizations that have met the requirements of the pro-
mercial investigators. gram.
80 MANUAL ON RADON
Direct Reading Instruments and Scintillation Cell K n o w n Samples

Detector Systems
The degree of systematic error, or bias, inherent in a mea-
Each individual direct reading instrument or scintillation surement system should be evaluated on an ongoing basis
cell should be calibrated in a calibration chamber and an through the measurement of known (spiked) samples. These
instrument- or cell-specific calibration factor established. If samples are submitted for measurement without the analyst
resources do not allow each instrument or cell to be cal- or analytical laboratory's knowledge that they are quality
ibrated in a chamber, they should be carefully intercompared control samples. The EPA recommends in its guidance docu-
at least once every six months with a set of instruments or ments [44,48] that spikes should be conducted at a rate of
cells that have been calibrated by exposure in a chamber. The three per 100 measurements, with a minimum of three per
calibration factor for individual instruments and cells should month and a maximum required of six per year.
be checked at least once every 12 months in a calibration The results of the analysis of known samples shall be evalu-
chamber and adjusted as necessary. In addition, the calibra- ated to determine any bias in sample analysis and to identify
tion should be checked after instrument repair or modifica- the need to make adjustments in the calibration factors.
tion.
Passive Radon Measurement Detector Systems Replicate Measurements

The calibration factor for a passive radon measurement The precision of a measurement method should be evalu-
detector system should be determined by exposure of a repre- ated on an ongoing basis through the measurement of blind
sentative sample of detectors in a radon calibration chamber replicate measurements. These detectors are submitted for
and measurement of the exposed detectors on the appropri- analysis without the laboratory's knowledge that they are
ate detection system. A minimum of 30 detectors should be replicates. Approximately 10% of the measurements should
exposed in determining the calibration factor. Preferably be replicate measurements.
groups of ten detectors should be exposed to at least three Control charts are the usual way of evaluating quality con-
different radon concentrations. Passive detection systems in- trol data for replicates. A range chart can be used to evaluate
clude alpha track detectors, activated carbon detectors, and variations of replicate measurements among themselves. In
electret ion chambers. Some charcoal detectors require cali- constructing these control charts it is necessary to know the
bration under various exposure times and conditions [60]. standard deviation of the method or to assign an acceptable
Calibration of the detector systems should be conducted once standard deviation [44,51,55,56].
a year. Each new lot of detector material for alpha track Although replicate measurements are more difficult to
detectors and charcoal canisters should be calibrated. carry out using direct reading instruments, some replicate
measurements using direct reading instruments are desirable
during periods between calibrations.
Instrument Performance and Background Checks
Proper operation of radiation counting instruments re- Blank Measurements
quires that their response to a reference source and a back- The background signal that accumulates during the stor-
ground sample be constant to within established acceptable age, shipping, and handling of detectors should be evaluated
limits. Therefore, counting equipment used in the measure- on an ongoing basis through the measurement of blank field
ment of radon should be subject to routine daily checks to measurements. These blank measurements should be stored,
ensure proper operation. This is achieved by counting an shipped, handled, and measured in the same manner as ac-
instrument check source and a background sample at least tual samples. The results of blank measurements should be
once per day. The characteristics of the check source (i.e., evaluated to determine if additional corrections in the back-
geometry, type of radiation, etc.) should whenever possible ground signal are needed. If the average measurement for the
be similar to the samples to be analyzed. Similarly, the back- field blank measurements is significantly greater than the
ground sample should have a geometry and sample mixture laboratory background, the results of the field blanks should
as close as possible to the samples to be analyzed. The count be used to correct for background. Several percent of the
rate of the check source should be high enough to give good measurements made should be blank field measurements.
counting statistics in a short period of time. A count rate of
1000 to 10 000 counts per minute is usually adequate.
The check source counts and background counts for each SUMMARY
instrument are plotted on separate control charts following
the procedures described by Goldin [56], Taylor [55], and the Factors that can greatly influence the result of indoor radon
EPA [51]. These control charts have established warning measurements include the location of the measurement, the
action levels and control action levels. Most of the data conditions under which the measurement is made, the time
should fall within the warning action level. The frequency of day and year when the measurement is begun, and its
with which data falls outside these action levels will deter- duration. It is important for anyone measuring radon to un-
mine the need for corrective action. The criteria and methods derstand the impact of these factors on the measurement
described by Goldin [56], Taylor [55], and the EPA [51] can be result and to adopt or design measurement protocols that
used in evaluating the need for corrective action based on the achieve the goals of the measurement program. The purpose
results of these performance and background checks. of the measurements as well as the equipment, time, and
RADON M E A S U R E M E N T PROTOCOLS 81
resources available will dictate the protocol that is developed [9] Dudney, C. S. and Hawthorne, A. R., "Radon-222, Rn-222 Prog-
for a particular program. eny, and Rn-220 Progeny Levels in 70 Houses," Health Physics,
The DOE has issued protocols for m e a s u r i n g radon, includ- Vol. 58, No. 3, 1990, pp. 297-311.
ing guidelines o n the ventilation conditions in the house to be [10] Mushrush, G. W. and Mose, D. G., "The Effect of Home Con-
struction on Indoor Radon in Virginia and Maryland," En-
measured, the types of e q u i p m e n t used, the evaluation of the
vironmental International, Vol. 14, 1988, pp. 395-402.
results, a n d the d u r a t i o n a n d times of year w h e n the measure-
[11] Cohen, B. L., "Survey of One-year Average Rn Levels in Pitts-
m e n t s should be made. The EPA has issued protocols for burgh Area Homes," Health Physics, Vol. 49, 1985, pp. 1053-
r a d o n m e a s u r e m e n t s i n both residences a n d schools for pur- 1085.
poses of d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r mitigation is w a r r a n t e d a n d for [12] George, A. C., Knutson, E. G., and Franklin, H., "Radon and
pre- a n d post-mitigation m e a s u r e m e n t s . I n addition, the EPA Radon Daughter Measurements in Solar Buildings," Health
has issued guidance that c a n be used as the basis for proto- Physics, Vol. 45, 1983, pp. 413-420.
cols for m e a s u r i n g r a d o n in workplaces. Both the DOE a n d [13] Moschandreas, D. J. and Rector, H. E., "Indoor Radon Concen-
the EPA developed their protocols after studying the i m p a c t trations," Environment International, Vol. 8, 1982, pp. 77-82.
of various factors o n the m e a s u r e m e n t results. [14] Mose, D. G., "Progress Report on Radon Program," George
One of the most i m p o r t a n t factors that necessitate the use Mason University, Fairfax, VA, 1988.
of a protocol is the variability of r a d o n with t i m e : r a d o n [15] Pilchard, H. M., Gesell, C. T., Weiffenbach, C. V., and Nyberg,
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s vary significantly d u r i n g the course of a year, P., "Associations Between Grab Samples and Integrated Radon
Measurements in Dwellings in Maine and Texas," Environment
a season, a n d a day. Protocols also need to provide guidelines
International, Vol. 8, 1982, pp. 83-87.
for m e a s u r e m e n t location because r a d o n levels are usually [16] George, A. C. and Breslin, A. J., "The Distribution of Ambient
different in different levels of a house, often being several Radon and Radon Daughters in Residential Buildings in the
times higher in b a s e m e n t s or first floors t h a n on u p p e r floors. New Jersey-New York Area," CONF-780422, Proceedings, Sym-
Other i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t s of a m e a s u r e m e n t protocol are posium on the Natural Radiation Environment III, 1978.
the quality assurance practices to be followed, i n c l u d i n g the [17] George, J. L. and Langner, G., Jr., "Field Study of Indoor Aver-
objectives of the m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d methods for d e t e r m i n i n g age Radon-Daughter Estimation Methods," Report GJ/TMC-26,
their quality. The DOE has several l o n g s t a n d i n g programs for Bendix Field Engineering Corp., Grand Junction, CO, 1986.
evaluating a n d i n t e r c o m p a r i n g m e a s u r e m e n t methods, a n d [18] George, A. E., Duncan, M., and Franklin, H., "Measurements of
the EPA has established a n a t i o n a l p r o g r a m for assessing the Radon in Residential Buildings in Maryland and Pennsylvania,
proficiency of different organizations m e a s u r i n g radon. USA," Radiation Protection Dosimetry, Vol. 7, 1984, pp. 291-294.
[19] Furrer, D., Crameri, R., and Burkart, W., "Dynamics of Rn
Transport From the Cellar to the Living Area in an Unheated
House," Health Physics, Vol. 60, No. 3, 1991, pp. 393-398.
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"Summertime Elevation of Rn-222 Levels in Huntsville, Ala-
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Average Indoor Radon-Daughter Concentrations, Second Edi-
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[50] Ronca-Battista, M., Moon, M., Bergsten, J., White, S. B., Alexan-
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Integrating Sampling Unit," Report GJ/TMC-12, U.S. Depart-
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[37] Martz, D. E., George, J. L., Mamich, S. T., and Langner, G., Jr., [51] Ronca-Battista, M. and Turla, M., "Radon Measurement Profi-
"Validation of the Diffusion-Barrier Charcoal Canister Method," ciency Program: Guidance on Quality Assurance," Draft 29 June
Report UNC-GJ-47 (TMC), U.S. Department of Energy, Techni- 1993 Report, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Radon
cal Measurements Center, Grand Junction, CO, 1989. Division, Office of Radiation and Indoor Air, Washington, DC,
[38] Pearson, M. D., "Evaluation of the Performance Characteristics 1993.
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UNC-GJ-44 (TMC), U.S. Department of Energy, Technical Mea- State Homes," Health Physics, Vol. 58, 1990, pp. 147-156.
surements Center, Grand Junction, CO, 1989. [53] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Research and
[39] George, J., "Procedure Manual for the Estimation of Average Development, "Guidance and Specifications for Preparing Qual-
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[40] Langner, G., Jr., "Validation of the Abbreviated Radon Progeny mental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development,
Integrating Sampling Unit Method for Mesa County, Colorado," Air and Engineering Research Laboratory, Research Triangle
Report UNC/GJ-34 (TMC), U.S. Department of Energy, Techni- Park, NC, draft released November 1991.
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[41] George, J. and Langner, G., Jr., "Validation of the Prompt Alpha- Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, MI, 1989.
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1987.
[57] Fisenne, I. M., George, A. C., and Keller, H. W., "The August
[42] George, J., "Procedure Manual for the Estimation of Average
1986 through February 1988 Radon Intercomparisons at EML,"
Indoor Radon-Daughter Concentration Using the Radon Grab-
Sampling Method," Report UNC/GJ-40 (TMC), U.S. Department
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of Energy, Technical Measurements Center, Grand Junction,
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[43] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Technical Support Comparison Workshop: 9-12 September 1985," GJ/TMC-25,
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400-R-92-011, Radon Division, Office of Air and Radiation, Center, Grand Junction, CO, 1986.
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EPA 402-R-92-003, Radon Division, Office of Radiation and Washington, DC, 1991.
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[45] Ronca-Battista, M., Magno, P., and Nyberg, P., "Interim Proto- Radon Using Activated Carbon," Health Physics, Vol. 46, 1984,
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MNL15-EB/Jun. 1994
Geology and Occurrence

of Radon
by R. Randall Schumann 1, Linda C. S. Gundersen 1, and Allan B. Tanner 2
THE ACCUMULATIONOF RADONINDOORSis commonly due to R A D O N E M A N A T I O N IN SOILS

movement of radon from adjacent soil and rock into a build-
ing foundation through joints, utility openings, cracks, or When a radium atom disintegrates, it yields a helium atom,
porous block walls. When air pressure inside the building is a radon atom, and kinetic energy that is shared by the two
lower than that in the soil, pressure-driven flow of radon- atoms. A small but important fraction of the excess energy
bearing soil gas can occur (see Chapter 2). Whether or not an causes the radon atom to recoil from the decay site and bur-
indoor radon problem results depends on: (1) the radium row through solid material. If its path carries it into a soil
concentration in the soil and underlying rock, (2) the ability grain tissue or pore containing water, it may lose all its
of radon to escape from the solid material holding the parent remaining kinetic energy in the water and remain in the pore;
radium, and (3) the ability of radon to move through the rock otherwise it may bury itself in more solid material and be
unavailable to the pores. Because radium in soils tends to be
and soil fractures and pores.
concentrated on or very near the pore boundaries, and be-
The radium concentration in rock and soil is controlled by
cause most soils contain water in the finer fissures and capil-
the uranium and radium concentration of the parent rock
laries, a significant fraction, usually 10 to 50%, of all the
and on subsequent geochemical processes acting over time.
radon atoms produced come to rest in the pores. This frac-
The ability of radon atoms to escape from soil or mineral
tion, the "emanating power" or "emanation coefficient," is
grains, quantitatively expressed as "emanating power" or lower in soils that are less than a few percent water saturated
"emanation coefficient," depends on the locations of the long- and probably in soils that are young relative to the half lives
lived precursors of radon, 23su, 234U, 23~ and 226Ra, at the of 226Ra (1600 years) and 23~ (77 000 years). Conversely, in
times of their respective disintegrations, and the presence of some old soils, equilibrium may have been established be-
water near the radium parent at the time of its disintegration. tween the deposition and decay of 23~ and radium, maxi-
The mobility of radon is mostly dependent on the sizes and mizing the radon source at the surfaces of soil pores.
interconnection of pores and fractures and on how much
water is present to impede soil-gas movement. Short-term
variations in soil-gas radon concentrations may be caused by
weather factors including precipitation, barometric pressure, R A D O N MOBILITY IN SOILS
and temperature.
On a broader scale, the soil properties that affect radon Radon atoms in soil pores can move through the ground by
generation and transport are controlled by the geology of the diffusion, not necessarily involving any movement of the fluid
parent rock and the physical and chemical weathering of the in the pores (soil gas or ground water), or by convective or
rock to produce soil. The rate and extent of these soil weath- advective flow of the fluid, carrying radon along with it.
ering processes are strongly influenced by climate. With an
understanding of the physical and geochemical properties of
rocks and soils, generalized estimates of radon potential can
Diffusion
be determined for geologic provinces in the United States. A
discussion of rock and soil properties that control the ema- Diffusion is the mechanism by which radon atoms move
nation and migration of radon, followed by a general descrip- along a concentration gradient from sites where the radon
tion of the geology and radon potential of each major geo- concentration is higher toward places where the radon con-
logic province in the United States, are presented in this centration is lower. Diffusion is not very sensitive to pore or
chapter. grain size, but it is very sensitive to the pore water content.
The average distance of travel (the "diffusion length") of
radon in dry soils was experimentally determined to be from
1.6 to 1.9 m, whereas in saturated soils it is only about 0.01 m
[1]. Diffusion is the dominant transport mechanism in silty or
1Geologists, U.S. Geological Survey, MS 939 Federal Center, Den-
ver, CO 80225. clayey soils with permeabilities generally less than 10-'1 m 2
2U.S. Geological Survey (retired). [21.
83
84 MANUAL ON RADON
Convection and Advection moisture content. These characteristics are, in turn, deter-
mined by the soil's parent-material composition, climate, and
Convective (vertical) and advective (lateral) flow occurs in
the soil's age or maturity. In theory, if parent-material com-
response to pressure gradients within the fluids in soil pores
position, climate, vegetation, age of the soil, and topography
and fissures. In the case of soil gas, the pressure gradients can
are known, the physical and chemical properties of a soil in a
occur within the soil air, between the soil air and atmospheric
given area can be predicted. An understanding of soil forma-
air, or a combination of both. Convection and advection are
tion and weathering processes, and of their spatial and tem-
governed by the intrinsic permeability of the soil, the viscos-
poral variability, is an important part of a basic conceptual
ity of the fluid moving through the soil pores, and the pres-
model for radon generation and transport in soils.
sure gradient moving the fluid. At the small pressure gra-
When rocks formed at great depths, commonly under high
dients generated by underpressures in buildings, convection
temperatures and pressures, are exposed at the surface by
and advection become important in well-sorted fine sand and
erosion and/or uplift, they are rarely in chemical equilibrium
are dominant in coarse sands and gravels. As with diffusion,
with the conditions that exist at the surface. Tectonic forces
convection and advection are markedly reduced in wetter
and unloading tend to weaken the rocks, making them
soils. A soil's permeability to water movement is a fair quali-
susceptible to physical and chemical weathering. Physical
tative indicator of its permeability to gas movement, but a soil
weathering is the breakdown of rocks by erosional forces,
having an appreciable amount of water that is free to move
expansion in cracks or along grain boundaries by freezing
through its pores would have a 10w permeability to gas flow.
water or crystallizing salts such as gypsum or halite, or by
If the same soil is fairly dry, its gas permeability is much
thermal expansion and contraction. Physical weathering pro-
higher and its water permeability is much lower [2]. Soil
cesses cause the parent rocks to be broken down into smaller
structure can exert a strong influence on soil permeability
fragments without significantly changing their mineralogy or
and will be discussed in a following section.
chemical properties. In contrast, chemical weathering causes
the chemical and/or mineralogical properties of the rocks to
Applications of Mobility Principles to Radon change through processes such as ion exchange, dissolution,
Potential chelation, hydration, and dehydration. Physical and chemical
weathering occur together, often using different properties of
The mobility of radon is very strongly influenced by soil the same agents; water is a notable example, as it can act as
moisture content, and drainage plays a critical role in deter- an agent in nearly all of the above-mentioned physical and
mining the soil's radon potential. If the presence of a house chemical processes. In fact, movement of water through the
on a site causes a drying out of the soil beneath the house slab soil is one of the most important processes in development of
and subslab aggregate, the ability of radon to move upward to soil profiles because it carries dissolved and suspended sub-
the subslab aggregate should increase. stances downward into or through the soil, removes them
In layered soils and those containing platy minerals such as completely from the soil, or forms completely new substances
clays, lateral movement of soil gas is favored and vertical through chemical processes [3].
movement of soil gas is inhibited. Where a low-permeability
layer of soil is present above layers of higher permeability, a
"permeability inversion" exists. A building foundation can Structure, Texture, and Permeability
then offer a path of less resistance to atmospheric pressure Soil texture and structure are especially important in
changes than the natural soil, forcing radon-bearing soil gas determining radon transport characteristics because they di-
into the backfill, subslab aggregate, and foundation. The rectly influence permeability. Soil texture refers to the distri-
subslab aggregate and the backfill, if it is permeable, allow bution and sorting of grain sizes within a soil unit. Most soil
underpressure in a house to draw radon-bearing soil gas into classification schemes use a ternary plot of the relative abun-
the house, if entry routes are present. dances of sand, silt, and clay in soil samples to assign the soil
Hillsides and ridges tend to have greater indoor radon to a textural class, resulting in designations such as sandy
potential because the soils are usually better drained and are clay or silt loam (Fig. 1). Soil permeability is determined by
composed of coarser and more permeable material. The soil the number, size, and degree of interconnection of pore
cover is also usually thinner on hillsides, so that the bedrock, spaces, which are controlled by the size, shape, and arrange-
especially if fractured, can contribute significant amounts of ment of the soil grains or aggregates. Permeability is highest
radon. in coarse-grained, well-sorted, spherical materials (Fig. 2a)
and lowest in poorly sorted and finer-grained materials where
smaller grains and/or cements fill the void spaces between
SOIL CHARACTERISTICS larger grains (Fig. 2b). Cracks and fissures in the soil also
increase the soil's permeability.
Although bedrock geology exerts an overriding control on Soil structure is the manner in which individual soil parti-
radon distribution, soil characteristics are important in de- cles combine to form aggregates; these aggregates of soil
termining radon production and mobility. The importance of particles are called peds. The shape and orientation of the
soil characteristics increases with the soil's age, thickness, peds control permeability and affect water and gas move-
and degree of development, as the soil's characteristics be- ment in the soil. Basic soil structure elements are illustrated
come increasingly different from those of its parent material. in Fig. 3. Soils with blocky or granular structure have roughly
The most important factors are the soiFs radium content and equivalent permeabilities in the horizontal and vertical direc-
distribution, porosity, permeability to gas movement, and tions. In soils with platy structure, horizontal permeability is
GEOLOGY AND RADON 85
prismatic or columnar structure have vertically dominated

permeability, allowing soil gas to more easily escape to the
atmosphere or atmospheric air to more easily enter the soil
and dilute the soil gas. Platy, prismatic, and columnar struc-
tures form in soils with high clay contents. In soils with
shrink-swell clays, moisture infiltration rates and depth of
wetting may be limited when the surface soil layers swell shut
upon addition of a relatively small amount of water. How-
xo
o~
/"
/X.~.'
." '.
".."." '."..".'- ",// ~ \ @ ;%
Y ever, shrinkage of the clays can act.to open or widen cracks
upon drying, increasing the soil's permeability to gas flow
during drier periods. Clay-rich B horizons, particularly those
with massive or platy structure, can form a subsurface cap-
ping layer that impedes escape of soil gas to the surface [5].
/ ",clayloam ',L' ', . 9/ '. ,' ", " ~
,o/ ....... . . . .
Weathering P r o c e s s e s a n d P r o d u c t s
" " " "I "" ' ~ " 9 I ", siltloam ", ." ~
The process of soil formation involves physical and chemi-
cal interactions with the air and water that pass through the
soil, often resulting in the formation of different chemical
compounds (minerals, grain coatings, cements) than those
weight % sand that existed in the parent material. Biological processes also
FIG. 1-Ternary soil classification system based on grain size contribute heavily to the weathering process. Clays, iron and
[4]. manganese oxides, and carbonates tend to preferentially sorb
or complex with uranium and radium, so they can play a
major role in determining the distribution of radionuclides in
much greater than that in the vertical direction, and moisture
the soil. The redistribution of these materials may also
infiltration is generally slow. In soils with dominantly hori- change the grain-size distributions and control the presence
zontal permeability, radon would be more likely to flow later- and extent of grain cements, thus affecting permeability. The
ally into a building foundation (if a pressure gradient exists position and extent of these zones are controlled primarily by
between the building and the soil) and less likely to escape to the soil's parent material mineralogy and chemistry, climate,
the atmosphere or be diluted by atmospheric air. Soils with and time. Parent material composition determines not only
the initial amount and distribution of radionuclides in the
soil, but also how the rock will interact with climate to form
the soil, thus determining the soil's radon emanating power
a) and transport characteristics.
Leaching and illuviation are the chemical and physical
) processes, respectively, by which mineral matter and dis-
solved solutes are moved downward through the soil profile
) and concentrated in discrete zones. Uranium can be removed

from or concentrated in particular soil horizons by these
processes, depending on the pH, dissolved-oxygen content,
and presence and availability of humic and fulvic acids and
other ions in solution. In general, solutes and mineral matter
are removed from the A or E horizon and concentrated in the
underlying B horizon. Radionuclides generally tend to follow
this pattern as well. In a study by Rosholt et al. [6], the highest
uranium concentrations in Minnesota till soils were found in
the upper part of the B horizon. Hansen and Stout [7] noted
that uranium and thorium concentrations are highest in the
clay fractions of soils, but that the uranyl ion (UOf 2) also
complexes readily with carbonates, migrating with calcium
into the crystalline structure of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in
calcic horizons. Uranium is commonly associated with iron
oxides and hydroxides [8], including hematite and goethite,
common weathering products in soils. Several researchers
have noted a trend toward increased iron oxide content with
depth and a general downward movement of the zone of
FIG. 2-(a) Uniform-sized grains with open pack- highest iron oxide accumulation in well-drained soils with
ing (high permeability); (b) poorly-sorted mate- time [9]. However, the proportion of translocated iron is
rial in which smaller grains fill interstices be- probably small compared to the amount of in-place forma-
tween larger grains (lower permeability). tion of iron oxides by weathering processes.
# r
(d)
(c)
(a) (b)
(e) if) "" _~." .,-~ " ~ f

~ I ' ' 0 ' 6 qm',.
FIG. 3-Soil structure elements: (a) prismatic, (b) columnar, (c) blocky
(angular), (d) blocky (subangular), (e) platy, (f) granular [4].
The radioactive decay of a uranium atom liberates enough discernible effects, and there are conflicting observations in
energy to disrupt the crystal structure in the vicinity of the the literature concerning these factors.
atom, making the host mineral more susceptible to leaching
[10,11]. As rock and soil minerals are exposed to breakdown
by various means, 234Uis leached from the exposed surfaces
Precipitation and Soil Moisture
of the mineral grains and moves freely in the upper layers of If the discussion of meteorologic effects on soils is re-
most soils [12]. It decays to 23~ which is sorbed or precipi- stricted to the unsaturated (or seasonally saturated) zone, an
tated on soil grain surfaces and organic matter. The oxide of approximately direct correlation between wet- and dry-
thorium is extremely stable and insoluble [13], so that sorbed weather periods and soil-moisture conditions may be as-
23~ and Z3~ are likely to remain on the surfaces of soil sumed. This is an oversimplification for individual precipita-
grains or in solid coatings and cements wherever disintegration events because it disregards the importance of anteced-
tion of the parent 234Utakes place. ent soil-moisture conditions, but in a seasonal context, this
Radium (226Ra) is produced from 23~ decay. Radium is an relationship is valid. Radon exhalation into soil pores is en-
alkaline-earth element, like magnesium, calcium, strontium, hanced at low to moderate soil-moisture levels (up to about
and barium. Radium is practically never present in sufficient 15 to 17 wt%) and inhibited at higher levels [14,15]. Radon
concentration to precipitate by itself with those anions, espe- transport is also generally inhibited by high soil moisture
cially sulfate, that have a strong affinity for alkaline-earth because water tends to block soil pores, reducing the gas
cations, but it is preferentially coprecipitated with those ele- permeability of the soil. In finer-grained soils, especially
ments. Radium is also efficiently scavenged by iron and man- those with high clay contents, less moisture is necessary to
ganese hydroxides and by organic matter. As a result, most inhibit transport because: (1) the pore spaces are smaller, (2)
radium atoms exposed to soil pore spaces stay attached to the interlayer water molecules are electrostatically bound to the
grain surfaces or contained within cements or grain coatings. clay particles, causing clay-rich soils to dry out more slowly,
The process of weathering moves radium atoms from sites and (3) expandable clays swell with the addition of moisture,
within mineral grains, where their liberated radon atoms will closing pore spaces and cracks in the soil more readily than in
remain trapped within the grains, to sites on the periphery of a coarser-grained soil.
grains, where liberated radon atoms will be available to pore Capping is a moisture-related effect that increases mea-
spaces, thus significantly increasing the radon emanation sured soil-gas radon concentrations. Capping effects occur
coefficient of the soil over that of the parent rock. when the uppermost soil layers become saturated or the
moisture in them is frozen, inhibiting the release of radon to
the atmosphere and allowing radon to concentrate beneath
CLIMATE A N D W E A T H E R E F F E C T S the capping layer. The capping layer isolates the soil air from
the atmosphere, suppressing barometric, thermal, and wind
Meteorologic conditions have a marked effect on radon effects. Beneath the capping layer, the soil may be relatively
transport in soils. The most important factors appear to be dry and soil pores open, allowing, and sometimes enhancing,
precipitation (as it affects soil moisture conditions) and baro- lateral movement of soil gas toward building foundations.
metric pressure. Temperature and wind appear to have less Heavy rainfall can produce an effective moisture cap
G E O L O G Y AND R A D O N 87
[5,16,17], and freezing of the moisture in the uppermost soil be due to saturated soil conditions, which reduces gas perme-
layers appears to be a relatively common and efficient capability and the amount of radon available to the gas phase in
ping mechanism [15,18,19]. Capping may be enhanced dur- the pore spaces.
ing spring and fall, when the diurnal freeze-thaw cycle allows
water to infiltrate the near-surface soil layers during the day
and subsequently freeze at night. Capping occurs more read- Barometric Pressure and Wind
ily in soils with expandable clays because the surface layers Changes in barometric pressure can cause significant
swell shut, blocking both radon exhalation and further infil- changes in measured soil-gas radon concentrations. Falling
tration of moisture. With moisture infiltration inhibited, soil pressure tends to draw soil gas out of the ground, increasing
horizons beneath the capping layer may remain permeable to the radon concentration in the near-surface layers. Con-
gas transport for a considerable time after the surface be- versely, high or increasing barometric pressure forces atmo-
comes saturated. This effect may be quite significant in soils spheric air into the soil, diluting the near-surface soil gas and
with clayey B horizons that act as the capping layer [17]. driving radon deeper into the soil [15,16,18,19]. Bakulin [21]
Soil structure, soil-moisture variations, and capping effects found that a decrease in pressure causes an increase in radon
cause an order-of-magnitude variation in soil-gas radon con- exhalation "proportional to the square of the pressure drop
centrations in a clay-rich soil on the Denver Federal Center rate, [and to the] square of the gas permeable soil layer depth,
(DFC) in Colorado [5]. An extensive desiccation-crack system and [radon exhalation] increases linearly with time, during
imparts a prismatic structure to the soil and allows deep which the radon concentration in the upper layer [of soil]
infiltration of atmospheric air during dry periods. A good increases." Clements and Wilkening [22] noted that pressure
correlation exists between wetter and drier seasons and soil- changes of 1 to 2% associated with the passage of weather
gas radon highs and lows (Fig. 4). Moisture capping occurs fronts could produce changes of 20 to 60% in the radon flux,
when precipitation infiltrates the uppermost soil layers, depending on the rate of change of pressure and its duration.
causing the clays to swell and cracks at the surface to close. Wind turbulence and the Bernoulli effect imparted by wind
Percolation through the clayey soil is slow, so pores and blowing across an irregular soil surface can draw soil gas
cracks deeper in the soil may remain open for a considerable upward from depth in a manner similar to that of decreasing
time after the surface has swelled shut, and radon accumu- barometric pressure [18,19,23].
lates beneath the capping layer. A moisture cap is more
common during cool months because evaporation rates are
lower, so the soil dries more slowly. At the DFC, the wetter Temperature
season occurs during late winter, spring, and early summer
Some authors suggest that temperature has little or no
and provides favorable conditions for the formation and
effect on soil-gas radon content [15,19]. However, Ball et al.
maintenance of moisture caps (frozen or unfrozen).
A similar magnitude of seasonal variation in soil-gas radon
[24] found that changes in soil-gas radon concentrations cor-
relate with changes in soil temperature and, to a lesser extent,
concentrations was noted in soils formed on limestones in
with changes in air temperature. Kovach [l 9] reported higher
central Pennsylvania, except that the high values were re-
radon emanation during temperature lows. Klusman and
corded during the summer [20]. The lower winter values may
Jaacks [25] observed negative correlations between both soil
and air temperature and radon concentrations and suggested
50
that temperature gradients within the soil, or between the soil
40
and air, can induce convective soil-gas transport. Tempera-
E ture effects on radon exhalation have also been noted. In one
E
=" 30 experiment, radon exhalation rates in soil and shale samples
0
increased by 50 to 200% in response to increasing the temper-
=tn 20 ature of the samples from 5 to 22~ [26], whereas in another
10
0
2000
,I,L, !, ,,,!,J I ,t,
i
experiment, radon emanation increased approximately 10%
when granite samples were heated from - 2 0 to 22~ [27].
GEOLOGIC FACTORS
1500
Uranium Mineralogy and Occurrence
1000 Uranium is present to some extent in all rocks (Table 1).
It forms its own family of uranium minerals, including
._
500 uraninite, coffinite, tyuyamunite, carnotite, uranophane,
autunite, and brannerite, or occurs in other minerals, the
most common of which are heavy minerals such as titanite,
0 I I I I I I I I I
M A M J J A S O N D J F'M A zircon, allanite, and monazite. These minerals are found in
1987 1988 predictable abundance in most rocks.
FIG. 4-Plots of soil-gas radon concentrations at 100-cm depth Rock types with uranium concentrations greater than 5
and precipitation at the Denver Federal Center for the period ppm that are most likely to cause indoor radon problems
March 1987 to April 1988 [5]. include carbonaceous black shales, glauconite-bearing
TABLE 1--Average uranium concentration in some common rock TABLE 2--Rocks most likely to cause radon problems and the
types (after Refs 8 and 28). uranium and radium sources they host (compiled from Refs
8,28,29,30-34].
Earth's crust 2.8 ppm
Basalt 0.5 ppm Rock Types Uranium/Radium Sources
Andesite 2.0 ppm
Granite and syenite 4.0 ppm Black shales, lignite, and Uranium-bearing organic
Metamorphic rocks 2.0 ppm coal compounds; autunite;
Black shale 10 ppm tyuyamunite
Other shale 3.0 ppm
Sandstone 2.2 ppm Glauconitic sandstones Radium and uranium-bearing
Limestone 1.3 ppm iron-oxides; heavy minerals
Fluvial and lacustrine Roll-front deposits, which include

sandstones uraninite, coffinite, pitchblende,
sandstones, s o m e fluvial sandstones, phosphorites, chalk, secondary uranium minerals
s o m e carbonates, s o m e glacial deposits, bauxite, lignite, (tyuyamunite, carnotite,
uranophane, and other uranyl
s o m e coals, u r a n i u m - b e a r i n g granites a n d pegmatites, meta- vanadates); uranium and radium
m o r p h i c rocks of granitic c o m p o s i t i o n , felsic a n d alkalic vol- adsorbed onto organic material;
canoclastic a n d pyroclastic volcanic rocks, syenites a n d car- iron and titanium oxides; placer
bonatites, a n d m a n y s h e a r e d o r faulted rocks. The m o s t deposits, which include heavy
c o m m o n m o d e s of o c c u r r e n c e of u r a n i u m a n d r a d i u m within minerals
these rocks are s u m m a r i z e d in Table 2. R o c k types least likely Phosphorite and phosphate Phosphate complexes; apatite
to cause r a d o n p r o b l e m s include m a r i n e q u a r t z sands, non-
c a r b o n a c e o u s shales a n d siltstones, s o m e clays a n d fluvial Chalk and Mad Phosphate complexes; apatite
sediments, m e t a m o r p h i c a n d igneous rocks of mafic c o m p o -
Carbonates Uranium and radium adsorbed
sition, a n d mafic volcanic rocks. Exceptions exist w i t h i n onto iron-oxide coatings; radium
these general lithologic groups b e c a u s e of the o c c u r r e n c e of with organic material in soils;
localized u r a n i u m deposits, c o m m o n l y of the h y d r o t h e r m a l tyuyamunite, carnotite, and
type in crystalline rocks o r the "roll-front" type in s e d i m e n - uranophane in karst and caves
tary rocks. Roll-front deposits are f o r m e d b y oxidation-reduc- Glacial deposits Bedrock-derived clasts that
tion reactions caused b y the m o v e m e n t of oxidizing fluids compose the glacial deposits are
t h r o u g h s e d i m e n t a r y rock. U r a n i u m is m o b i l i z e d b y the oxi- usually the principal source of
dizing fluid a n d r e p r e c i p i t a t e d in a r e d u c e d zone along the radioactivity; uranium and
radium bearing iron-oxide and
m a r g i n s of the solution front. The m o s t c o m m o n sources of carbonate coatings on clasts are
u r a n i u m a n d r a d i u m are the heavy m i n e r a l s a n d iron-oxide common
coatings on r o c k a n d soil grains a n d in organic m a t e r i a l s in
soils a n d sediments. Less c o m m o n are p h o s p h a t e a n d car- Granites Heavy minerals; uraninite;
b o n a t e complexes a n d u r a n i u m m i n e r a l s (Table 2). brannerite; apatite
Granitic metamorphic Heavy minerals; ultrametamorphic

rocks minerals, which include
Radiometric Data uraninite and uranothorite
Aerial g a m m a - r a y d a t a can be used to quantify a n d de- Volcanic rocks Heavy minerals; uranosilicates
scribe the radioactivity of rocks a n d soils. Although r a d i o m e t -
ric d a t a c o m p r i s e spectral as well as total-count g a m m a - r a y Faulted rocks Heavy minerals; uraninite;
uranium precipitated with
data, spectral g a m m a , p a r t i c u l a r l y equivalent u r a n i u m (eU) hematite and titanium oxide;
data, are typically used b e c a u s e they provide an e s t i m a t e of minerals found in uranium vein
the near-surface c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of r a d o n p a r e n t m a t e r i a l s deposits
( u r a n i u m , r a d i u m ) in rocks a n d soils. The m a j o r i t y of the
g a m m a - r a y signal is derived from the u p p e r 20 to 25 c m of Vein and vein-like deposits Many kinds of uranium minerals;
heavy minerals; apatite
the surficial m a t e r i a l s [35,36]. A g a m m a - r a y d e t e c t o r is
m o u n t e d in a n aircraft t h a t is flown over a n a r e a at a certain Syenites, carbonatites, and Uraninite; other uranium
altitude, usually 120 to 150 m (400 to 500 ft). Equivalent pegmatites minerals; heavy minerals
u r a n i u m is calculated f r o m the counts received b y the
Bauxite Heavy minerals
g a m m a - r a y d e t e c t o r in the wavelength c o r r e s p o n d i n g to
214Bi. This technique a s s u m e s that u r a n i u m a n d its decay
p r o d u c t s are in secular equilibrium. A c o n t o u r m a p of eU is
t e r m i n o u s United States [37]. NURE aerial r a d i o m e t r i c d a t a
then p r o d u c e d for the area. G r o u n d - b a s e d m e a s u r e m e n t s of
are best used for c h a r a c t e r i z i n g large areas such as a state o r
eU can also be m a d e using a p o r t a b l e g a m m a spectrometer.
geologic province b e c a u s e of the relatively wide spacing be-
The p r i m a r y source for aerial r a d i o m e t r i c d a t a in the
United States is reports of the U.S. D e p a r t m e n t of Energy's tween a d j a c e n t flight lines. The p r i m a r y NURE flight lines are
N a t i o n a l U r a n i u m Resource Evaluation (NURE) p r o g r a m of o r i e n t e d east-west a n d are generally s p a c e d 4.8 k m (3 miles)
the 1970s a n d early 1980s. These d a t a have been integrated a p a r t in the western United States a n d 9.7 k m (6 miles) a p a r t
into a c o n t o u r m a p of equivalent u r a n i u m for the con- in the e a s t e r n United States. W i t h this flight-line spacing, a
large unmeasured area exists between flight lines. This is less y = 1.6865 + 3 . 5 0 0 5 e - 4 x (R-squared = 0.372)
important when data from several flight lines, covering a
large area with relatively uniform geology, are integrated;
however, localized anomalies may be overlooked. For exam-
ple, the uranium anomaly underlying homes that have some E
CL a ~a a ~ ~
of the highest indoor radon levels in the United States, lo- Q.
cated in the Reading Prong near Boye'rtown, Pennsylvania, is
located between flight lines and therefore did not appear in O~ 2
the NURE reports. The entire Reading Prong, however, does []
display an elevated 214Bi signature in the NURE reports. I

Although radon is highly mobile in soil and its concentra-
tion is affected by meteorologic conditions, relatively good 0 I I |
correlations have been noted between average soil-gas radon 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
concentrations, average eU measured at the surface, and in-
Rnin soilgas, pCi/L
door radon values for some soils. Figure 5 is a plot of data
from 278 measurements of equivalent uranium and radon in FIG. 6-Plot of radon in soil gas versus equivalent uranium for
samples from sheared rocks in Montgomery County, Maryland
soil gas in Montgomery County, Maryland. A useful corre-
[38].
lation is not discernible because of the high degree of scatter.
However, when the data are grouped according to geology, as
in Fig. 6, which shows data from only the sheared rocks, a By examining and correlating available geologic, aerial radio-
correlation can be seen. A regional relationship can be deter- metric, soil radon, and indoor radon data, generalized esti-
mined by plotting the median values of eU against median mates of the radon potential of each province can be made.
soil radon values for each rock type (Fig. 7). The point that The aerial radiometric data referred to in this section are
does not neatly fit the line is the one representing data from from the compilation of NURE data into an equivalent ura-
the sheared rocks, which have higher emanation coefficients nium map of the United States [37]. Geologic information
and permeability and yield a much higher soil radon concen- was obtained from the geologic map of the United States
tration than would be predicted by eU. When the undeformed [40,41,42] and indoor radon data summarized from the
rock types, excluding the sheared rocks, are plotted, a high State/EPA national indoor radon survey [43,44]. The follow-
degree of correlation is achieved (Fig. 8). This example illus- ing is a discussion of major geologic features and rock types
trates that, when analyzed in the context of geology, radio- and their known or expected radon potential for each geo-
metric data can be extremely useful for estimating radon logic/physiographic province. In each case, large-scale, well-
potential. known, or highly anomalous features are discussed. This list
is by no means exhaustive; rather, it is intended to give the
reader a general feeling for the geologic features in each area
that are likely to produce elevated indoor radon values, to
R A D O N POTENTIAL IN T H E U N I T E D point out important rock units or other geologic features
STATES where they are known, and to act as a general guide for using
geology to predict radon potential on a regional scale.
Areas of the United States that are geologically similar can
be grouped and delineated on a map (Fig. 9). Each area,
Coastal P l a i n
referred to as a "geologic province," is characterized by a
basic geology and climate that determine its radon potential. The Coastal Plain of the southern and eastern United States
has the lowest radon potential in the continental United
y = 2.3925 + 1.6658e-4x (R-squared = 0.044) States. Some of the lowest average values for aerial ra-
diaoctivity and radon in soil gas have been recorded in this
ol
province. Soil radon, surface radioactivity, uranium and ra-
1.1
dium concentrations, permeability, and soil grain-size distri-
butions have been measured along more than 1600 km of
E [] transects in five states underlain by Coastal Plain sediments
[45,46]. In general, the data suggest that the Inner Coastal
19o[] o_o [] Plain (primarily Cretaceous and lower Tertiary rocks) has
D
higher radon potential than the Outer Coastal Plain (middle
to upper Tertiary and Quaternary rocks and sediments). Grab
samples of radon in soil gas collected at a depth of 1 m
0[] averaged 26 000 to 37 000 Bq/m 3 (700 to 1000 pCi/L). The two
' II 9 i ' i , i highest soil radon measurements were taken in Inner Coastal
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 Plain sediments: 600 000 Bq/m 3 (16 200 pCi/L) was measured
in the glauconitic sands of the Nevasink Formation in New
Rn in soil gas, pCi/L Jersey and 233 100 Bq/m 3 (6300 pCi/L) was measured in the
FIG. 5-Plot of radon in soil gas versus equivalent uranium for carbonaceous shales of the Eagle Ford Group in Texas. In
278 samples collected in Montgomery County, Maryland [38]. general, total uranium concentrations range from 0.5 ppm tO
90 MANUAL ON RADON
E
o_
Q.
3oj
3.2
2.8
y = 1.9939 + 3.8433e-4x (R-squared= 0.526)
Phyll
:::3" 2.6
4 Schis~,,,f []
c~ t / Sheared rocks
~5 2.4
1 /El Gneiss
2.2 "] / - Triassic sedimentary rocks
] [] Mafic rocks
2.0 , . , . , . , . , . , .
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Median soil-gas Rn, pCi/L

FIG. 7-Plot of median values for radon in soil gas and equivalent uranium in Mont-
gomery County, Maryland, grouped by rock type [38].
as much as 4 ppm, with an average of 1.3 ppm. Radium-226 high indoor radon occurrences. The geologic units thought to
concentrations average 26 Bq/kg (0.7 pCi/g), and radium ap- be responsible for these problems include the Miocene Haw-
pears to be in secular equilibrium with uranium. thorn, Alachua, and Bone Valley Formations. Uranium in
Comparisons with indoor radon data from the State/EPA some Tertiary sedimentary rocks in Texas may also be a
Indoor Radon Survey (winter screening measurements from source for elevated indoor radon levels. Heavy mineral depos-
1986 to 1989) and other data sources show good correlations its found throughout the Coastal Plain also have the potential
among soil radon, radionuclide data, and indoor radon data. for creating scattered local radon anomalies and are a poten-
On the whole, they indicate a low radon potential; the geo- tial source of thoron as well.
metric mean for indoor radon concentrations is 44 Bq/m a (1.2
pCi/L) or less in different parts of the outer Coastal Plain.
Areas underlain by Cretaceous chalks, carbonaceous shales, Appalachian Mountains
phosphatic sediments, and glauconitic sandstones of the In- Much of the Appalachian Mountains province of the east-
ner Coastal Plain have an indoor radon average of 85 Bq/m 3 ern United States is underlain by Proterozoic and Paleozoic
(2.3 pCi/L) and have the highest radon potential. metamorphic and igneous rocks. These rocks have low to
Localized concentrations of uranium in marine sands and moderate radon potential with localized areas of high poten-
phosphorites in Florida have produced some moderate to tial. More than a thousand indoor and soil-gas radon mea-
y = 1.6238 + 8.1938e-4x (R-squared= 0.913)

3.2
3.0
E
n 2.8
~ 2.6
t--
~5 2.4
/FI Gneiss
2.2 / '-' Triassic sedimentary rocks
Mafic rocks /
2.0 , , ,
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Median soil-gas Rn, pCi/L
FIG. 8-Same plot as Fig. 7, excluding data point representing sheared rocks. Note
high value of correlation coefficient.
CANADIAN SHI ELD

COLUM
ROCKY
MOUNTAINS UmiI of
GREAT PLAINS GlaclaEion
kND
PLATEAU
FIG. 9-Geologic/physiographic/radon potential provinces of the conterminous United States (based in

part on Refs 39-42).
surements have been averaged for metamorphic and igneous areas. Rinds containing high concentrations of uranium and
rocks in the Appalachian region of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, uranium minerals can be formed on the surfaces of rocks
Maryland, and Virginia, and are plotted in Fig. 10 [38,47,48]. affected by CaC03 dissolution.
Studies thus far have yielded an average soil-gas radon con- In the Appalachians, the highest indoor, soil, and water
centration of 37 000 Bq/m 3 (1000 pCi/L) for rocks of granitic radon values occur in association with faults and fractures in
composition and an average of 22 000 Bq/m 3 (600 pCi/L) for the rock [30,48,51,52]. Fault zones may be responsible for the
rocks of mafic composition. Data from rocks of the Reading majority of very high radon occurrences in the United States.
Prong and the Piedmont are included in the plot (Fig. 10). The
The two highest known indoor occurrences are associated
plot shows that, on the average, the indoor radon concentra-
with sheared fault zones in Boyertown, Pennsylvania [47],
tion is approximately 1% of the soil radon concentration.
Permeability and emanating power are the main factors af-
fecting this relationship. Low permeability and emanation, 1000
such as in the mafic rocks, will cause this ratio to be less than B-Mylonite 9
1%. In the sheared rocks, which have high emanation coeffi- ._1 Hornblende
cients, the ratio is as high as 10%. 100 GG-Mylonite granite
Paleozoic rocks cover an extensive area of the Appala-
t-
chians and consist of sandstones, sihstones, shales, and car- rr 9 MC-Mylonite
QFBa 9
bonate rocks. The carbonate soils, black-shale soils, and Phyllite
black-shale bedrock can generate moderate levels of radon. o
"t3
r
10 9 Schist
Carbonate soils derived from Cambrian and Ordovician rock 0~1 Gneiss
units of the Valley and Ridge Province cause known indoor Mafic
radon problems in eastern Tennessee, eastern West Virginia, I I I " | |
western New Jersey, and eastern Pennsylvania. The carbon- 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
ate rocks themselves are low in uranium and radium. How-
ever, the soils developed on these rocks are derived from the Rn in soil gas, pCi/L
residue that remains after dissolution of the CaCO3 that FIG. 10-Plot of average soil radon against average indoor
makes up the majority of the rock. When the CaCO 3 has been radon concentrations for rock types in the northeastern United
dissolved away, the soils are enriched in the remaining im- States. The data represented by these points are from the
purities, predominantly base metals, including uranium. following areas: Mafic rocksmMontgomery County, MD [38],
Boyertown, PA [47], and Glen Gardner, NJ [48]; Schist, Gneiss,
Groundwater derived from these areas, however, commonly
and Phyllite--Montgomery County, MD [38]; Hornblende gran-
contains radon concentrations of 37 000 Bq/m 3 (1000 pCi/L) ite-Glen Gardner, NJ [47]; QFB (quartz-feldspar-biotite
or less [49,50]. Carbonate rocks also form karst topography, gneiss)--Boyertown, PA [47]; Mylonites: MC~Montgomery
characterized by solution cavities, sinkholes, and caves, County, MD [38], GG--Glen Gardner, NJ [48], BmBoyertown,
which increase the overall permeability of the rocks in these PA [47].
and Clinton, New Jersey [53,54]. The highest radon concen- Rocky Mountains
trations in groundwater appear to be associated most com-
The Rocky Mountains have a radon potential similar to
monly with concentrations of uranium and radium in shear
that of the Appalachian Mountains for many of the same
zones, coating fractures and faults, and coating grain sur-
reasons. The metamorphic and igneous rocks in the Rocky
faces in two-mica granites and high-grade metamorphic
Mountains are generally similar in composition, degree of
rocks [55,56]. Uraniferous granites from Maine to Georgia
deformation, and granitic intrusion to those of the Appala-
produce many of the severe indoor radon problems and the
chians. However, the Rocky Mountains have undergone sev-
most severe waterborne radon problems in the Appalachians.
eral periods of intense and widespread hydrothermal activity
creating vein deposits of uranium that cause localized high
Appalachian Plateau concentrations of indoor radon and radon in water in Colo-
rado and Idaho [62,63,64]. Colluvium and alluvium derived
The Appalachian Plateau province contains areas of low,
from crystalline rocks of the Rocky Mountains cover much of
moderate, and high radon potential. The carbonate soils and the plains east of the Front Range from New Mexico to Can-
shales associated with domes or basins in this part of the ada and cause known moderate indoor radon problems in
United States have moderate to high radon potential. Of spe-
Colorado and Idaho [64,65]. In the Wyoming Basin, the Per-
cific interest are the uranium-bearing Upper Devonian and mian Phosphoria Formation has moderate to high radon po-
Lower Mississippian Chattanooga and New Albany Shales in tential. It covers an area of 350 000 km 2 in southeastern
Kentucky and Tennessee [57], the Devonian and Mississip- Idaho, northeastern Utah, western Wyoming, and southwest-
pian black shales in Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, and Indi- ern Montana and has a uranium content that varies from
ana, and the Ordovician, Mississippian, and Pennsylvanian 0.001 to 0.65% (10 to 6500 ppm). Other rocks with high radon
carbonate rocks and black shales in Alabama, Indiana, Ten-
potential in the Wyoming Basin are the Cretaceous Mancos
nessee, Kentucky, Michigan, Illinois, Missouri, Iowa, and Ar- Shale, which is uraniferous in places, and Tertiary sand-
kansas [58]. Although exposed in a limited area, Precambrian
stones, siltstones, and shales, which contain uranium depos-
granites in southeastern Missouri are among the most highly
its and uranium-bearing coals.
uraniferous igneous rocks in the United States [59]. A large
area of low radon potential is underlain by the Lower and
Middle Pennsylvanian Pottsville Sandstone and equivalent Basin and Range and Colorado Plateau
units, which extend from eastern Ohio through West Vir-
ginia, eastern Kentucky, east-central Tennessee, and north- The Basin and Range and Colorado Plateau provinces,
ern Alabama. located between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada,
include most of the sedimentary-rock hosted uranium re-
serves of the United States. Significant uranium deposits
Great Plains occur in Mesozoic sedimentary rocks of the Colorado Pla-
The Great Plains are also characterized by extensive basins, teau. Localized sandstone-type uranium deposits are hosted
although these are much younger than those in the Appala- by the Upper Triassic Chinle and Upper Jurassic Morrison
chian Plateau province. Marly clays and black shales of the Formations in this area. Mine tailings from such sedimentary
Upper Cretaceous Niobrara and Pierre Formations are ura- deposits caused some of the earliest detected indoor radon
nium bearing and are suspected of causing many of the in- problems [66]. Tertiary volcanic rocks in Nevada and Arizona
door radon problems in South Dakota, Kansas, and eastern are also high in radioactivity. Because this area is sparsely
Colorado [60]. Roll-front uranium deposits in Tertiary sedi- populated, there is a paucity of indoor radon information and
mentary rocks in the Powder River, Shirley, Wind River, and relatively little is known about its actual radon potential.
Red Desert basins, and the Gas Hills, Wyoming, have high
radiometric signatures on the national eU map [37], but the
Sierra Nevada, Pacific Coast Ranges, and Great
extent of indoor radon problems they may cause is not
Valley
known. Members of the White River Group are significant
radon producers in the northern and central Great Plains, The Pacific Coastal Range and Sierra Nevada, included in
whereas the Ogallala and Arikaree Formations are principal the Basin and Range province on Fig. 9, are areas of high
sources for indoor radon in the central and southern part of radioactivity on the eU map of the United States. The Sierra
the province from Colorado to west Texas. Carbonaceous Nevada is underlain by Paleozoic and Mesozoic metamor-
shales and uranium-bearing coals in the Tongue River mem- phic rocks, with the metamorphic rocks dominant in the
ber of the Fort Union Formation [61] and the White River northern part of the range and the granites dominant in the
Group in unglaciated southwestern North Dakota generate southern part. Tertiary volcanic rocks are also found in the
locally very high radon levels. Other Tertiary sedimentary northern part of the range. The granites of the Sierra Nevada
units, including the Green River, Wasatch, and Fort Union Mountains are very high in uranium content and have high
Formations and their equivalents, are also exposed in the radon potential, as does the colluvium formed from the gran-
area from Colorado to eastern Montana, but are of less im- ites on the eastern and western flanks of the mountains. The
portance in terms of radon potential. Also included in this granite and colluvium are associated with high indoor radon
area are the Black Hills of southwestern South Dakota, which in Nevada as well as California.
are underlain by Precambrian granitic and metamorphic The Southern Coast Ranges include the Franciscan Forma-
rocks and Paleozoic sedimentary rocks with moderate radon tion, a complex assemblage of metamorphosed marine sedi-
potential. mentary rocks and ultramafic rocks, Cretaceous and Tertiary
G E O L O G Y AND R A D O N 93
sedimentary rocks, and Mesozoic metamorphic and igneous tured, poorly sorted, and poorly developed, but are generally
rocks. The Tertiary marine sediments and Mesozoic igneous moderately to highly permeable and are rapidly weathered
and metamorphic rocks are uraniferous and have moderate because the action of physical crushing and grinding of the
indoor radon associated with them. The Miocene Rincon rocks to form tills may enhance and speed up soil weathering
Shale may be the source for indoor radon levels exceeding processes [69]. Clayey tills, such as those underlying most of
150 Bq/m 3 (4 pCi/L) in 75% of the homes in Santa Barbara North Dakota and a large part of Minnesota, have high ema-
County [67]. nation coefficients [70] and usually have low to moderate
The Great Valley of California is underlain by alluvium and permeability because they are mixed with coarser sediments.
colluvium derived from both the Coastal Ranges and the Soils formed on tills consisting of mostly coarse material tend
Sierra Nevada. Its radon potential is moderate overall but is to emanate less radon because the larger grains have lower
controlled by source rock and permeability, causing locally surface area-to-volume ratios, but because these soils have
high indoor radon levels. generally high permeabilities, radon transport distances are
generally longer, so buildings constructed in these soils are
able to draw soil air from a larger source volume. Thus,
Columbia Plateau
moderately elevated indoor radon concentrations may be
The Columbia Plateau is underlain predominantly by Terti- achieved from comparatively lower radioactivity soils
ary volcanic rocks extruded over an older basement complex [71, 72].
of igneous and metamorphic rocks. Tertiary marine deposits Glacial drift derived largely from the Pierre Shale in North
occur along the western coasts of Washington and Oregon. A Dakota and from crystalline rocks of the Canadian Shield in
comprehensive radon potential assessment of the area has Minnesota generate elevated indoor radon levels in a large
been made by Duval et al. [68]. They found that on a township number of homes. Glaciolacustrine silty clays deposited by
scale, radiometric data and indoor radon data corresponded glacial Lake Agassiz, in the present-day Red River Valley
very well and indicated an overall low to moderate radon along the Minnesota-North Dakota State line, display a prom-
potential. Tertiary marine deposits, local areas of highly per- inent, moderate aerial radioactivity anomaly and have pro-
meable, dry soils and permeable soils formed on steep slopes, duced a significant number of elevated indoor radon levels.
yielded high indoor radon values in areas that were not indi- Precambrian granites and metamorphic rocks of the Cana-
cated as such by the aerial radiometric data. The Willamette dian Shield, which underlie much of northern Minnesota,
River Valley also has moderate radon potential overall. Much northern Wisconsin, and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan,
of the area has moderately elevated uranium concentrations may produce elevated radon levels where these rocks are
in soils, and many areas have excessively drained soils and exposed at the surface or are covered by a thin veneer of
soils with high emanating power. Many townships in the val- glacial drift in the area delineated on Fig. 9. However, these
ley have indoor radon averages between 75 and 150 Bq/m 3 (2 rocks also provide a bedrock source for glacial drift that has
to 4 pCi/L). Precambrian granites and metamorphic rocks been transported to the south and east of this area as well,
exposed in the northern part of Washington are uranium and may cause problems in areas where they are a major
bearing (as much as 17 ppm) and host mineable uranium source component in the tills [73, 74]. Other rock types with
deposits [8]. The generally elevated uranium content and ra- moderate radon potential are poorly sorted glacial tills and
dioactivity signature of these rocks suggest that this area may moraine deposits derived from uranium-bearing granites and
have a moderate to high potential for elevated indoor radon metamorphic rocks in New England, southern New York,
values. Connecticut, and New Jersey.
South of the glacial limit, loess deposits also cover exten-
sive areas of the Great Plains and Appalachian Plateau. Soil-
Canadian Shield, Glaciated Areas
gas radon and uranium concentrations of loess in Tennessee
The northern part of the United States is underlain by indicate the possibility for moderate radon potential over
Pleistocene glacial deposits. The southernmost extent of con- these deposits [46].
tinental glaciation is delineated by a dotted line on Fig. 9.
Glaciated areas present special problems for assessment be-
cause bedrock material is often transported hundreds of ki- CONCLUSIONS
lometers from its source. Glaciers are quite effective in redis-
tributing uranium-rich rocks; for example, in Ohio, uranium- Indoor radon has several possible sources: outdoor air,
bearing black shales have been spread over much of the west- natural gas, building materials, domestic water derived from
ern part of the State, now covering a much larger area than wells or springs, and rock and soil. Of these sources, the air
their original outcrop pattern, and they create a prominent contained in the pores of soil and rock is the most common
radiometric high on the radioactivity map of the United source of indoor radon at levels high enough to be of concern.
States. The physical, chemical, and drainage characteristics The geology of a locality determines the concentrations of the
of soils formed from glacial deposits vary according to source uranium-series radionuclides in the rock and soil and the
bedrock type and the glacial features on which they are ease with which radon and radon-bearing fluids can move
formed. For example, soils formed from outwash or ground through them. Rock types that are most likely to cause indoor
moraine deposits tend to be more poorly drained and contain radon problems include black shales, glauconite-bearing
more fine-grained material than soils formed on moraines or sandstones, some fluvial sandstones, phosphorites, chalk,
eskers, which are generally coarser and well drained. In gen- some carbonate rocks, some glacial deposits, bauxite, lignite,
eral, soils developed from glacial deposits are poorly struc- some coals, uranium-bearing granites and pegmatites, meta-
94 MANUAL ON RADON
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short-term mobility of r a d o n in the ground. The i n d o o r r a d o n
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Explanatory Text to Accompany the Geologic Map of the United nuclide Anomalies: Proceedings of the GEORAD Conference, M.
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tection Agency Report EPA/600/9-91/026c, pp. 6-1 to 6-12. M. D., "Radionuclides in Pennsylvania Black Shales of the Mid-
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[59] Kisvarsanyi, E. B., "Radioactive HHP (High Heat Production) [67] Carlisle, D. and Azzouz, H., "Geological Parameters in Radon
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of the GEORAD Conference, M. A. Marikos and R. H. Hansman, Radon Reduction Technology, 2-5 April 1991, Philadelphia, PA,
Eds., Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Special Publi- Vol. 5, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Report EPA/
cation 4, 1988, pp. 5-15. 600/9-91/037B, 1991, pp. 9-59 to 9-73.
[60] Tourtelot, H. A., "Radioactivity and Uranium Content of Some [68] Duval, J. S., Otton, J. K., and Jones, W. J., "Estimation of Radon
Cretaceous Shales, Central Great Plains," American Association Potential in the Pacific Northwest Using Geological Data," U.S.
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[61] Bergstrom, J. R., "The General Geology of Uranium in South- port DOE/BP-1234, 1989.
western North Dakota," North Dakota Geological Survey, Re- [69] Jenny, H., "The Clay Content of the Soil As Related to Climatic
port of Investigations No. 23, 1956. Factors, Particularly Temperature," Soil Science, Vol. 40, No. 2,
[62] Schumann, R. R., Gundersen, L. C. S., Asher-Bolinder, S., and 1935, pp. 111-128.
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near Conifer, Colorado," Geological Society of America, Abstracts Spectrometry to Radon in Homes," EOS, Vol. 70, No. 15, April
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1989, p. 496.
[63] Lawrence, E. P., Wanty, R. B., and Briggs, P. H., "Hydrologic
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and Geochemical Processes Governing Distribution of U-238
"Correlations of Soil-Gas and Indoor Radon With Geology in
Series Radionuclides in Ground Water Near Conifer, CO,"
Glacially Derived Soils of the Northern Great Plains," Pro-
Geological Society of America, Abstracts with Programs, Vol. 21,
No. 6, 1989, p. A144.
ceedings, 1990 EPA International Symposium on Radon and
[64] Ogden, A. E., Welling, W. B., Funderburg, D., and Boschult, L. Radon Reduction Terminology, 19-23 Feb. 1990, Atlanta, GA,
C., "A Preliminary Assessment of Factors Affecting Radon Levels Vol. 3, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Report
in Idaho," Radon in Ground Water, B. Graves, Ed., Lewis Pub- EPA/600/9-91/026c, 1991, pp. 6-23 to 6-36.
lishers, Chelsea, MI, 1987, pp. 83-96. [72] Kunz, C., Laymon, C. A., and Parker, C., "Gravelly Soils and
[65] Otton, J. K., Schumann, R. R., Owen, D. E., and Chleborad, A. F., Indoor Radon," Proceedings of the 1988 Symposium on Radon
"Geologic Assessments of Radon Hazards: A Colorado Case His- and Radon Reduction Technology, Vol. 1, oral presentations, U.S.
tory," Geologic Causes of Natural Radionuclide Anomalies: Pro- Environmental Protection Agency publication EPA/600/9-89/
ceedings of the GEORAD Conference, M. A. Marikos and R. H. 006A, 1989, pp. 5-75 to 5-86.
Hansman, Eds., Missouri Department of Natural Resources, [73] Steck, D. J., "Geological Variation of Radon Sources and Indoor
Special Publication 4, 1988, p. 167. Radon Along the Southwestern Edge of the Canadian Shield,"
[66] Spitz, H. B., Wrenn, M. E., and Cohen, N., "Diurnal Variation of Geologic Causes of Natural Radionuclide Anomalies: Proceedings
Radon Measured Indoors and Outdoors in Grand Junction, Col- of the GEORAD Conference, M. A. Marikos and R. H. Hansmann,
orado, and Teaneck, New Jersey, and the Influence That Ventila- Eds., Missouri Department of Natural Resources, Special Publi-
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ation Environment III, T. F. Gesell and W. M. Lowder, [74] Grace, J. D., "Radon Anomalies in Southern Michigan,"
Eds., Springfield, VA, U.S. Department of Energy Report Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, Vol. 21,
CONF-780422, Vol. 2, 1980, pp. 1308-1329. No. 6, 1989, p. A144.
MNL15-EB/Jun. 1994
Concentration Patterns
by Michael D. Koontz 1
DURING THE 1970S AND EARLY 1980S, r a d o n m e a s u r e m e n t s b u t are i n a p p r o p r i a t e for assessing health risks. As discussed
collected in U.S. residences resulted m a i n l y from isolated below, the d a t a are b a s e d on results of s h o r t - t e r m screening
r e s e a r c h efforts involving a variety of m e a s u r e m e n t tech- m e a s u r e m e n t s , w h i c h tend to overstate long-term exposures
niques a n d relatively small n u m b e r s of homes. As d e s c r i b e d a n d associated risks that w o u l d occur u n d e r n o r m a l living
by Nero et al. [1], most of these d a t a sets were collected either conditions.
(1) as a basis for e s t i m a t i n g the potential effects of r e d u c e d To provide a c o m m o n basis for c o m p a r i s o n , the m e a s u r e -
air infiltration due to energy conservation m e a s u r e s or (2) to m e n t results p r e s e n t e d in this c h a p t e r are restricted to those
b e t t e r characterize certain g e o g r a p h i c areas t h o u g h t to have resulting from statewide surveys w h i c h used activated-car-
a high likelihood of elevated i n d o o r r a d o n concentrations. b o n m o n i t o r s (charcoal canisters) for s h o r t - t e r m screening
After carefully a s s i m i l a t i n g a n d analyzing these collective m e a s u r e m e n t s lasting several days. Because such m e a s u r e -
d a t a sets, the a u t h o r s projected that a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7% of m e n t s typically have been taken during the w i n t e r in the
U.S. residences h a d average i n d o o r r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s at lowest level of a residence u n d e r closed-house conditions, the
o r above 148 Bq/m 3 (4 pCi/L), the level at w h i c h the U.S. results will overstate the fraction of h o m e s with an a n n u a l
E n v i r o n m e n t a l Protection Agency (EPA) has r e c o m m e n d e d r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n above a given level of c o n c e r n (e.g., 148
that citizens take action to reduce their exposures [2]. More Bq/m3). Statewide surveys that have been c o n d u c t e d in New
recently, a n a t i o n w i d e survey of a n n u a l average r a d o n con- York [6] a n d California [9] with longer-term integrating sam-
c e n t r a t i o n s by the EPA [3] has i n d i c a t e d that a b o u t 6% of plers are not included because the results w o u l d a p p e a r artifi-
U.S. residences w o u l d be expected to have average i n d o o r cially low relative to the screening results from o t h e r states.
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s at o r above 148 Bq/m 3. The results included in this c h a p t e r also are restricted to
Attention increasingly focused on i n d o o r r a d o n during the those surveys b a s e d on r a n d o m l y selected sets of residences.
mid-1980s, p a r t i c u l a r l y with the discovery in late 1984 of a Most such s a m p l e s have been d r a w n from p u b l i s h e d o r com-
h o u s e on the Reading Prong geological f o r m a t i o n in south- p u t e r i z e d lists of residential telephone n u m b e r s . As illus-
eastern Pennsylvania with an i n d o o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n exceed- trated by Ronca-Battista et al. [7], surveys involving volun-
ing 37 kBq/m 3 (1000 pCi/L). S o o n thereafter, states such as teers or test kits p u r c h a s e d by individual h o m e o w n e r s tend to
F l o r i d a [4], New Jersey [5], a n d New York [6] initiated state- have positively biased results, m o s t likely b e c a u s e the partici-
wide r a d o n m e a s u r e m e n t surveys. At a b o u t the s a m e time, p a n t s d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y r e p r e s e n t areas k n o w n o r t h o u g h t
the EPA b e g a n to offer assistance to states in the design a n d to be at higher risk. F o r this reason, relatively c o m p r e h e n s i v e
c o n d u c t of statewide surveys [7]. T h r o u g h this effort, ten d a t a bases that have not resulted from r a n d o m samples, such
states were surveyed d u r i n g the 1986-1987 w i n t e r season, as those r e p o r t e d by Alter a n d Oswald [10] a n d by Cohen a n d
seven states d u r i n g 1987-1988, eight states d u r i n g 1988- N a s o n [11], are excluded from this analysis, as are d a t a sets
1989, nine states during 1989-1990, a n d six states d u r i n g from regions such as the Pacific N o r t h w e s t [12].
1990-1991 [8].
The focus of this c h a p t e r is on the r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n
p a t t e r n s a n d related factors that can be d e d u c e d from the
systematic statewide studies c o n d u c t e d as of 1991. Following NATIONAL A N D R E G I O N A L P E R S P E C T I V E S
an initial s u m m a r y of m e a s u r e m e n t results from n a t i o n a l
a n d regional perspectives, results at state a n d sub-state levels Figure 1 indicates the states from w h i c h m e a s u r e m e n t
are presented. The c h a p t e r concludes with a p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d results have been a s s e m b l e d to provide the s u m m a r y statis-
discussion of illustrative efforts to correlate r a d o n concentra- tics given in this chapter, together with the n u m b e r of mea-
tion p a t t e r n s with o t h e r factors such as structural features of s u r e m e n t s taken in each. Of the 40 states assisted by the EPA
residences, r a d i o m e t r i c results from aerial surveys, geologic in c o n d u c t i n g m e a s u r e m e n t surveys as of 1991, results are
profiles, a n d soil m e a s u r e m e n t s or characteristics. The d a t a i n c l u d e d for all b u t two, Colorado a n d Connecticut, in w h i c h
r e p o r t e d in this c h a p t e r are useful for e x a m i n i n g r a d o n con- the surveyed h o u s i n g units were not r a n d o m l y selected. Re-
c e n t r a t i o n p a t t e r n s from various g e o g r a p h i c perspectives, sults from three a d d i t i o n a l s t a t e s - - F l o r i d a [4], New Jersey
[5], a n d New H a m p s h i r e [ 1 3 ] - - t h a t initiated their own r a d o n
1Senior research scientist and manager, Indoor Air and Exposure s a m p l i n g p r o g r a m s w i t h o u t EPA assistance are also in-
Program, GEOMET Technologies, Inc., 20251 Century Blvd., Ger- cluded. The 41 states r e p r e s e n t e d by the results p r e s e n t e d
mantown, MD 20874. herein collectively a c c o u n t for a b o u t 85% of the owner-occu-
97
MONTANA
OREGON
SOUTH DAKOTA
NEW YORK
UTAH
il----
-DE
--MD 1126
COLORADO
HAWAII
523
FIG. 1 - S t a t e s conducting radon surveys with activated-carbon monitors in randomly selected residences and number of
residences s u r v e y e d in each.
Probability* of Exceeding the U.S. EPA Action Level
0.8
m
i
E
O"
m
CO 0.6
~r
N
0.4
,,Q
P
a.
<-- Action Level ( 1 4 8 Bq m-~)
0.2
0 5 I I
O 50 100 150 200 250 300
AnnualAverageConcentration, Bq m "3
-- 3-day Test ..... 1-year Test
* Assuming a normal distribution and a coefficient of variation

(I.e., ratio of the standard deviaUon to the annual average)
of 3 8 % for 3-day tests and 2 5 % for 1-year tests.
FIG. 2 - L i k e l i h o o d that short-term or long-term radon test results will e x c e e d the
U.S. E P A action level in relation to the annual average concentration.
CONCENTRATION PATTERNS 99
TABLE l--Summary statistics for radon concentrations measured tration, 107 Bq/m 3 (2.9 pCi/L), is fairly close to the action level
throughout the United States using activated-carbon monitors. recommended by the EPA, and nearly 20% of U.S. residences
Number of states surveyed 41 are projected to have indoor concentrations at or above 148
Number of residences sampled 64 881 Bq/m 3.
Number of owner-occupied housing units 44 549 300 The projection of 20% of housing units at or above the EPA
represented a
Average radon concentration, Bq/m3 107.3 (2.9) action level, based on statewide survey results, is substan-
(pCi/L) tially greater than the 7% projected earlier by Nero et al. [1] or
Percent of residences with concentrations 17.8 the 6% estimated by the EPA [3]. Most of the difference is
between 148 and 739.9 Bq/m3 (4 and likely due to exclusive reliance on short-term screening mea-
19.9 pCi/L)
Percent of residences with concentrations 1.4 surements for the statewide surveys; as noted earlier, such
of 740 Bq/m3 (20 pCi/L) or higher measurements (typically collected in winter weather under
closed-house conditions) will tend to produce higher results
~Source: U.S. Department of Commerce [14].
than year-long measurements collected under normal living
conditions. Even if the screening measurements were evenly
distributed throughout the year, they would still tend to yield
pied housing units in this country, based on data from the a higher fraction of results above the action level than would
1980 Census of Population and Housing [14]. year-long measurements because (1) screening measure-
Table 1 provides summary statistics for the United States ments have greater variability than long-term measurements
projected from the 41 statewide surveys. These summary sta- [15] and (2) the true annual average for the majority of U.S.
tistics were developed by weighing each state's results in pro- residences is below the action level. As shown in Fig. 2, for
portion to the number of owner-occupied housing units as of residences with a true annual-average concentration below
1980. To date, measurements have been conducted in more the action level, the likelihood of a measurement result ex-
than 60 000 residences, representing about 0.1% of all owner- ceeding the action level is greater for short-term (e.g., three-
occupied housing units in the 41 states. The average concen- day) measurements.
Given a national average approaching 148 Bq/m 3, it might
have been expected that considerably more than 20% of U.S.
residences would have radon levels above this level. However,
AVERAGE CONCENTRATION
260 as demonstrated by Nero et al. [1 ] and by Ronca-Battista et al.
240 [7], the distribution of measured radon concentrations typi-
220 - cally can be approximated fairly well by a lognormal curve. In
200 -
i such cases, the geometric mean, which will be lower than the
? 180 - arithmetic mean for a lognormal distribution, is a better indi-
E 160 - :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: cator of the central tendency of the distribution because the
140 - arithmetic mean can be excessively influenced by results
Z
0
t~
120 - iii:iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii::i::iiiii:iii:i:ii toward the upper tail. The arithmetic mean has been used
<
ar 100 here, however, because it was commonly reported for all
80 statewide surveys completed to date.
60 Measurement results are summarized by U.S. Census Bu-
40-
20
0 i
West
i
North Central
CENSUS REGION
.....
Northeast
i
li!!ii !!ii i i i!
South
reau-defined regions of the country in Fig. 3 in terms of the
average radon concentration and the percentage of results at
or above 148 Bq/m 3 (the states associated with each census
region are indicated in Fig. 4). Most notable are the consider-
ably lower values for the southern and western regions of the
country. As noted in the previous chapter, the Coastal Plain
CONCENTRATIONS A T OR A B O V E 1 4 8 Bq n l 3 ( 4 p C l i~ I)
40 comprising southern and eastern states has the lowest radon
potential in the continental United States, and the measure-
35
ment results reflect this lower potential. The north-central
and northeast regions have values above the national average.
30 !i!i!ili!i!!!i!ii!iiiiii!!i!i!it According to data collected in the Residential Energy Con-
i!iii!i!i!i!i!iiiii~i!i!i~i!iiiiii~i!il
25 i:!::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::1
~!:;i!~!~i:~i:~i~i~i~i~i~i~i:!:i~i:i~i:!:!z!:~!l i!iiiiiii!i!i!!i!ii:i:iii!i:i!i!i!il sumption Survey [16] by the U.S. Department of Energy, the
percentage of homes with basements is much lower in the
2o
15
iiiii!i~ii!ii!ili!iliiiii~iiiiii!i~i!i!ililiiii
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
~
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiit
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
south (12.7%) and west (12.2%) regions than in the northeast
(44.2%) and midwest (42.4%) regions.
.ii.i.:i.i.i:.i.i.!i.li.i.i.!i.i.i~
. .i.i.i.i.!i.!i.!i.!.il~. . . . . . . . . . iiiiiii~iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii~iiiiiii!i~ii~ii;~i~iiii~iiiiilililiiiiiiil
...............
lO i~i~i~i~ili~i~ili!ii!ii~ii~i~i~i~i~i~i~i~i:iiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iii!iiiiiii!iii!iii~iiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii)iiiiiil
i~iiiii~i~i~il
STATE AND SUB-STATE PERSPECTIVES
5 iiiili!iiiiiiii!iliiiiiiiiiii!;:i!i!i:i:iiiiii!i~iii~i:i~i~ili!ii!iiii
..........................
................. i!
o ililil;ii~--i{i~i~i i:i:;:i:iii[!i:i::i:;:-:::::i:i:i:i:i:i i[ii~ii'i[iiii!i~iiiii{iili!il[il[iii[ilj i
Summary radon statistics for each state, grouped by re-
West North Central Northeast South gion, are given in Table 2. Two of the three states with the
FIG. 3 - S u m m a ~ radon statistics by geographic region highest averages--Iowa with 326 Bq/m 3 (8.8 pCi/L) and
based on measurements with activated-carbon monitors. North Dakota with 259 Bq/m 3 (7.0 pCi/L)--are in the north-
100 MANUAL ON RADON
WEST NORTH CENTRAL

NORTHEAST
OREGON ~ MONTANA ~IOR'rHDAKOT~ M I N N E S O ~
/ 0A /-----/ / N.RASKA\ 'OWA ? / R'
A KANSAS DE
HAWAII
FIG. 4-States associated with four census regions of the United States.
central region; the o t h e r - - P e n n s y l v a n i a with 285 Bq/m 3 (7.7 region (Maine a n d New H a m p s h i r e ) . Categorization of the
p C i / L ) - - i s in the n o r t h e a s t region. F o r b o t h I o w a a n d N o r t h percentage of residences with results ---148 Bq/m 3 in each
Dakota, m o r e t h a n 50% of the h o m e s m e a s u r e d to d a t e have state (Fig. 6) indicates a s i m i l a r trend, but with greater spatial
results of 148 Bq/m 3 (4 pCi/L) or higher, a n d 40% of the extent for the two highest categories. The states with the
Pennsylvania h o m e s have levels of this magnitude. F o u r addi- lowest fractions of residences having elevated c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
tional s t a t e s - - M i n n e s o t a , Nebraska, New H a m p s h i r e , a n d tend to lie along the western, southern, a n d s o u t h e a s t e r n
New J e r s e y - - h a v e average c o n c e n t r a t i o n s close to 185 Bq/m 3 coasts.
(5 pCi/L). The statewide averages vary by a factor of three to Within-state variations in r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s can be
six within each r e g i o n - - f r o m 33 to 133 Bq/m 3 in the west m o r e striking t h a n those across states. An i n d i c a t o r of rela-
(discounting the very low value for Hawaii), from 78 to 326 tive variability is the coefficient of variation (CV), or ratio of
Bq/m 3 in the north-central, from 93 to 285 Bq/m 3 in the the s t a n d a r d deviation to the mean. Based on statewide
northeast, a n d from 19 to 115 Bq/m 3 in the south. Even means, the CV across the 41 states with results given in this
t h o u g h the south a n d west regions have the lowest overall c h a p t e r was calculated to be n e a r 0.6. F o r c o m p a r a t i v e pur-
averages, average values for several states in each of these poses, CVs were calculated w i t h i n three states (Pennsylvania,
regions exceed the lowest statewide average f o u n d in each of New Jersey, a n d Florida) b a s e d on county m e a n s p r o v i d e d
the o t h e r two regions. in reports from their respective m e a s u r e m e n t p r o g r a m s
The spatial p a t t e r n of average results across states is shown [17,18,19]. The calculated CVs were n e a r 0.8 for Pennsylvania
m o r e directly in Fig. 5, b a s e d on a classification of average a n d New Jersey a n d close to 1.0 for Florida.
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s into four intervals: u n d e r 74 Bq/m 3, 74 to Spatial p a t t e r n s within states typically reveal a relatively
147.9 Bq/m 3, 148 to 221.9 Bq/m 3, a n d 222 Bq/m 3 or higher. s m o o t h transition from areas with high r a d o n potential to
"Pockets" of one o r m o r e states with a relatively high average those with m e d i u m a n d low potential, as illustrated for New
(i.e., ->148 Bq/m 3) can be seen in three areas: (1) n o r t h e r n Jersey in Fig. 7 a n d for F l o r i d a in Fig. 8 (criteria for defining
states in the n o r t h - c e n t r a l region (North Dakota, Minnesota, r a d o n potential were different for the two states). It also
Nebraska, a n d Iowa), (2) the s o u t h e r n p a r t of the n o r t h e a s t should be n o t e d that a relatively low statewide average does
region a n d e a s t e r n p a r t of the north-central region, centering not guarantee that the state will have no r a d o n p r o b l e m s . F o r
on Pennsylvania a n d including two a d j a c e n t states (Ohio a n d example, a m o n g states with relatively low average concentra-
New Jersey), a n d (3) the n o r t h e r n m o s t p a r t of the n o r t h e a s t tions, F l o r i d a h a d several counties with m o r e t h a n 20% of
T A B L E 2 - - S u m m a r y radon statistics by state within each U.S. region based on

measurements with activated-carbon monitors.
Percentage of Measurement
Number of Average Results
Owner-occupied Radon
Housing Units Concentration, 148 to 739.9 Bq/m3 -->740Bq/m3
Region and State (1000s) Bq/m3 (pCi/L) (4 to 19.9 pCi/L) (20 pCi/L)
West Region
Alaska 76.7 62.9 (1.7) 7.1 0.6
Arizona 653.8 59.2 (1.6) 6.4 0.1
California 4825.4 33.3 (0.9) 2.3 0.1
Hawaii 151.9 3.7 (0.1) 0.4 0.0
Idaho 233.4 129.5 (3.5) 17.5 1.8
Nevada 181.3 74.0 (2.0) 9.4 0.8
New Mexico 300.6 118.4 (3.2) 21.0 0.8
Washington 1011.3 62.9 (1.7) 7.5 1.3
Wyoming 114.7 133.2 (3.6) 24.4 1.8
North-Central Region
Illinois 2534.8 107.3 (2.9) 18.4 0.8
Indiana 1381.9 136.9 (3.7) 27.0 1.5
Iowa 756.5 325.6 (8.8) 63.5 7.5
Kansas 612.4 114.7 (3.1) 21.8 0.7
Michigan 2322.0 77.7 (2.1) 11.3 0.4
Minnesota 1035.7 177.6 (4.8) 44.0 1.4
Missouri 1248.8 96.2 (2.6) 16.3 0.7
Nebraska 390.0 203.5 (5.5) 51.6 1.9
North Dakota 156.5 259.0 (7.0) 56.4 4.3
Ohio 2623.0 159.1 (4.3) 26.2 2.8
Wisconsin 1127.4 125.8 (3.4) 25.8 0.8
Northeast Region
Maine 280.4 151.7 (4.1) 28.0 1.9
Massachusetts 1169.8 125.8 (3.4) 21.4 1.3
New Hampshire 218.8 177.6 (4.8) 23.7 0.7
New Jersey 1580.1 192.4 (5.2) 27.9 4.6
Pennsylvania 2950.7 284.9 (7.7) 32.6 7.9
Rhode Island 199.1 118.4 (3.2) 18.7 1.9
Vermont 122.6 92.5 (2.5) 15.0 0.9
South Region
Alabama 941.2 66.6 (1.8) 6.1 0.3
Arkansas 575.5 44.4 (1.2) 4.7 0.3
Florida 2557.2 25.9 (0.7) 2.6 0.1
Georgia 1216.4 66.6 (1.8) 7.5 0.0
Kentucky 884.7 99.9 (2.7) 15.6 1.5
Louisiana 925.2 18.5 (0.5) 0.8 0.0
Maryland 905.7 114.7 (3.1) I7.5 1.4
Mississippi 587.7 33.3 (0.9) 2.1 0.1
North Carolina 1397.4 51.8 (1.4) 6.4 0.3
Oklahoma 790.6 40.7 (1.1) 3.3 0.0
South Carolina 722.6 40.7 (1.1) 3.4 0.3
Tennessee 1110.1 99.9 (2.7) 14.5 1.3
Texas 3169.6 62.9 (1.7) 3.4 0.3
West Virginia 504.9 96.2 (2.6) 14.9 0.8
102 MANUAL ON RADON
I--1 No data available

< 7 4 Bq nl a (< 2.0 pCl I-~)
7 4 - 1 4 7 . 9 Bq r~a (2.0 - 3.9 pCl I~ ~)
1 4 8 - 2 2 1 . 9 Bq n~a (4.0 - 5.9 pCl I~ 1)
> 2 2 2 Bq m-a(> 6.0 pCl L-1)
: WASHINGTON: :
MONTANA
OREGON
iiiiil
iiii!iiiiiliiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii!iii SOUTH D A K O T A
iiiiii!iiiiiiii!!iiiii!iiiiiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiii!iiiiiil
i N E W YORK
R!
UTAH -DE
COLORADO
:itiE!XAk i i i i i i ! i : i : i : .~:~.~.
~
p~>/
HAWAII
FIG. 5-Spatial pattern of radon survey results with states categorized according to average concentration, based on mea-
surements with activated-carbon monitors.
I I No data available
<10%
10 - 19 %
f:~~
i :~~
i :~~
i :~t 20 - 2 9 %
i~iiiiii!iiii!i _>30%
MONTANA
OREGON
SOUTH
DAKOTA NEW YORK
UTAH
COLORADO
........ :J
:OKt.~AHOMA. :
~ilii .~-~.~-i.~.ii -i~.~.~i:~.~

. ~.i9":'~'i':
%
pf
HAWAii
FIG. 6-Spatial pattern of radon survey results with states categorized according to percent of residences >-148 Bq/m 3 (4 pCi/
L), based on measurements with activated-carbon monitors.
104 MANUAL ON RADON
allow significant dilution of radon prior to entry into the

house. The more detailed breakdown of results for New Jer-
sey in Table 3 indicates that homes with combined
crawlspaces and basements have concentrations similar to
those in homes with full basements, whereas the levels in
homes with crawlspaces only are lower than for slab-on-
grade residences.
When the New Jersey study was designed, it was assumed
[18] that the distribution of radon concentrations across the
state would tend to have a spatial pattern dependent on un-
derlying geology (Fig. 7). Consequently, the state was divided
into six geologic provinces to help organize the sampling and
analysis efforts. As illustrated in Fig. 9, the results were con-
sistent with expectations; the highest levels were found in
Low RadonPotential valley/ridge and highlands provinces, where geology was ex-
pected to favor radon production, and the lowest levels gener-
Medium RadonPotenti= ally were found in the coastal plain areas. There were, how-
ever, homes above 148 Bq/m 3 in all provinces, but more than
50% of sampled residences were above 148 Bq/m 3 in the
~] HighRadonPotential
valley/ridge and highlands provinces. Results of prior aerial
9 RadonScreeningLevel radiometric surveys that were flown under the National Ura-
20 pCVt
over
nium Resource Evaluation (NURE) survey also provided in-
dications of geographic locations at higher risk. As shown in
Fig. 10, the spatial patterns of gamma anomalies greater than
three standard deviations above the mean (2.4 ppm-equiva-
lent uranium) bore a striking resemblance to the relative
density of indoor concentrations ->740 Bq/m 3 (20 pCi/L).
In Florida, there were also expectations of elevated radon
risk for certain areas based on geological profiles. Geological
occurrences known as the Bone Valley and Hawthorn forma-
tions have greater uranium content and phosphatic soils ex-
pected to favor radon production. As illustrated in Fig. 11,
counties with definite evidence of elevated radon potential (as
determined from several types of measurements) tend to
cluster near these geological occurrences.
A more quantitative approach also was taken for Florida
FIG. 7-Spatial pattern of radon potential in New Jersey (after
[19] in analyzing the relationship between indoor radon con-
Ref 18).
centrations and indications of radon potential based on fac-
tors such as soil radon levels, terrestrial uranium levels deter-
surveyed residences measured at 148 Bq/m 3 or higher [19], mined from the NURE survey, and other information such as
and Alaska had a residence with a measurement result close geological profiles that existed at the outset of the study.
to 7400 Bq/m 3 (200 pCi/L). Indices of radon potential ranging from one (lowest) to five
(highest) were developed for each county for indoor radon,
soil radon, terrestrial uranium, and other information. A
F A C T O R S R E L A T E D TO I N D O O R R A D O N
nonparametric statistical test appropriate for data scaled in
CONCENTRATIONS
this fashion was used to assess the extent of association
among these indices. Indoor radon measurements were sig-
Various factors have been investigated as potential predic-
nificantly associated with all other indicators; the strongest
tors of indoor radon, including type of foundation, geologic
association was with soil radon (Kendall's tau [20] of 0.66),
and soil characteristics, aerial radiometric surveys, and
followed by terrestrial uranium (0.50) and other existing
radon levels in nearby soil. Table 3 provides a breakdown of information (0.36).
radon concentrations within two states according to type of The relationship between indoor radon concentrations and
foundation. In both cases, concentrations are highest in other indicators also was explored at Florida sub-county
homes with basements, which provide greater contact with levels, using quadrangles of a 1 : 24 000 scale defined by the
surrounding soil and, therefore, greater opportunities for U.S. Geological Survey. An example of one of the higher-risk
radon entry than homes with slab-on-grade foundations. counties (Alachua) with striking similarities in spatial pat-
Homes with crawlspaces require careful definition and inter- terns for all indicators is given in Fig. 12 (shading indicates
pretation. If the crawlspace is below ground (often combined quadrangles at higher risk and an asterisk indicates a fraction
with a basement), there again will be greater opportunity for that is significantly different from zero). The indoor radon,
radon entry; however, if the crawlspace is above ground, as in soil radon, and terrestrial uranium results all show a pattern
the case of most mobile homes, this type of substructure can of elevated risk that runs diagonally through the county,
ESCAMBIA WASHINGTON
JEFFERSON SUWANNEE
BRADFORD
JOHNS
CALHOUN
LAFAYETTE
QI..CHRIaT
SEMNOLE
D Definite Evidence
I~AN RIVER
Limited Evidence KEECHOBEE

ST, LUCIE
SARASOTA~,-,~
~. , ":,: :'1 PALM BEACH
BROWARD
MILES
I t I I I J
0 50 100 150 200 MONROE--
FIG. 8 - S p a t i a l pattern of radon potential in Florida (after Ref 19).

106 MANUAL ON RADON
TABLE 3mRadon concentrations by type of foundation for two

states (after Refs 5 and 13).
Valley and Ridge Average Concentration for State
Bq/m3 (pCi/L)
Type of Foundation New Jersey New Hampshire
Full basement 210.9 (5.7) 188.7 (5.1)
Highlands Northern Piedmont Crawlspace and basement 203.5 (5.5)
(e.s pc~) Crawlspace only 59.2 (1.6) 136.9 (3.7)
Slab-on-grade 103.6 (2.8) 170.2 (4.6)
Other 74.0 (2.0) 144.3 (3.9)
Southern Piedmont
(4.9 pCi/I) t h a n those across states. I n f o r m a t i o n such as soil r a d o n mea-
surements, aerial r a d i o m e t r i c surveys, a n d geologic profiles
can provide indications of relatively small g e o g r a p h i c areas
with elevated r a d o n potential, b u t there is no m e t h o d s h o r t of
i n d o o r m e a s u r e m e n t s for d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r an individual
structure has a r a d o n p r o b l e m . During the p e r i o d from 1986
to 1991, 41 of the 50 states in the United States c o n d u c t e d
r a d o n surveys involving o w n e r - o c c u p i e d h o u s i n g units that
were selected at r a n d o m from largely u n b i a s e d s a m p l i n g
frames. These statewide surveys have utilized s h o r t - t e r m ,
OuterCoastalPlain screening m e a s u r e m e n t s that typically were taken d u r i n g the
(1.4pc~)
w i n t e r in the lowest level of a residence u n d e r closed-house
conditions. These conditions tend to overestimate r a d o n con-
c e n t r a t i o n s relative to longer-term s a m p l e r s used to m e a s u r e
r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s u n d e r n o r m a l living conditions.
Based on the s h o r t - t e r m screening of nearly 65 000 resi-
dences, the projected n a t i o n a l average r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n
in residences is 107 Bq/m 3 (2.9 pCi/L), a n d a p p r o x i m a t e l y
20% of U.S. residences are p r o j e c t e d to have averages above
148 Bq/m 3 (4 pCi/L), the action level established by the EPA.
These figures are c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a n those e s t i m a t e d
FIG. 9-Radon sampling results by geologic from long-term m e a s u r e m e n t surveys (e.g., year-long sam-
province for New Jersey (after Ref 18). plers); for example, a previous a s s i m i l a t i o n of d a t a sets in-
volving long-term m e a s u r e m e n t s projected that 7% of U.S.
residences w o u l d exceed the action level. The s h o r t - t e r m
consistent with occurrences of the H a w t h o r n (Tmh) forma- results have been used to assess c o n c e n t r a t i o n p a t t e r n s be-
tion. cause of their c o m m o n use in most states.
The F l o r i d a study also e x a m i n e d the a s s o c i a t i o n b e t w e e n I n d o o r r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are c o n s i d e r a b l y lower in the
i n d o o r r a d o n a n d soil r a d o n b a s e d on m o r e t h a n 2700 h o m e s s o u t h e r n a n d western regions of the c o u n t r y t h a n in the
with b o t h types of m e a s u r e m e n t s . The association was exam- n o r t h c e n t r a l a n d n o r t h e a s t regions, consistent with lower
ined at the q u a d r a n g l e level, b a s e d on q u a d r a n g l e s having at r a d o n potential b a s e d on factors such as geology a n d soil type
least four h o m e s with p a i r e d indoor-soil m e a s u r e m e n t s , a n d (see C h a p t e r 6). The p e r c e n t a g e of h o m e s with b a s e m e n t s
for individual h o m e s as well. The P e a r s o n correlation coeffi- also is m u c h lower in the s o u t h e r n a n d western regions. Two
cient [21] was 0.8 b a s e d on q u a d r a n g l e averages, b u t d r o p p e d of the three states with the highest a v e r a g e s - - I o w a with 326
to 0.5 for individual homes. This finding illustrates the p o i n t Bq/m 3 (8.8 pCi/L) a n d N o r t h Dakota with 259 Bq/m 3 (7.0 pCi/
that geographic areas at h i g h e r risk can be d e l i n e a t e d with a
r e a s o n a b l e degree of certainty, b u t individual h o m e s at risk TABLE 4--Highest indoor radon concentrations measured in the
c a n n o t be p r e d i c t e d as easily. Pugh [22] evaluated the F l o r i d a Florida study and corresponding soil radon concentrations near
d a t a further by focusing on h o m e s with the highest m e a s u r e d each house (after Refs 19 and 22).
i n d o o r r a d o n levels. As s h o w n in Table 4, soil r a d o n m e a s u r e - Ranking by (Radon Concentration, Bq/m3 (pCi/L)
m e n t s that varied over a n o r d e r of m a g n i t u d e p r o d u c e d less Indoor Concentration Indoors Nearby Soil
t h a n a twofold range in i n d o o r concentrations.
! 1198.8 (32.4) 58 871 (1591)
2 1091.5 (29.5) 68 335 (1847)
3 1036.0 (28.0) 29 115 (787)
4 936.1 (25.3) 20 568 (556)
CONCLUSIONS 5 936.1 (25.3) 7 404 (200)
6 925.0 (25.0) 13 094 (354)
This c h a p t e r has illustrated that there are fairly well-de- 7 891.7 (24.1) 16 269 (440)
fined p a t t e r n s of r a d o n concentrations across the United 8 847.3 (22.9) 131 768 (3561)
9 847.3 (22.9) 79 347 (2145)
States a n d t h a t variations w i t h i n states can be even greater
Homes with Radon

NURE Anomalies G r e a t e r than 20 p C i / L
9 , !
2" /"
"..'..." .:;
9C~ ~ ~ f,
9 9 ..,,~,jp;
t '
,.
.'......./
L 9 /
Length of anomaly line ~/" /_~

isproportionateto magnitude.
FIG. 10-Spatial pattern of NURE gamma anomalies and elevated indoor radon concentrations in New Jersey (after Ref 5).
108 MANUAL ON RADON
FIG. 11-Comparison of geologic profiles and elevated radon potential (based primarily on radon measurements) in Florida
(after Refs 19 and 23),
ESCAMB~ WASHINGTON
JEFFERSON SUWANNEE
BRADFORD
ST. JOHNS
CALHOUN
LAFAYETTE
GILGHRIST
SEMINOLE
ORANGE
IDIAN RIVER
KEECHOBEE
8% LUCIE
PALM
COLLIER I BROWARD
MLES
, , , t I i i /
5O 100 150 200 MONROE__
FIG. 1 1 - ( C o n t i n u e d ) . S h a d e d a r e a s i n d i c a t e e l e v a t e d r a d o n p o t e n t i a l .
110 MANUAL ON RADON
FIG. 12-Patterns of indoor radon, soil radon, geological occurrences, and terrestrial uranium in
Alachua County, Florida (after Ref 19).
L)--are in the northcentral region; the other, Pennsylvania, ceeding the EPA action level and individual residences with
with 285 Bq/m 3 (7.7 pCi/L), is in the northeast region. Four measurement results close to 7400 Bq/m 3 (200 pCi/L).
additional states in these two regions--Minnesota, Nebraska, Various factors have been investigated as potential predic-
New Hampshire, and New Jersey--have average concentra- tors of indoor radon. Measured concentrations generally
tions close to 185 Bq/m 3 (5 pCi/L). The states with the lowest have been highest in homes with basements, which provide
fractions of residences having elevated concentrations tend greater contact with the surrounding soil and, therefore,
to lie along the western, southern, and southeastern coasts. greater opportunities for radon entry. Spatial patterns of in-
door radon concentrations within states generally have been
Within each of the four regions, the statewide averages vary
consistent with expectations from geologic and soil charac-
by a factor of three to six. Even though the southern and
teristics. Results of prior aerial radiometric surveys that were
western regions have the lowest overall averages, average
flown under the National Uranium Resource Evaluation
values for several states in each of these regions exceed the (NURE) survey also have provided indications of geographic
lowest statewide average found in each of the other two areas at higher risk and measurements of radon in the soil
regions. Spatial patterns within states typically reveal a rela- also have demonstrated predictive capabilities. However, al-
tively smooth transition from areas with high radon potential though information such as soil radon measurements, aerial
to those with medium and low potential. Even among states radiometric surveys, and geologic profiles can provide useful
with relatively low average concentrations, it is possible to indication of relatively small geographic areas with elevated
find individual counties with 20% or more of residences ex- radon potential, there is no method short of indoor measure-
C O N C E N T R A T I O N PATTERNS 111
m e n t s for d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r a n i n d i v i d u a l s t r u c t u r e has a Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, Vol. 37, No. 3,
radon problem. March 1987, pp. 227-231.
[11] Cohen, B. L. and Nason, R., "A Diffusion Barrier Charcoal Ad-
sorption Collector for Measuring Rn Concentrations in Indoor
REFERENCES Air," Health Physics, Vol. 50, No. 4, April 1986, pp. 457-464.
[12] Bonneville Power Administration, "Radon Monitoring Results
from BPA's Residential Conservation Programs," Residential
[1] Nero, A. V., Schwehr, M. B., Nazaroff, W. W., and Revzan, K. L.,
Conservation Programs Radon Monitoring Report No. I 1, Port-
"Distribution of Airborne Radon-222 Concentrations in U.S.
land, OR, July 1989.
Homes," Science, Vol. 234, November 1986, pp. 992-997.
[13] Hannington, J., New Hampshire Division of Public Health Ser-
[2] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and U.S. Department of
vices, personal communication.
Health and Human Services, "A Citizen's Guide to Radon: What
[14] U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1980
It Is and What To Do About It," Publication No. OPA-86-004,
August 1986. Census of Housing, Volume 1, Characteristics of Housing Units,
[3] Marcinowski, F., "Nationwide Survey of Residential Radon Detailed Housing Characteristics: United States Summary, Pub-
Levels in the U.S.," Proceedings, Fifth International Symposium lication No. HC80-1-B1, U.S. Government Printing Office,
on the Natural Radiation Environment, Salzburg, Austria, Sep- Washington, DC, April 1982.
tember 1991, available as a reprint from U.S. Environmental [15] Ronca-Battista, Mo and Magno, P , "A Comparison of the Vari-
Protection Agency, Washington, DC. ability of Different Techniques and Sampling Periods for Mea-
[4] Nagda, N. L., Koontz, M. D., Rector, H. E., and Nifong, G. D., suring 22ZRn and Its Decay Products," Health Physics, Vol. 55,
"Design of a Statewide Radiation Survey," Environment Interna- No. 5, November 1988, pp. 801-807.
tional, Special Issue--Indoor Air Quality, Vol. 15, Nos. 1-6, [16] U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administra-
1989, pp. 229-238. tion, Housing Characteristics 1987, Publication No. DOE/EIA-
[5] Cahill, M. K., Nicholls, G. P., Ranney, C., and Rugg, M., "Radon 0314(87), U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC,
Levels in New Jersey: Overview of Results of a Statewide Radon May 1989.
Survey," Proceedings, 8 Ist Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution [17] Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, "DER Announces Results of
Control Association, Paper Number 88-76.1, Pittsburgh, PA, Statewide Radon Testing," News Release from Department of
1988. Environmental Resources, Harrisburg, PA, July 1989.
[6] Hartwell, T. D., Perritt, R. L., Sheldon, L. S., Cox, B. G., Smith, [18] Camp Dresser & McKee, Inc., "Summary Report: Statewide Sci-
M. L., and Rizzuto, J. L., "Distribution of Radon Levels in New entific Study of Radon," Task 7 Final Report, prepared for New
York State Homes," Proceedings, 4th International Conference Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Edison, N J,
on Indoor Air Quality and Climate, Vol. 2, Berlin, Germany, April 1989.
1987, pp. 398-402. [19] Nagda, N. L., Koontz, Mo D., Fortmann, R. C., Schoenborn, W.
[7] Ronca-Battista, M., Moon, M., Bergsten, J., White, S. B., Alexan- A, and Mehegan, L. L., "Florida Statewide Radiation Study,"
der, B., and Holt, N., "Radon 222 Concentrations in the United prepared for Florida Institute of Phosphate Research, Publica-
States--Results of Sample Surveys in Five States," Radiation tion No. 05-029-057, Bartow, FL, December 1987.
Protection Dosimetry, Vol. 24, No. 1/4, 1988, pp. 307-311. [20] Siegel, S., Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences,
[8] Phillips, J. L., Bergsten, J. W., and White, S. B., "A Cumulative McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1956.
Examination of the State/EPA Radon Survey," Proceedings, 1991 [21] Dixon, W. J., and Massey, F. J., Introduction to StatisticalAnaly-
International Radon Symposium, Philadelphia, PA, 1991. sis, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, NY, 1969.
[9] Liu, K. S., Hayward, S. B., Girman, J. Ro, Moed, B. A., and [22] Pugh, T. D., "Literature Search: Radon Resistant Construction,"
Huang, F. Y., "Survey of Residential Indoor and Outdoor Radon Institute for Building Sciences, Florida A&M University, Talla-
Concentrations in California," Report CA/DOH/AIHL/SP-53, hassee, FL, January 1988.
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MNL15-EB/Jun. 1994
Radon Control Strategies

by Kelly W. Leovic 1 and Richard Roth 2
BECAUSE EXPOSURE TO ELEVATED LEVELS o f radon is estimated Pressure-Driven Transport

to cause 7 000 to 30 000 lung cancer deaths each year, the Pressure-driven transport occurs when the indoor air pres-
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Sur- sure is lower than the air pressure in the soil gas. Radon in
geon General have recommended that indoor radon levels be soil gas can enter a building through pressure-driven trans-
reduced to less than 148 Bq m 3 [1]. This chapter covers port if the following exist:
strategies that can be used to effectively reduce elevated
radon levels in buildings. 1. A source of radium to produce radon.
The introductory section discusses common radon entry 2. A pathway from the source to the building.
routes and provides an overview of radon control strategies. 3. An opening in the building substructure in contact with the
The remainder of the chapter covers methods for diagnosing soil to permit radon to enter the building.
radon problems and detailed descriptions of the following 4. A driving force to move radon from the source into the
radon control strategies--soil depressurization, sealing of building through the opening.
radon entry routes, building pressurization, removing the
A discussion of sources of radon and pathways from the
sources of radon, ventilation, air cleaning, and removing
source to a building are covered in Chapters 2 and 6. Open-
radon from water. Preventing elevated radon levels in new
ings in the building substructure that allow radon to enter--
construction is also covered. The chapter concludes with a
generally exists in most buildings regardless of foundation
summary table of radon control strategies with typical ranges
type. Typical radon entry routes include: cracks in floors,
of radon reduction, contractor installation costs, and operat-
slabs, and wails, the floor/wall crack, areas of exposed soil,
ing costs; information on post-installation testing; long-term
open sump pits, untrapped drains, openings around below-
maintenance of radon control systems; and a chapter sum-
grade utility penetrations, open block tops in foundation
mary.
walls, and pores in below-grade block walls. Figures 1, 2, 3,
The chapter is intended to provide an overview for the
and 4 show common radon entry routes for buildings con-
reader in diagnosing radon problems and in selecting radon
control strategies both in existing structures and in new constructed on slab-on-grade, basement (masonry block walls
struction. The reader should not expect specific, detailed and poured concrete walls), and crawl space foundations,
information in this chapter. For detailed EPA technical guid- respectively.
ance, see Refs 2 through 10. EPA periodically updates these A driving force or a negative pressure inside the building
technical guidance manuals. Detailed information on radon relative to the subslab soil gas, is due in part to building shell
control strategies can also be found in Refs 11 through 17. In effects and in part to occupant activities. Building shell ef-
addition, technical information on radon diagnostics and the fects include indoor/outdoor temperature differences, wind,
design and installation of radon control strategies is available air leaks in the shell of the building, and open windows on
in many of the mitigation courses offered by the EPA and upper floors.
other local and regional institutions and professional organi- When the temperature inside a building is warmer than
zations. outside, the warm air in the building rises, causing a "stack
effect." The stack effect is similar to a chimney stack and
creates negative pressures in lower levels of the building
Causes of Radon Entry into B u i l d i n g s relative to the soil gas, increasing the driving force for radon
entry [18,19]. At some level in the building is a point referred
The most common way for radon to enter a building is
to as the "neutral pressure plane," where the pressure inside
from the soil gas through pressure-driven transport. Radon
the building is equal to the outside pressure. The space above
can also enter a building through diffusion, well water, and
the neutral plane is slightly pressurized, and air is pushed out
construction materials. These modes of radon entry are ex-
of the building; the space below the neutral plane is depres-
plained below.
surized and pulls air in from the outdoors and from the soil
gas.
1Environmental engineer, Indoor Air Branch (MD-54), U.S. EPA, Occupant activities, including operation of mechanical
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711.
2Senior scientist, Analytical Services Department, Research and ventilation systems, vented combustion appliances, bath-
Development, Amway Corporation, 7575 East Fulton Avenue, Ada, room exhaust fans, kitchen exhaust fans, whole house attic or
MI 49355. window exhaust fans, dryer exhaust fans, and use of fire-
112
RADON CONTROL STRATEGIES 113
I 1 1 I ..... 1" 1 I
RETURN AIR
I ~ CEILING F>LENUMe 41 \ CEILING ZI
\ ~ ' ~ 5 0 1 L AR DRAWN TMROUC.,M BLOCK WALL
CEILING - INTO RETURN AIR PLENUN --I
FLOOR
FLOOR CRACK5
PENETRATION,~ \ I/ FLOOR/WALL JOINT
t~:il-
It- Zl~Ti't~ -" '=ii=:tllE,~ IlL--Ill
- - ~-~A .srr~c .q',l~_lH-
l=ilt----I
-:LL!~IIt--
t--Ill-ill
I.~--t I I-~11 I.~--I
e= Neg,,tive Pressure
FIG. 1-Typical radon entry routes in slab-on-grade construction.
places can also c o n t r i b u t e to negative pressures. Opening A n o t h e r w a y r a d o n can enter a building is t h r o u g h well
w i n d o w s on u p p e r floors w i t h o u t also o p e n i n g w i n d o w s in water. If well w a t e r is in contact with r a d i u m - b e a r i n g forma-
the b a s e m e n t o r on the m a i n floor can also c o n t r i b u t e to the tions a n d is s u p p l i e d directly to a building, it can be a source
stack effect. of r a d o n in a building. Currently, the only widely accepted
health risk associated with exposure to r a d o n in w a t e r is the
a i r b o r n e r a d o n that is released from the w a t e r w h e n it is
Othe Radon Transport Mechanisms used. A general rule for houses is that 10 000 Bq m - 3 of r a d o n
in w a t e r c o n t r i b u t e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 Bq m 3 to a i r b o r n e
R a d o n also c a n enter buildings w i t h o u t a p r e s s u r e differ- r a d o n levels [20]. It is unlikely that m u n i c i p a l w a t e r supplied
ence. This type of r a d o n m o v e m e n t is called diffusion-driven from a surface reservoir w o u l d c o n t a i n elevated levels of
t r a n s p o r t a n d occurs w h e n r a d o n moves f r o m areas of high radon.
c o n c e n t r a t i o n to a r e a s of l o w e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n . Diffusion- R a d o n can also e m a n a t e from building materials. The ex-
driven t r a n s p o r t is rarely the cause of elevated r a d o n levels in tent of the use of r a d i u m - c o n t a i n i n g building m a t e r i a l s is
existing buildings. u n k n o w n b u t is generally believed to be very small. E x a m p l e s
,~OIL CASIRADON MOVEMENT THROUGH

HOLLOW GORE B L O C K - - ' \
PLUMBING
.n PIPE Tlr k El]
v',C;- q
~ ~-I--I~WALLJOINTB/CRAGK5 II ~,k~
~ I - ~ , I UTILITY / r - CONCRETE IIPERIMETER J,JbJ ~ : ~

~!IINETRATION ,'~j/O k FLOOR sLA~ i~l JJOIN: " " " ~ ~ ~
. . . . . ,.., : , - -. . . . . - ... . . , . - .. - , . . . . . - . - " JJ..-" ,, . . ...... =..~s
BLOCK WALL BLOCK WALL
( ~ = Positive Pressure
e = Negative Pressure
FIG. 2-Typical radon entry routes in concrete block basement walls.
114 MANUAL ON RADON
WALL CRACKS AND FORM TIE5

PLUMBING, V ~
/ FLOOR JOIST PIPX
- V V V V W V V \ ? W ~;'VX/X,
I~" t FLOOR JOINTS/CRAOK/~/7
CONCRETE
UTILITY " /
"PENETRATION lJ~ .e. .~-~FLOOR~)LAB iI
POURED~1~
CONCRETE WALL CONCRETE WALL
( •
= Positive Pressure
e = Negatwe Pressure
FIG. 3-Typical radon entry routes in poured concrete basement walls.
in the United States include homes constructed using ura- Methods That Prevent Radon Entry: Soil
nium mill tailings for fill dirt, concrete from phosphate slag, Depressurization, Sealing, Building Pressurization, and
and wallboard and other materials from phosphogypsum. Source Removal
Active soil depressurization (ASD) is the most widely used
radon reduction method. For ASD, a fan is used to create a
negative pressure field in the soil under the building relative
An Overview of R a d o n Reduction Methods to the lower levels of the building. As shown in Fig. 5, this
Radon reduction methods described in this chapter fall negative pressure field reverses the flow of radon. Instead of
into two categories: methods that prevent radon from en- entering the building, the radon is exhausted by the fan to the
tering the building and methods that reduce the radon levels outdoors, where it is quickly diluted. Types of ASD tech-
after radon enters the building. niques include subslab depressurization, sump hole depres-
The cost, complexity, and effectiveness vary a great deal surization, drain tile depressurization, block wall depres-
among radon control methods. When evaluating the most surization, submembrane depressurization, and crawl space
appropriate technique, a number of factors need to be consid- depressurization.
ered; for example, the percent radon reduction needed, build- A second control method that prevents radon entry is seal-
ing type, installation and operation costs of the radon control ing of radon entry routes. Sealing, closure, or isolation of
system, system maintenance, and local climate and geology. entry routes limits (or eliminates) the flow of radon gas into
WALL
~Xl~l
PENETRATION
FLOOR PLUMBING ik
:PENETRATION PENETRATION7 i~FIB
~I--~ sEIII,--=,III--~I II @
-- RETURNA,R DUCT I-- II ~--EARTHFLOOR ~PdlII~III~IIE~
--]r~H~
~- = 1 1 1 - - ~ \ I I~JtEIII=--III-
- Im'------"lll~ -t I:1 L~ I
'--'1_1I--I__I
e e_"X e =_i
. . . . . . = : .....
~ ~,,-=--"h
t=11Eli~:[
-m=_17i II:
i •Positive
= Pressure
e= Negative Pressure
FIG. 4-Typical crawl space foundation entry routes.
DEPRE55URIZATION FAN
LOW AIR PRESSURE
5ubsiab Depressurization System c r e a t e s low

pressure zone beneath the slab. This p r e v e n t s
radon-containmg soil gas from entering the buil&ng by
changing the direction of airflow. Air exhausted from
HIGHER AIR PRESSURE under the slab is released above the roof
where the elevated radon levels can dilute into I ~
t h e atmosphere.
LOW AIR PRESSURE -~.,I

RADON 5~UCTION PIT
e)
( •Positive: Pressure
~)= Negative Pressure
FIG. 5-Subslab depressurization theory.
the building. Sealing of major radon entry routes is consid- radon entry in new buildings constructed in radon prone
ered an essential part of most approaches to radon reduction. areas.
However, the effectiveness of sealing is limited by the ability In rare cases, the building materials may contain elevated
to identify, access, and seal all the places where radon is levels of radon. This fourth approach to prevent radon entry,
entering. Radon reductions from sealing vary widely depend- source removal, generally refers to removing the materials
ing on whether the important entry points were sealed and that are sources of elevated radon levels. If this is impossible
the quality of the sealing job. Only rarely has sealing alone or impractical and the contamination is severe, the building
been sufficient to significantly reduce radon levels. may need to be abandoned. Removal of uranium-containing
Building pressure control is a third approach that can be soil surrounding a building can be a very costly radon control
strategy and is not covered in this chapter.
used to prevent radon entry. Since building depressurization
draws radon in, avoiding activities that depressurize the
building, such as using exhaust fans, or actually pressurizing
Methods That Remove Radon After Entry: Ventilation,
the building can minimize or eliminate radon entry. Building
Air Cleaning, and Removal of Radon From Water
pressurization involves bringing more air into the building Ventilation reduces radon levels by increasing the air ex-
than is exhausted, causing a slightly positive pressure inside change rate. In addition to reducing radon levels, ventilation
the building relative to the subslab area. The positive pres- can also help to reduce levels of other indoor air contami-
nants through dilution. The types of ventilation discussed in
sure in the building causes air to flow from inside the build-
this chapter are natural ventilation, forced-air ventilation us-
ing to the outdoors through openings in the substructure and
ing the building's heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning
building shell; this effectively seals radon entry routes. Build-
(HVAC) system, and heat recovery ventilation. Generally,
ing pressurization is similar to ASD in that both methods ventilation is not an effective stand-alone radon reduction
block radon entry routes using air pressure barriers, but are technique if radon levels are highly elevated. In addition, it is
different in that, with building pressurization, air is pushed often less reliable and more costly to operate than methods
out of the building from inside rather than being drawn out that prevent radon entry.
from under the slab, as with ASD. Building pressurization Two air cleaning approaches have been used to control
also helps to reduce radon levels through dilution with out- radon decay products and radon, respectively. The first ap-
door air. These first three methods--ASD, sealing, and build- proach involves removal of the radon decay products 2~Spo,
ing pressurization--are also very effective in preventing 214pb, 2L4Bi, and 2UPo by filtration or plateout. The purpose is
116 MANUAL ON RADON
to reduce the lung dose of the decay products by removing or The sections below describe the most common radon diag-
reducing the concentration of particles in indoor air without nostic procedures: measuring radon levels, reviewing build-
reducing the radon concentration. The second approach in- ing construction plans, conducting a building investigation,
volves removal of the radon directly through adsorption onto measuring subslab pressure field extension, evaluating the
a sorbent bed--usually activated carbon--after it enters the HVAC system, measuring building tightness, and determin-
building. ing if building materials are a radon source.
Radon levels in water can be reduced either by a granulated The number and type of diagnostic tests required in a given
activated carbon (GAC) unit or by aeration of the water building depend on a number of factors such as the building
before it enters the building. Although GAC units are often structure, the HVAC system, and the initial radon levels. It is
effective in removing radon from the water, radioactive lead unlikely that each of the diagnostic tests described below will
may build up in the units which may be a later disposal be necessary in every building. In general, the most critical
problem. diagnostic steps are to measure radon levels and to conduct a
building walkthrough. In addition, if a subslab depres-
surization radon control strategy is under consideration,
EPA R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for Reducing Radon measuring subslab pressure field extension is also very im-
Levels portant. Flowcharts for conducting these diagnostic mea-
If radon concentrations are above 148 Bq m 3, EPA recom- surements and the subsequent selection of control strategies
mends reducing the levels to below 148 Bq m 3 [1]. If radon are found in Ref 8.
concentrations in a building are highly elevated (e.g., 3000 Bq
m-3), the occupants should consider taking interim steps to
Measure Radon Levels
reduce the concentration if a permanent radon reduction
system cannot he installed immediately. Interim steps could Radon measurements can be made in a number of loca-
include: minimizing the use of exhaust fans; opening a win- tions: in occupied ground-contact rooms, near suspected
dow near exhaust fans to provide makeup air; sealing sus- radon entry routes, and in well water. All measurements
pected radon entry routes such as open sump pits and cracks should be conducted and analyzed by a reputable contractor
in the floor or below-grade walls; ventilating by opening win- listed with the EPA's Radon Measurement Proficiency (RMP)
dows or other vents in the lower levels, basement or crawl Program [21].
space (open windows should be located on the windward side
of the building rather than the leeward/downwind side); or
using fans to blow air into the building. Radon Measurements in the Building
Obviously, the effectiveness of these interim steps is limited In addition to the initial radon screening measurements
by weather considerations. Increasing ventilation can greatly described in Chapter 5, additional radon measurements are
increase heating costs during the winter and cooling costs
often made a part of the diagnostic process. These measure-
during the summer. The freezing of pipes in basements and
ments serve a number of purposes: confirmation of elevated
crawl spaces must also be considered. These are generally
radon levels, mapping of radon levels and entry points within
considered temporary and/or preliminary approaches to
the building, and identification of any seasonal and/or
radon reduction, and a permanent system should be installed diurnal variations in radon levels.
as soon as possible.
Radon measurements can be taken with either passive or
continuous monitors. Passive or integrating monitors, such
as carbon canisters, alpha-track detectors (ATDs), or electret-
DIAGNOSING RADON PROBLEMS ion chambers, provide radon results integrated over the en-
tire exposure period of the monitor. Many continuous moni-
Selecting the most appropriate radon reduction method for tors are also equipped for collecting "grab samples" and
a specific building can be complicated. It is important to "sniffing" for radon entry routes. Measurements of radon
understand the source of the radon and how the building daughter products (RDPs) are also sometimes taken with
influences radon entry into and within the building. Properly continuous working level monitors [22].
selected diagnostic tests can lower the overall cost of the When analyzing the radon measurement results, consider
radon control system, making it more likely to work on the the following questions: Are rooms with elevated radon levels
first try and yielding better radon reductions. clustered? Does the entire building have elevated radon
Diagnostic measurements for radon mitigation include any levels? Are there only a few widely separated rooms with
test, quantitative or qualitative, and inspection procedure elevated radon levels? Do radon levels vary diurnally or sea-
which evaluates the building to determine the most appropri- sonally? The answers to these questions should help target
ate radon control strategy. Inspections and measurements areas of primary interest for the building investigation.
are typically performed by experienced radon reduction con-
tractors. EPA tests radon reduction contractors and main- Radon Measurements to Determine Entry Routes
tains a radon contractor proficiency (RCP) list of those who Grab sampling and sniffs with continuous monitors are
have passed the test [5]. EPA also issues photo identification commonly used to determine radon concentrations at a loca-
cards to those on the RCP list. Many states also run their own tion and at an instant in time. Grab samples or sniffs taken in
certification programs and require RCP listing as a compo- potential radon entry routes (such as cracks in floors and
nent of the certification. walls, sump pits, crawl spaces, or from the top sections of
unsealed block walls) may prove useful in identifying their radon monitor capable of sampling potential radon entry
relative contribution to indoor radon levels. routes during the building investigation. The following sub-
sections provide more specific information on what to look
Radon Measurements in Water for when inspecting floors, walls, and crawl spaces for poten-
If well water is used, it may be contributing to elevated tial radon entry routes.
radon levels in the building. A rule of thumb for houses is that
10 000 Bq m - 3 of radon in water contributes approximately 1
Floor Inspection
Bq m - 3to airborne radon levels [20]. Radon in water tests can
normally be obtained through local testing firms. Radon entry routes in the floor include openings around
pipes and other utility lines, cracks in the slab, exposed soil,
sump holes, untrapped drains open to the soil, and wall/floor
Review Building Construction Plans interfaces (e.g., an expansion joint or a French drain). Some
All available building construction plans and specification buildings have utility lines in subslab utility tunnels. The
documents should be reviewed. Plans are usually available tunnels normally have many openings to the soil gas and, as a
for most larger buildings; however, they may not be available result, radon can pass into the tunnel and enter the building
for older buildings or for single-family residences. Pertinent interior through utility line penetrations (e.g., risers to unit
drawings include architectural, structural, mechanical, and ventilators).
electrical plans. The following summarizes the pertinent in- A thorough inspection should include examination of po-
formation typically provided by these plans. tential entry routes concealed behind or under appliances,
9 The architectural drawings will give general information on furnaces, work benches, or elevator shafts. Any line or pipe
building design and also provide details on typical wall sec- which is penetrating or appears to be penetrating the slab
tions. should be inspected. Separations between sections of the
9 The structural drawings will contain information on the slab, gaps between slab and walls, and slab cracks can pro-
foundation, footing and thickened slab locations, and vide major routes for radon entry. Shrinkage of the concrete
subslab fill. These may be helpful to assess the potential after pouring may cause gaps at the edge of slabs and cracks
effectiveness of an ASD system by indicating the presence throughout the floor areas. The size of cracks and gaps may
and thickness of subslab aggregate and any barriers to change seasonally depending on moisture and temperature.
subslab communication such as below-grade walls. The For example, expansive soils may cause slab movement.
structural drawings may also provide clues to possible
radon entry routes such as expansion joints. Wall Inspection
9 The mechanical drawings and specifications will provide
information on the HVAC system design (such as duct sys- Inspect walls for cracks, openings around utility penetra-
tem design, duct run length, supply/return airflow design tions, separations between blocks, and missing mortar. Also
capacity, outdoor air intakes, and exhaust systems). For examine block wall permeability. Since most blocks used in
buildings with intra-slab radiant heat systems, the plans are walls have hollow cores, radon can enter the blocks from the
particularly important in locating subslab piping. Where soil gas and be readily transported into the building via open
applicable, the balancing report should also be consulted pores in the blocks, cracks or separations, and open tops of
and compared with the most current ventilation standard the blocks. Block texture and density provide some informa-
for the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air- tion on block wall permeability: generally, the more coarse
Conditioning Engineers, ASHRAE [23]. block has the greater permeability [24]. Radon in the block
9 The plumbing and electrical drawings will provide informa- walls is of particular concern in buildings that have unducted
tion on potential radon entry routes. If pressure field exten- return air plenums in the dropped ceiling because the radon
sion (discussed later in this section) is to be measured to that enters the plenum can then be distributed throughout
determine the potential for an ASD system, these plans the building by the HVAC system [12]. Poured concrete walls
should be studied to determine the locations of subslab should be inspected similarly to floor slabs for cracks, separa-
utility lines prior to drilling test holes through the slab. tions at seams and corners, and gaps around utility penetra-
tions.
Conduct Building Investigation
Crawl Space Inspection
A thorough building investigation should be conducted to
assess potential radon entry routes and confirm information Crawl spaces with poured concrete slabs should be in-
cited in the building plans. Entry routes include floor/wall spected as basements or slab-on-grade structures. In crawl
cracks, unsealed or deteriorated expansion joints, utility pen- spaces where there is a dirt floor, inspections of the floor
etrations, and open pores of block walls or unsealed tops of should be conducted in the crawl space, if feasible, and
block walls that penetrate the slab [7,8,9]. As the types and within the structure. Radon entry routes from the crawl space
magnitudes of radon entry routes are identified, the feasibil- to occupied areas include: the area around electrical and pipe
ity of sealing may be considered. openings, air returns, separations or cracks in floor boards,
A chemical smoke stick can be used to determine the direc- and utility penetrations, including plumbing, electrical, and
tion of air movement along potential entry routes, and a sanitary connections. If the floor above the dirt floor is con-
micromanometer can be used to determine the magnitudes structed of wood, rather than concrete, there are typically
of pressure differentials. It is useful to have a continuous m a n y radon entry routes.
118 MANUAL ON RADON
Measure Subslab Pressure Field Extension quently, affect the number and placement of subslab suction
points. For example, if all block walls surrounding the rooms
To determine the feasibility of installing an ASD system in
extend to footings creating individual subslab compartments,
a building and to help determine system design parameters, it
it may be necessary to install a suction point for every room
is important to conduct measurements that provide informa- [7]. If the walls between rooms are set on thickened slabs
tion on the materials under the slab. These measurements
rather than on below-grade walls resting on footings, subslab
determine the subslab pressure field, commonly referred to depressurization from one suction point will usually extend
as pressure field extension (PFE) or subslab communication. under these thickened slab areas.
This section describes the basic principles and steps for con-
ducting subslab PFE measurements [2, 7-9,12]. The methods
are specific to measuring PFE under the slab. This procedure Evaluate HVAC System
should be modified for other types of ASD systems such as
Pressure differentials that contribute to radon entry can
block wall depressurization [8].
result from operation of a HVAC system under conditions
To measure PFE, drill one large hole (approximately 5 cm
that cause negative pressures in the building relative to the
diameter) and, depending on the size of the building, about
subslab area. Alternatively, the HVAC system can be used to
five to ten small holes (approximately 0.5 to 1.25 cm diame-
control radon levels if it pressurizes and/or ventilates the
ter) through the slab at various distances and directions from
building. This section covers some of the steps that can be
the larger hole. It is important to carefully determine the
used to better understand the HVAC system's effect on radon
locations of all subslab utility lines before drilling through the
levels in the building. The reader should refer to ASHRAE
slab.
Standard 62-1989 [23] for current ventilation standards.
At this point, subslab grab samples or sniffs through these
holes are sometimes collected in order to determine the Types of HVAC Systems
subslab radon levels. It may also be possible to look into the
First it is important to identify the type of HVAC system in
holes using a flashlight and/or fiber optic probe. The next step
the building. HVAC systems in residences and in many older
is to measure the subslab pressure in each of the holes rela-
large buildings are not designed to provide conditioned out-
tive to the building interior in order to obtain "baseline"
door air to the occupants. In these cases, the HVAC system
subslab pressures. This can be done using a sensitive device
should affect radon levels or radon distribution in the build-
such as a micromanometer; however, something as simple as
ing only if forced-air systems are used.
a chemical smoke stick could be used to qualitatively deter-
Types of HVAC systems common in large buildings in-
mine if air flows into or out of the slab. If air flows into the
clude: central air-handling systems, unit ventilators, fan-coil
slab, the building is under a positive pressure relative to the units, and radiant heat. The central air-handling systems and
subslab. If air flows from the subslab into the building, then unit ventilators are typically designed to provide outdoor air
the building is under a negative pressure relative to the to the occupied areas and would pressurize the building if
subslab. Some radon mitigators also take measurements of operated in this mode. However, many HVAC system out-
airflow with a device such as an anemometer. door-air intakes are deactivated or closed during temperature
After the baseline subslab differential pressure measure- extremes [7]. In addition, HVAC systems in buildings oc-
ments are made, the measurements are repeated with the cupied only during business hours are normally set back or
subslab area depressurized. To depressurize the subslab area turned off when unoccupied; so, even if the HVAC system
and simulate an ASD system, the end of a vacuum cleaner pressurizes the building during operation, radon levels may
hose is inserted into the large hole. A variable-speed vacuum increase during setback periods.
cleaner or a radon mitigation fan will help to better deter- Some buildings use exhaust fans to increase outdoor air
mine the depressurization effects anticipated with an ASD infiltration into the building or to remove internally gener-
system. As with the baseline measurements, depressurization ated contaminants. If more air is exhausted from the building
can be determined either qualitatively (e.g., with a smoke than supplied, the building (or zones of the building) will be
stick) or quantitatively (e.g., with a sensitive pressure sensing under negative pressure, potentially increasing radon entry.
device). These test results will indicate the extension and
magnitude of the pressure field created under the slab, pro- HVAC System Measurements
viding a realistic mapping of subslab pressure differentials The HVAC system can be evaluated during the building
expected with an ASD system. This is used to determine the investigation or separately. In a school or other large build-
number and location of subslab depressurization points, pipe ing, the engineer or other knowledgeable person(s) responsi-
diameter, and depressurization fan specifications. ble for operation and maintenance of the HVAC system
When conducting PFE measurements, it is important to should be present during the evaluation.
exhaust the vacuum cleaner directly to the outdoors due to The first step is to confirm information found in the me-
the high radon levels often found under the slab. Once the chanical plans and specifications. For example, is the HVAC
PFE tests are complete, all holes should be carefully sealed system actually installed and/or operated as designed or, for
with concrete patching material. example, have outdoor air intakes been restricted, causing
When conducting PFE measurements in a school or other the building to be under negative pressure? The HVAC system
large building, it is important to consider structural charac- should be reviewed in regard to the overall balance of build-
teristics that may affect PFE. Larger buildings often have ing tightness, duct leakage, makeup air, and exhaust air.
interior footings and/or thickened slabs. These structural fea- Fans, vents, and intakes should be observed for proper set-
tures may create subslab barriers to airflow and, conse- tings and openings. Idle fans or closed vents and louvers are
immediate indications that the system is probably not operat- of fossil-fueled space heaters or furnaces) can occur when
ing properly [11,13]. depressurization in the building overwhelms the buoyant
A chemical smoke stick can be used to qualitatively deter- force on the hot gases. Backdrafting can also be caused by
mine whether the building envelope is pressurized or depres- high air pressures at the chimney or flue termination. Com-
surized relative to the outdoors, hallway, and subslab, and a bustion appliances can backdraft into the building if a signifi-
micromanometer can be used to quantify the pressure differ- cant negative pressure is applied to the local area where they
entials. When analyzing the pressure differentials induced by are operating. Ideally, no combustion appliances, fireplaces,
the HVAC system, it is important that measurements be made or wood stoves/furnaces should be located in an area to be
under "typical" operating conditions. To measure airflow depressurized.
through HVAC registers requires a flow hood. Airflow in Tracer gas measurements using sulfur hexafluoride or
ducts and pipes can be measured using an anemometer or a other non-reactive gases can also be used to determine build-
Pitot tube in conjunction with a sensitive pressure gauge. ing air change rates [25,26]. Correlations between indoor
In occupied areas, particularly larger buildings, a portable radon concentration and air infiltration rate are generally
carbon dioxide (CO2) monitor is useful in determining if there poor; however, better correlation is found between indoor
is sufficient outdoor air for occupants [11]. ASHRAE recom- radon and the radon levels in the soil under the building
mends CO2 levels below 1000 ppm [23]. [25,27].
A question to consider when collecting data on the HVAC
system is" If the HVAC system is causing the building to be
under negative pressure, is it a result of the HVAC system D e t e r m i n i n g if Building Materials Are a Source of
design or is it due to operation and maintenance practices? If Radon
the system has the design capacity to maintain all building If it is suspected that building materials may be a source
zones under positive pressure, it may be possible to control of elevated radon levels, gamma radiation measurements
radon levels by adjustment of the HVAC system. If modifica- should be made. Building materials that may be a source of
tion of the HVAC system is under consideration as a perma- elevated radon levels include gypsum board, contaminated
nent approach for radon control, consideration should be cinder block, concrete, exposed basement rock, and stone
given to the operation and maintenance costs that may be (fireplaces and foundations). Reference 28 provides informa-
incurred, and building maintenance personnel must thor- tion on radon entry pathways into buildings, through build-
oughly understand proper system operation. ing materials, and from building materials.
If it is suspected that radon is being distributed throughout
the building by the air-handling system, radon "sniffs" in the
supply air should be compared with radon levels in the
room(s). Depending on the system design, radon can enter CONTROL METHODS THAT PREVENT
into the return-air system and subsequently be distributed to RADON ENTRY
rooms using recirculated air. This may happen in HVAC sys-
tems that have, for example, subslab return air ductwork, This section covers the four techniques that prevent radon
unducted return air plenums in the drop ceiling that are open from entering a building: active soil depressurization (ASD),
to the subslab via open tops of block walls, and air intakes for sealing, building pressurization, and source removal. The
unit ventilators that are open to the soil at the floor/wall joint. emphasis is on ASD, the most successful and widely used
radon control technique for existing buildings [2, 7].
Measure Building Tightness

Active Soil Depressurization (ASD)
Blower door tests can be used to determine building, base-
ment, or crawl space leakage area [14,15]. The leakage area Radon-containing soil gas is drawn into buildings by a
(or airtightness) can then be used to calculate the air ex- lower air pressure in the building relative to the surrounding
change rate. These data can provide information regarding soil. An ASD system reverses this pressure difference causing
the applicability of basement or crawl space pressurization, the pressure in the surrounding soil to be lower than the
crawl space depressurization, or an air-to-air heat exchanger. indoor pressure (Fig. 5). This air pressure differential keeps
Additionally, blower doors can be used to exhaust air from radon-containing soil gas from entering the building. ASD
the building to simulate building depressurization during systems use a suction fan to produce the negative-pressure
cold weather by depressurizing the substructure (typically by zone beneath the slab, hence the system is referred to as
1.5 to l0 Pa). While the building is depressurized, airflow "active."
through cracks and holes can then be located to find major ASD systems are most effective for slabs that are built over
entry routes. a layer of clean, coarse gravel or coarse soil that allows air to
A blower door can also be used to depressurize parts of the flow through it. Even if the air movement underneath the slab
building to simulate the potential for backdrafting of com- is poor, ASD may still work, depending on the number and
bustion appliances when considering radon control strate- location of suction points and the type of fan used [29].
gies such as ASD and basement or crawl space depressur- For radon levels above about 700 Bq m -3, ASD is usually
ization. Backdrafting is the reverse of the normal movement the most effective and reliable radon reduction method. In
of combustion products up a flue, so that the combustion fact, ASD systems are also often installed in buildings with
products can enter the building. Backdrafting of combustion radon levels less than 700 Bq m -3 because of their perform-
appliances (such as fireplaces, woodstoves, and/or some types ance in reducing radon levels.
120 MANUAL ON RADON
RADON EXHAUST FAN
ROOF" EXPIAUST FAN RADON EXHAUST STACK
--][--
CEILING ~' CEILING
NOTE, Seal all major sl~b PRESSURE

NONITOR/ RADON VENT PIPE
openmgs, crack~ or penetrations WARNING
SIGNAL SCHEDULE 4 0 PVO
POLYURETHANE SEALANT
SLAB ON GRADE
. ~ 9 o . ~ ~
-(~ ~- RADON SUCTION PIT

ASTM ~ 5 AGGREGATE OR EQUIVALENT
G = Positive Pressure
G = Negative Pressure
FIG. 6-Typical subslab depressurization system.
The widest application of ASD is subslab depressurization. Clearly label the exposed radon vent pipes and other system
For subslab depressurization, pipes are inserted through the components indicating that they may contain high levels of
slab directly into the crushed rock or soil beneath as shown in radon. Place labels at regular intervals (at least every 2 m)
Fig. 6. Other applications of ASD discussed in this chapter along the entire pipe run. At the roof exit, attach a weather-
are: sump hole depressurization, drain tile depressurization proof label to the vent stack with a warning such as "Soil gas
(with remote discharge rather than sump hole discharge), vent stack--may contain high levels of radon." Refer to local
block wall depressurizatton, and submembrane depressur- codes to determine the specific minimum distance for air
ization (typically used in a dirt floor crawl space). Depres- intakes placed near the radon exhaust. Since the soil gas
surization of the entire crawl space can also be considered a concentration is normally considerably higher than radon
variation on ASD. The general design features for ASD sys- levels in the building interl'or, reentrainment of even small
tems are discussed below, followed by a more detailed de- volumes of the soil gas could significantly increase indoor
scription of the six types of ASD. radon concentrations. Examples of suitable discharge config-
urations are presented in Refs 18 and 30.
ASD system fans must be operated continuously. All ASD
General Design Features for ASD Systems
systems should have pressure gauges or pressure-activated
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes are typically used for ASD alarms to indicate if the system stops operating properly. One
systems because of their ease of handling and relative cost; type of warning system has an electronic pressure-sensing
however, building codes in some areas of the country might device that activates a warning light or an audible alarm if the
prevent the use of PVC piping in some sections of buildings. system pressure drops below a specified level. Install the
Special restrictions may apply to pipe used in firewall pene- warning device in an area frequently visited by residents or
trations and plenums above dropped ceilings. In most areas, building occupants. For example, in some large buildings,
codes require suitable fire stop details at any location where warning devices have been connected to the energy manage-
the piping penetrates a fire-rated wall, a ceiling deck, or a ment system computer.
floor deck. Building codes in some areas require steel pipe. All To increase the effectiveness of a subslab depressurization
relevant building codes must be followed when installing an system, all major openings in the slab and walls should be
ASD system. In addition, ASD systems must avoid backdraft- sealed. Refer to the section below on sealing for guidelines.
ing of combustion appliances as discussed above in the sec- An operating manual describing the system and its purpose
tion on building tightness. should be provided to the occupants. For example, the man-
ual should contain information on (1) checking the pressure a low permeability. Detailed instructions are provided in Ref
gauge(s) and/or alarms in the radon vent pipes to ensure that 29.
the fan is maintaining adequate negative pressure to depres- The subslab depressurization created by the system must
surize the subslab area, (2) inspecting the fan for failure (e.g., be sufficient to overcome the worst case scenario of building
bearings), (3) inspecting the discharge location of the vent depressurization. The subslab depressurization in a given
pipe to ensure that no air intake or operable windows have building will vary depending on the measurement conditions
been located nearby, and (4) checking the HVAC system to (e.g., weather) but, as a minimum, should at least be measur-
determine if it is being maintained and operated as designed
able [2].
(e.g, an HVAC system exhaust with inadequate makeup air
Design of ASD systems generally proceeds as outlined
might overcome an ASD system).
below. Technical guidelines on design and installation of
One may ask "Is it possible to install a soil depressurization
system that works passively, that is, without a fan?" The ASD systems are detailed in several EPA publications
passive depressurization system relies on the building to [2,3,5-i0,29].
maintain a "stack effect" based on the ability of the building 1. System Design: Determine the optimal design (e.g., number
to provide sufficient airflow to permit air in the stack to rise. and location of suction points, type of fan, and pipe diame-
For the passive stack to operate best, the building stack effect ter and length) based on PFE measurements or experience
should be minimized by sealing all leaks in the upper levels in similar types of buildings. The number of suction pipes
[19]. Wind effects must also be considered. Although re- needed depends on the permeability of the material under-
search has shown that passive systems are sometimes effec- neath the slab and on the strength and location of the
tive in carefully designed and constructed new homes [19], radon source. If the subslab material has good permeabil-
their effectiveness has not been demonstrated in large build- ity, one suction pipe may be enough. If the material does
ings [3]. Many competing negative pressures in large build- not allow easy air movement, more pipes probably will be
ings can easily overcome a passive system. needed. Every subslab area isolated by subslab walls will
It may be possible to operate some types of ASD systems by normally need a radon suction point.
applying pressure rather than suction to the soil gas in the 2. Building Codes: Follow all relevant building codes that
space under slabs or within block walls. Experience has need to be addressed in the design and installation of the
shown that pressurization is better than suction only when system (e.g., penetrating fire walls, placing pipes in ple-
the underlying soil is a deep layer of highly permeable mate- nums).
rial. There is also some evidence to indicate that pres- 3. Suction Pits: Excavate suction pits below the slab to extend
surization might cause radon, soil moisture, termaticides or the negative pressure field. The size of the suction pit
pesticides, and odors to enter the occupied area. As a result, depends on the area to be depressurized and the antici-
pressurization of the soil is not discussed further in this chap- pated subslab pressure field. In houses, for example,
ter. subslab suction pits are normally about 0.3 m in diameter
Six different applications of ASD--subslab, sump hole, and depth. In larger buildings such as schools, larger
drain tile, block wall, submembrane, and crawl space--are suction pits are generally needed (e.g., 1 m in diameter and
described in the following subsections. 0.3 m in depth).
4. Radon Vent Pipe: Install radon vent pipes from the radon
Subslab Depressurization suction pit to the outdoors and follow manufacturers' in-
For subslab depressurization, pipes are inserted through structions for sealing all piping joints. In houses, 7 to
the slab directly into the crushed rock or soil underneath. 10-cm-diameter PVC pipe is normally used. For schools
Designing and installing an ASD system in basement, slab- and other large buildings, 15-cm-diameter PVC pipe is re-
on-grade, or crawl space buildings that have a concrete slab commended because of the greater airflow. It is important
in contact with the soil are similar. The primary difference is to pitch all horizontal pipe runs about 1 cm per m so that
that basement walls provide additional radon entry routes accumulating condensation drains back to the radon
that must be sealed. In slab-on-grade buildings, the suction suction pit. It is also important to avoid any low areas in
pipes can also sometimes be inserted below the slab from the horizontal pipe that could block airflow if condensa-
outside the building, horizontally through the foundation tion were to accumulate in the pipe. Seal any openings
wall. between the pipe and the floor slab using a high adhesive
As mentioned above, subslab depressurization is most ef- sealant such as polyurethane. Also, insulation of the piping
fective for slabs built over a layer of clean, coarse gravel or in areas such as dropped ceilings, finished areas, or attics
coarse soil that allows air to flow through it. Figure 6 illus- helps to avoid problems such as condensation, noise, and
trates how the creation and extension of a negative pressure freezing pipes.
field beneath the slab will cause air to flow from the building 5. Suction Fan: ASD systems generally use in-line duct fans
into the subslab area. This direction of airflow will prevent for a number of reasons: the performance curve is in the
entry of soil gas into the building. range needed; their in-line configuration facilitates their
If the subslab material has low permeability (such as installation; the price is reasonable (about $85 for a
tightly packed sand or clay) or is interrupted by interior smaller fan and up to $500 for the largest fan); and they are
subslab walls, the pressure field might not extend to all areas relatively quiet [2]. Install a suction fan designed for out-
of the soil under the slab. Research has shown that the use of door use in radon control systems. Fans used in homes
high-suction, low-flow fans improves the effectiveness of with good subslab communication are normally rated at
subslab depressurization systems if the subslab material has about 130 L/s at zero static pressure. In homes with poor
122 MANUAL ON RADON
subslab communication, fans with lower flow and higher vertically and horizontally. Radon from the soil, entering the
suction, such as 10 L/s at 13 to 100 cm static pressure, are wall through joints, pores, and cracks, can move through
generally used. Fans used for schools and other large build- these hollow spaces and enter the basement through similar
ings with good subslab communication are normally rated openings on the interior side, or through uncapped openings
at from 235 to 282 L/s at zero static pressure. Detailed in the top row of blocks. Block wall depressurization removes
information on fan selection, including fan curves, is avail- the radon from these void spaces before it can enter the
able in Ref 2. Because piping on the exhaust side of the fan building by creating a zone of lower pressure that reverses the
is under positive pressure and might be subject to leaks, direction of soil gas flow. This can work only if the openings
always mount the fan outdoors. at the top of the wall are closed and other major cracks and
6. Sealing Radon Entry Routes: For an ASD system to be most openings in the wall are sealed.
effective, it is important to seal large openings (slab and Block wall depressurization has been researched by EPA in
foundation joints and cracks and utility and pipe penetra- a number of houses [9]. It has not, however, been widely
tions) that can defeat extension of a low-pressure field. applied in larger buildings. Because the effectiveness of block
Large openings in the slab not only reduce system effec- wall depressurization can be difficult to predict, subslab de-
tiveness, but also increase operating costs by drawing too pressurization should be considered first. In buildings where
much air from inside the building. The section below on subslab depressurization does not adequately reduce radon,
sealing provides comprehensive guidelines. subslab and wall depressurization might be applied together.
There are two ways to install block wall suction. The sim-
Sump Hole Depressurization plest is to insert one or two PVC pipes into each wall and to
In basements with a sump, the sump pit can often be used draw radon out with fans vented to the outdoors. Another
as a ready-made hole through the slab. The sump pump will approach involves installing a plastic or sheet-metal base-
need to be replaced with a submersible unit. The sump hole is board duct around the perimeter of the basement floor. Holes
then capped with an airtight, removable cover. Suction is are drilled into the hollow spaces in the block wall behind the
applied to the sump hole through a suction pipe connected duct.
through the sump cover, following Steps 4 through 6, above. The baseboard approach generally results in better suction
In many cases, sump pits are connected to the drain tiles and is less obtrusive, but it is more expensive. It works best
around the foundation of the house, If so, they provide an where the hollow portions of the block wall are not continu-
excellent opportunity to draw radon away from the founda- ous, where drainage problems exist, or where there is a pe-
tion. rimeter drain around the floor.
Block wall suction can be costly. Another disadvantage of
Drain Tile Depressurization block wall suction is that all major wall openings must be
In some buildings, water is directed away from the founda- carefully sealed in order for the technique to work. Air mov-
tion by perforated drain tile pipes. The pipes usually drain the ing through the basement walls can cause a greater increase
water to an above-ground discharge located away from the in heating and cooling costs than either subslab or drain tile
building or to an internal sump. When these drain tiles form a suction. Painting or otherwise coating the interior block walls
complete loop around the exterior or interior of the footings, will help to reduce the loss of conditioned air.
they may be used to draw radon away from the surrounding
soil. If the soil allows easy air movement, suction from the Submembrane Depressurization
tiles sometimes extends underneath the entire slab. There are two soil depressurization techniques for radon
Where drain tiles are present, drain tile depressurization is reduction in crawl space buildings: submernbrane depres-
often a relatively low-cost way to reduce radon. The system surization (SMD) and crawl space depressurization. SMD is a
usually can be installed without disturbing the finished space, variation of the successful ASD method and is shown in Fig.
which is an advantage in a building with limited internal 7. It is typically a much more effective approach than crawl
access. These systems work best when the drain tiles form a space depressurization for maintaining low radon levels in
complete loop around the building. Often, drain tile loops both the crawl space and occupied area [31].
either are not complete or have been blocked or damaged. If To install a SMD system, place wide polyethylene sheets
this happens, part of the building may not be effectively (with at least 0.3 m overlaps between the sheets) directly on
treated. the crawl space floor. Be sure to remove any large rocks,
If the tiles drain to a sump inside the building, the sump broken concrete blocks, or other obstructions before place-
should be capped with an airtight cover and suction drawn ment. Where the soil surface is exceptionally hard and
from the sump cavity as discussed in the previous section. If smooth or the crawl space is very large, use a radon suction
the tiles drain to an above-grade discharge area, install a PVC pit or perforated piping manifolded under the sheeting to
pipe and an exhaust fan in the drain tile system away from the improve the pressure field extension. To increase system ef-
building. To maintain an effective airtight system, a water- fectiveness, seal the seams in the vicinity of the suction point
filled trap or reverse-flow valve must be installed in the collec- using a sealant recommended by the sheeting manufacturer.
tion pipe beyond where the fan is attached. The water trap In large crawl spaces with many support piers, it might be
must be placed below the frost line and must be kept filled. more difficult to install SMD. If many support piers are pres-
ent, or if the radon suction point has to be located close to
Block Walt Depressurization support piers, seal the polyethylene sheeting to the piers. The
The concrete blocks used to construct many basement polyethylene sheeting can also be sealed to the foundation
walls contain hollow spaces that are normally connected both walls to reduce air leaks; however, this additional sealing has
ATTIC/ROOF FAN CREATES LOWER AIR PRESSURE

BENEATM TME MEMBRANE
EXHAUST 5TACK ABOVE ROOF
FLOOR JOIST
, , "x !
INSTALLGROUNDCOVER / ----
I---- : --------:_
----III~_ _ AIR DUCTWORK OvER PERMEABLE MATER,AL E ------ --= ----
-- =-- ----II=
:III--III------I
FIT,
~III~I-
~iT['="fii~ 9 - ~llI=__IIl'----"~7-
LL[~#,.
PIT OR PERFORATED PIPE S Y S T E M

PERMEABLE MATERIALOR
PERFORATED PIPE NETWORK
e= Positive Pressure
e= Negative Pressure
FIG. 7 - S u b m e m b r a n e depressurizaUon in crawl space.
proved to be unnecessary in some existing homes. In small of radon entry routes can limit or eliminate the flow of radon
crawl spaces with few support pillars, active SMD systems gas into the building.
have worked effectively without sealing the plastic sheet to Sealing of major accessible entry routes should be consid-
the foundation walls. ered an essential part of most approaches to radon reduction.
Once the membrane is installed, a suction fan and vent However, the effectiveness of sealing is limited by one's abil-
stack are used to depressurize the area under the membrane, ity to identify, access, and seal the places where radon is
as discussed in Steps 4 and 5, above. entering. Complete sealing is often impractical, labor inten-
Crawl Space Depressurization sive, and expensive. In some buildings, certain areas will be
difficult or impossible to seal for a reasonable cost. Hard-to-
For crawl space depressurization, a fan is used to depres-
reach areas include tops of block walls, spaces between block
surize the entire crawl space area. The negative pressure in
the crawl space relative to the building interior keeps the walls and exterior brick veneer, openings concealed by ma-
radon from entering the building. However, the negative sonry fireplaces and chimneys, the floor above a crawl space,
pressure in the crawl space will increase radon levels in the and below-ground areas that have been converted into living
crawl space, so this technique should not be used if people space. Normal settling of the building can also open new
need to enter the crawl space frequently. entry routes and reopen old ones. Another limitation of seal-
Because of the potential for high radon levels in the crawl ing is that bonding between the sealant and the surface is
space, it is very important to seal the area between the crawl often difficult to make and maintain.
space and building interior (refer to the section below on Radon reductions from sealing vary widely depending on
sealing). Sealing is also important to reduce energy loss from whether the important entry points were sealed and the qual-
air flowing from the building interior into the crawl space. ity of sealing. Radon reductions from thorough sealing efforts
The crawl space vents and other major openings in the crawl are typically about 50%. Results from EPA research have
space should also be sealed in order to achieve a sufficient ranged from no radon reduction to 90% [9]. Research indi-
negative pressure in the crawl space. Research has shown cates that a near perfect sealing job is necessary to achieve a
that closing the crawl space vents will not create a moisture
high radon reduction. In a building with slightly elevated
problem if a vapor retarder is placed over the ground [32].
radon levels (about 400 Bq m-3), sealing may be a relatively
economical first attempt at radon reduction. In buildings
Sealing R a d o n Entry Routes with high radon levels, sealing alone usually will not reduce
Radon can enter a building through cracks in floor slabs radon levels to below 400 Bq m -3.
and walls, areas of exposed soil, sump holes, drains, below- The following subsections cover recommended sealants
grade utility penetrations, pores in block walls, and open and application techniques, sealing concrete slabs, sealing
block tops in foundation walls. Sealing, closure, or isolation below-grade walls, and sealing crawl spaces.
124 MANUAL ON RADON
Recommended Sealants and Application Techniques be m a j o r r a d o n entry routes. Penetrations a n d openings

Sealants m u s t have good a d h e s i o n to concrete a n d be dura- t h r o u g h below-grade walls into the soil can also be m a j o r
ble a n d elastic. The p o p u l a r i t y of p o l y u r e t h a n e as a suitable r a d o n entry routes. These p e n e t r a t i o n s a n d openings should
e l a s t o m e r i c j o i n t c o m p o u n d is b a s e d on a c o m b i n a t i o n of always be sealed as discussed above for p e n e t r a t i o n s t h r o u g h
strong a d h e s i o n to concrete u n d e r difficult conditions, long slabs.
service life, a n d good elasticity [6]. Silicone caulks do not A p o u r e d concrete wall can be an excellent b a r r i e r to radon;
always a d h e r e well to concrete. The ability of the caulks to however, as with concrete slabs, the m a j o r p r o b l e m s are
provide sealant p e r f o r m a n c e u n d e r stress m u s t be consid- cracks, joints, a n d penetrations. Concrete blocks are m o r e
ered. If increased m o v e m e n t in the crack, slab, o r block is p o r o u s t h a n p o u r e d concrete, although the parge or water-
anticipated, a caulk w h i c h is able to take up the strain is proofing coats can m o d e r a t e the difference. Recent EPA labo-
preferable [33,34]. r a t o r y tests have confirmed that concrete m a s o n r y walls can
W h e n sealants are applied, be sure that surfaces are clean, allow substantial airflow, a l t h o u g h there is a great deal of
dry, a n d free of grit a n d that the surface t e m p e r a t u r e is above variation in the p o r o s i t y of blocks [24].
freezing. Apply sealants in a c c o r d a n c e with the m a n u f a c t u r - I n t e r i o r p a i n t s can be used as r a d o n b a r r i e r s for m a s o n r y
ers' r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s . Typical d i m e n s i o n s for caulk b e a d s block walls. A variety of i n t e r i o r - a p p l i e d m a s o n r y p a i n t s are
are 1.25 c m deep b y 0.75 to 1.25 c m wide. It m a y be necessary available. S o m e of these have been tested by EPA, a n d results
to use b a c k e r r o d w h e n applying sealant in wide gaps. show that a n u m b e r of interior paints can be effective r a d o n
The a p p l i c a t i o n of caulks in cracks a n d holes a r o u n d pipes
b a r r i e r s if p r o p e r l y a p p l i e d [24].
o r slab s e p a r a t i o n s should generally be heavy a n d thick. A
thicker caulk b e a d will provide a greater b a r r i e r to r a d o n t h a n
a t h i n n e r bead. A c o n t i n u o u s caulk b e a d is i m p o r t a n t since Sealing Crawl Spaces
even small openings can p e r m i t r a d o n entry.
Elevated levels of r a d o n c a n b u i l d up inside a crawl space,
Sealing Concrete Slabs especially if the crawl space has a dirt floor r a t h e r t h a n a
This section addresses sealing of slabs on grade, b a s e m e n t p o u r e d concrete slab. R a d o n in the crawl space can then
slabs, a n d crawl space slabs. Concrete is n o r m a l l y a g o o d enter the o c c u p i e d a r e a above the crawl space t h r o u g h cracks
r a d o n barrier. The m a j o r p r o b l e m s with concrete slabs are a n d openings in the floor (see Fig. 4). T h o r o u g h sealing of
joints, slab penetrations, a n d cracks. these cracks a n d openings will help to reduce r a d o n entry
Slab joints of c o n c e r n include the floor/wall joint, p o u r into the o c c u p i e d area.
joints, a n d control saw joints. The floor/wall joint (also called In schools a n d o t h e r large buildings, the floor above the
p e r i m e t e r crack) of a slab is located b e t w e e n the edge of the crawl space is typically a s u s p e n d e d concrete slab r a t h e r t h a n
floor slab a n d the interior o r exterior l o a d - b e a r i n g walls. In a w o o d e n floor u s e d in houses. A p o u r e d concrete floor slab is
a d d i t i o n to typical r a d o n entry routes at the floor/wall joint, a g o o d b a r r i e r to radon; however, joints a n d cracks in the slab
buildings constructed with a c o m b i n a t i o n of different sub- are potential r a d o n entry routes a n d m u s t be sealed as r e c o m -
structures m a y have a d d i t i o n a l entry routes at the interface m e n d e d in the section above on sealing concrete slabs.
between the two s u b s t r u c t u r e s (i.e., at the b a s e m e n t a n d slab- Other openings a n d p e n e t r a t i o n s b e t w e e n the crawl space
on-grade interface). a n d the o c c u p i e d a r e a above include: w a t e r a n d sewer lines,
Gaps a r o u n d utility p e n e t r a t i o n s in the slab should be
utility lines to unit ventilators a n d radiators, electrical service
sealed. These include: w a t e r a n d sewer lines, lines to unit
entries, a n d gaps in w o o d floors. R a d o n in the crawl space
ventilators a n d radiators, electrical service entries, subslab
can also enter the o c c u p i e d a r e a above if d u c t w o r k for the
conduits, air c o n d i t i o n e r c o n d e n s a t e drains, a n d r o o f drains.
HVAC system is located in the crawl space. Therefore, in
In most buildings, floor d r a i n s e m p t y into a sewer pipe
r a t h e r t h a n the soil. In these cases, the d r a i n itself is not of r a d o n - p r o n e areas, n e i t h e r air supply n o r r e t u r n d u c t w o r k
c o n c e r n as a r a d o n entry route. The only c o n c e r n is the should be located in the crawl space [23].
o p e n i n g a r o u n d the pipe p e n e t r a t i o n as discussed above. If the b u i l d i n g has high r a d o n levels or if people frequently
W h e r e the floor d r a i n does d r a i n into the soil, the d r a i n enter the crawl space, it m a y also be necessary to install a
should include a filled-water or m e c h a n i c a l trap to prevent SMD system in the crawl space. This will reduce r a d o n levels
soil gas from entering the building. in the crawl space. SMD is covered above in the section on
Open s u m p holes can also serve as m a j o r r a d o n entry ASD.
routes. Seal the s u m p hole with a gasket a n d lid a n d install a
s u b m e r s i b l e s u m p p u m p . Silicone r a t h e r t h a n p o l y u r e t h a n e
caulk is s o m e t i m e s used to seal s u m p lids a n d access ports Building Pressure Control
b e c a u s e it m a k e s a tight-fitting gasket that can be removed.
The s u m p hole can also be used as a r e a d y - m a d e r a d o n Since d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n is a p r i m a r y factor c o n t r i b u t i n g to
collection system by venting the s u m p to the o u t d o o r s as the flow of r a d o n into a building, m i n i m i z i n g o r e l i m i n a t i n g
discussed above in the ASD section. d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n will r e d u c e r a d o n entry. If the lower levels
of the building can be m a i n t a i n e d at an air p r e s s u r e h i g h e r
Sealing Below-Grade Walls t h a n that of the underlying soil gas (i.e, pressurized), then the
Below-grade walls a n d stem walls are n o r m a l l y con- flow of r a d o n into the building m a y be stopped. Reducing
structed of either p o u r e d concrete o r m a s o n r y blocks. Be- building d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n a n d building p r e s s u r i z a t i o n are
cause these walls are in direct c o n t a c t with the soil, they can discussed separately below.
Reducing Building Depressurization The concepts of building pressurization and depres-

Simple, low-cost steps can sometimes be implemented by surization are illustrated in Figs. 8 and 9, respectively. In both
occupants to reduce building depressurization. Exhaust fans, examples the building HVAC system has a supply of 47 000
such as window fans, kitchen fans, bathroom fans, attic fans, L/s (100 000 cfm) and an exhaust fan that withdraws 7050 L/s
clothes dryers, and whole-house fans, can contribute to build- (15 000 cfm). However, in Fig. 8 there is an outdoor air
ing depressurization. If these exhaust fans are used, consider supply of 9400 L/s (20 000 cfrn), or 20% of the total supply. As
opening windows near the fan. Fireplaces, coal or wood a result, the building illustrated in Fig. 8 is under a positive
stoves, central furnaces, water heaters, and other vented com- pressure and 2350 L/s (5 000 cfm) of air will exfiltrate from
bustion devices can also depressurize the building if combus- the building. This positive pressure will keep radon from
tion air is not provided. entering the building while the HVAC system is operating. On
To reduce depressurization caused by central, forced-air the other hand, the scenario in Fig. 9 shows an outdoor air
heating and cooling systems, seal off cold-air return registers supply of only 2350 L/s (5 000 cfm), or 5% of the total air
in the basement. Where accessible, cold-air return ducting in supply. In this case, the building is depressurized because the
the basement or crawl space should be carefully taped or exhaust fan withdraws 7050 L/s (15 000 cfm) of indoor air
caulked to reduce any leakage of radon-containing air into and only 2350 L/s (5 000 cfm) of outdoor air is supplied. This
the ducts. depressurization, together with the natural stack effect, will
Opening windows in the basement might help to reduce cause about 4700 L/s (10 000 cfm) of air to infiltrate into the
depressurization caused by the stack effect. Closing airflow building. This can pull radon into the building from the soil
by-passes between floors, such as stair wells, utility penetra-
gas.
tions, and laundry chutes, may also reduce the stack effect.
If building pressurization is being considered as a radon
control strategy, the following facts must he considered:
Building Pressurization With the HVAC System
9 Open windows and doors make it very difficult to achieve a
This approach is applicable only in buildings where the consistent positive pressure in the building.
HVAC system has been designed to provide conditioned out- 9 Start/stop operation of the HVAC system for various occu-
door air (i.e, typically in schools and other large buildings but pancy modes does not allow for continuous building pres-
not in residences). A building is pressurized by bringing in surization.
more outdoor air than is removed by mechanical exhaust 9 The design and operation limitations of different types of
systems. Excess air then exfiltrates out of the building HVAC systems must be considered when adjusting a system
through cracks and unsealed openings in the building shell. to pressurize the building. For example, the design of vari-
Because building pressurization brings in outdoor air, it also able air volume (VAV) systems must take into consider-
helps to reduce radon (and other indoor air pollutants) ation the effects of minimum flow conditions on ventilation
through dilution. and pressurization throughout the building.
EXHAUST FAN
T 5.000 crM Exc s I Xr' AT"ONI l llr

,.-,.,., .p.oo..._ l:llO
I I
(~ = PO.~ITIVE PRES,~LJRE
e " NEGATIVE PRESSURE
1 cfm = 0.47 L/s

FIG. 8-Building pressurization with HVAC system.
126 MANUAL ON RADON
EXHAUST FAN
INFILTRA'rlONI
I*'=(9
10.000 CFHI
OUTDOOR AIR
5,OOO CFPI
(~) = PO,~ITIVE PRESSURE

e ", NEGATIVE PRES,~URE
i ella = 0.47 T,/S

FIG. 9-Building depressurization with HVAC system.
The following basic guidelines for building pressurization upstairs or the outdoors. Basement pressurization has been
should be followed: shown to be very effective in some houses and not applicable
9 Adjust the HVAC systems so that the building interior in all in others. The ability to seal the basement off from the first
ground contact rooms is at least slightly pressurized (for floor and the outdoors and the general structural integrity
example, 5 Pa). A qualified engineer should be involved appear to be the limiting factors.
when adjusting the HVAC system for radon control. Basement pressurization can be used only in very tight
9 Avoid subslab supply and/or return ductwork, and do not basements. The pressurization fan must provide a sufficient
locate air supply or return ductwork in a crawl space [23]. amount of pressure to overcome the building stack effect and
9 Seal all supply and return ductwork at all seams and joints. any other activities that depressurize the building. In addi-
9 Seal all floor and wall penetrations (especially under tion, openings between the basement and the main floors
through-wall units and in mechanical rooms). should be sealed. Opening a basement window or door will
9 Minimize air leakage through the building shell. In addi- reduce the basement pressure, as well as increase the airflow
tion to facilitating building pressurization, a tight building and heating/cooling costs by allowing conditioned air to flow
shell will reduce energy costs and allow for improved envi- outdoors.
ronmental control. For details on measuring air leakage Pressurization of the crawl space prevents soil gas from
rates, see Ref 35. entering the crawl space by reversing the soil gas flow. It
9 Control operation of the HVAC relief dampers so that they requires sealing of the vents and floor, just as for crawl space
modulate to maintain a positive building pressure. depressurization, and installation of a pressurizing fan. Un-
9 Be sure all applicable building and safety codes, standards, less the floor is sealed extremely well, this technique has the
and guidelines are followed. possibility of forcing any radon in the crawl space back
9 Be sure to preserve the intended indoor air quality purposes through cracks and gaps into the living area. Crawl space
of mechanical ventilation devices. Exhaust fans should re- pressurization could be easily defeated if a vent or access
move the moisture, fumes, and other contaminants gener- door were left open [31]. Also, pressurizing with warm air
ated within the building. Supply air systems should provide from the building could pose a humidity problem for the
conditioned air, free of objectionable quantities of contami- wooden floor joists.
nants.
9 Proper HVAC system maintenance is essential to ensure
continued reduction of radon levels and adequate indoor
air quality. Source Removal
In rare cases, the source of the radon may be materials in
Building Pressurization Without the HVAC System the building. The most appropriate action in these cases is to
Most residences and some large buildings are not designed remove the radium- or uranium-bearing material. Cases in
to deliver conditioned outdoor air to occupied spaces. In the United States include homes constructed with uranium
these cases, a fan system can be installed to pressurize lower mill tailings, concrete from phosphate slag, and wallboard or
levels of a building, such as a basement or crawl space, to other materials from phosphogypsum [36]. European homes
prevent radon entry. Air can be blown in from either the constructed with alum shales and phosphogypsum are also
listed in literature [37]. In some cases the materials were creased entry of hot or cold outdoor air into the building.
removed; in others, the homes have been abandoned. Natural and forced-air ventilation are practical, permanent,
year-round solutions only if the area to be ventilated is com-
pletely isolated, i.e, a crawl space or an unoccupied base-
M E T H O D S TO R E M O V E R A D O N A F T E R ment. For buildings with very high indoor radon levels, venti-
ENTRY lation might be an effective short-term radon reduction
approach until a permanent radon reduction system is in-
Although it is always preferable to prevent radon from stalled.
entering the building, there are a few strategies available to
remove the radon or radon daughter products after they have Heat Recovery Ventilators (HRVs)
entered. This section covers three of these methods: ventila- To reduce energy costs from increased ventilation, a HRV,
tion, air cleaning, and removing radon from water. also called an air-to-air heat exchanger, can be used. A HRV
will increase ventilation while recovering some heat during
winter and cooling during summer. HRVs are most useful in
Ventilation tight buildings in climates with cold winters or hot summers.
Once radon has entered a building, levels can be reduced by They may be installed in any substructure type and can be
ventilation or dilution with outdoor air. Ventilation with out- designed to ventilate all or part of a building.
door air may also help to improve the general indoor air The primary advantages of the HRV over natural or forced-
quality. However, if radon levels are highly elevated, it is air ventilation are smaller increases in heating or cooling
unlikely that dilution will be an effective stand-alone radon costs, and improved comfort during weather extremes. HRVs
reduction technique. For a given constant rate of entry, radon also can improve indoor air quality in buildings with low air
concentrations in a building are inversely proportional to exchange rates.
ventilation rates. Thus, for example, to reduce radon levels by HRVs are either placed in existing air-handling ducts or
a factor of 10, one would have to increase the air exchange window/wall mounted. For an HRV to be a reasonable miti-
rate by that same factor [38]. In most cases, such a large air gation option, the anticipated savings from the reduced en-
exchange rate may be neither practical nor desirable. The ergy penalty should be more than the initial cost of the HRV.
types of ventilation discussed in this section are: natural, (See the section on radon decay product behavior indoors in
forced-air, and heat recovery ventilation. Chapter 2).
Natural Ventilation
Air C l e a n i n g
Some natural ventilation occurs in all buildings as outdoor
air is drawn in through cracks and openings. Air exchange Two air cleaning approaches are available to remove radon
rates typically range from about 0.5 to 2.5 air changes per decay products (RDPs) and radon, respectively. The first ap-
hour, although the rate could be lower or higher if the build- proach, air cleaning, involves removal, not of the radon gas,
ing were very tight or very leaky, respectively [9,39]. An in- but of the RDPs. This approach attempts to reduce the lung
crease in air exchange rates through ventilation--by opening dose by removing or reducing the concentration of RDPs in
windows, doors, and vents on the lower floors--can reduce the indoor air without reducing the concentration of radon.
radon levels. It does this both by replacing indoor air with The second approach, radon gas adsorption, involves re-
outdoor air and by reducing building depressurization. moval of the radon directly through adsorption onto a
Basements and crawl spaces can be easily ventilated and sorbent bed, usually activated carbon. Additional informa-
can often be isolated from the rest of the building. However, tion on air cleaners can be found in Refs 40 through 47.
natural ventilation techniques must consider freezing of the
pipes and drains and the effect on the temperature in the RDP Removal
occupied areas of the building. Results from natural ventila- RDPs can be removed from the air by continuously circu-
tion are highly variable and depend on the specific building lating the air through a device which removes particles. These
(e.g., typical air exchange rate, effect on radon entry rate). devices include mechanical filters, fabric filters, and electro-
static devices which can be incorporated into the air-ban-
Forced-Air Ventilation dling system associated with a central forced-air heating and
Forced-air ventilation can help to maintain a specific air cooling system, or they can be stand-alone units [8].
exchange rate independent of weather conditions. Forced-air RDPs will rapidly attach to other, larger particles in the air
ventilation could range from blowing air into the building [8]. If no air cleaner is in use, the concentration of aerosol
with a window fan to supplying conditioned outdoor air particles will be sufficient so that only a small fraction of the
through the HVAC system (if system design allows). As dis- RDPs will not be attached. Air cleaners remove the aerosol
cussed above, in the section on building pressurization, out- particles so that newly created RDPs, which are continuously
door air should be supplied in accordance with ASHRAE being generated by the radon gas, find many fewer aerosol
Standard 62-1989 [23]. To reduce highly elevated radon particles to which to adhere. Therefore, while air cleaners can
levels, it may be necessary to supply higher quantities of reduce the total concentration of RDPs, they can actually
outdoor air than those recommended by ASHRAE. increase the concentration of unattached RDPs.
The major disadvantages of natural and forced-air ventila- Air cleaners, if designed for high efficiency, can be highly
tion are increased energy costs during extreme weather con- effective in removing the radon decay products (both at-
ditions, security concerns (from open windows), and the in- tached and unattached) which pass through them. However,
128 MANUAL ON RADON
a difficulty arises in circulating air through the devices fast more practical as a long-term solution--is to treat the well
enough to provide high, building-wide reductions as radon water before it is used.
decay products are constantly generated. The challenge is to One approach for treating the water is to install a granular
remove these products in the air cleaner before they can be activated carbon (GAC) treatment unit on the waterline en-
inhaled. tering the building from the well, following the pressure tank
At present, particle-removal air cleaners cannot be recom- [8]. These GAC units have been used in residential applica-
mended for the purpose of reducing the health risk due to tions for removing water contaminants other than radon (for
radon and RDPs. Unattached RDPs may result in a greater example, organics), and a number of GAC units have been
health risk than those attached to dust particles because the installed recently for radon removal. If the unit is properly
unattached progeny could deposit selectively in a fairly small sized and contains a brand of carbon specifically selected for
portion of the lung, giving that portion a high dosage of alpha radon removal, radon removals of over 99% have sometimes
particle bombardment. Current measurement techniques do been obtained. The reported performance of these carbon
not allow direct determination of radiation dose to the units, which have been in operation for several years, sug-
breathing airways. The dose must be computed from deposi- gests that the units can operate with no degradation in radon
tion models. These models indicate that air cleaners may reduction performance for at least several years with mini-
reduce the radiation dose to the breathing airways by as mal maintenance.
much as 50 or 60%. While such reductions may be significant, One consideration with GAC units is that they may need to
they are usually not enough to serve as a stand-alone control be shielded (or else located remote from the house) in order
strategy. Although the dose reduction has been small in some to protect the occupants from gamma radiation resulting
cases, there were no cases where the computed dose was from radon and radon decay products accumulated on the
increased by the use of air cleaners. Therefore, the use of air carbon bed. Another consideration is that, depending upon
cleaners to control other pollutants (e.g., allergens) is not state regulations, the spent carbon might in some cases have
likely to increase the risk from radon. to be disposed of as a low-level radioactive waste.
Aeration of the well water is another treatment option to
Radon Gas Adsorption release and vent the dissolved radon before the water is used.
Sorbents have been shown to remove many air contami- Several aerator designs have been tested for residential use,
nants such as formaldehyde and hydrogen sulfide. This tech- and reductions above 90% have been reported with some of
nique has also been applied to remove radon from indoor air. them. Aerators will avoid the need for gamma shielding that
A commercially available activated charcoal device operates carbon units have and will avoid concerns regarding the
by flowing air alternately through two sorbent beds [48,49]. disposal of waste carbon. However, aeration units are more
One bed of activated carbon adsorbs the radon, while the expensive to install and operate than are GAC units, and the
other is "flushed" with fresh air. At prearranged intervals the radon removal capabilities of the aerators currently being
beds are switched: the bed "full" of radon is ventilated to marketed are generally lower than the 99 + % that has some-
outdoor air with fresh air, while the second bed is utilized for times been reported for GACs. Although home aeration units
adsorption of radon indoors. The switching of beds contin- are commercially available, experience with aerators for resi-
ues, periodically exposing "renewed" activated carbon after dential use is limited to date. In addition, aerators will be
each ventilation sequence. The radon adsorbed is desorbed more complex than GAC units, generally requiring at least
before significant decay occurs. Research and field experi- one additional water pump (to boost the low-radon water
ence with radon gas adsorption is quite limited. from the aerator back up to the pressure needed to move it
through the plumbing) and a fan or air compressor (to pro-
vide the stripping air).
Removing Radon From Water
PREVENTING RADON IN NEW
Radon gas from the surrounding soil can dissolve in CONSTRUCTION
groundwater. Because radon is relatively insoluble in water,
it can then readily add to airborne radon levels in the building It is typically easier and much less expensive to design and
when water is used for cooking, drinking, dish washing, construct a new building with radon-resistant and easy-to-
showers, baths, clothes drying, and toilets [50]. If the ground- mitigate features than to add these features after the building
water is drawn directly into a building from an individual is completed and occupied [3, 6]. Therefore, when building in
well (or perhaps from a small community well), the dissolved an area with the potential for elevated radon levels, architects
radon can escape into the air, contributing to airborne radon and engineers should use a combination of radon prevention
levels [51]. Buildings using water from a municipal water construction techniques. To determine if your building site is
treatment plant will not have this potential problem because located in a radon-prone area, refer to Chapters 6 and 7 as
any radon in the water supply will have been released during well as contact EPA for more recent information.
storage treatment and handling before the water reaches the A combination of the following three radon prevention
building [8]. If water concentrations are sufficiently high techniques is recommended for construction in radon-prone
(above perhaps 1 000 000 Bq m -3, some effort to address the areas: (1) install an ASD system, (2) seal major radon entry
water source of radon would be advisable in addition to routes, and (3) in schools and other large buildings, pressur-
efforts addressing the soil gas source. One option for reduc- ize the building using the HVAC system. This section summa-
ing the radon in water is to ventilate the building near the rizes each of these techniques. Guidelines on how to incorpo-
point of usage whenever water is used. A second option-- rate these radon prevention features in the design and
construction of new buildings are detailed in Refs 3, 6, and in large buildings and that residential heating and cooling
52. units are currently not designed to supply outdoor air.)
9 In radon-prone areas, eliminate air supply and return duct-
Installing a Soil Depressurization System During work located beneath a slab, in a basement, or in a crawl
Construction space in accordance with ASHRAE Standard 62-1989 [23].
9 Supply outdoor air in accordance with guidelines in
The following instructions are important for the design and
ASHRAE Standard 62-1989 [23].
construction of a soil depressurization system:
9 Construct a "tight" building shell to facilitate achieving a
9 Place a clean layer of coarse aggregate beneath the slab. slightly positive pressure in the building.
9 Eliminate all major barriers to extension of the subslab 9 Seal slab, wall, and foundation entry points, especially in
low-pressure zone, such as interior subslab walls. areas of the building designed to be under negative pres-
9 Install radon suction pit(s) beneath the slab in the aggre- sure (such as restrooms, janitor's closets, laboratories, stor-
gate (one radon suction pit for each area divided by subslab age closets, gymnasiums, shops, kitchen areas).
walls). 9 Provide proper training and retraining of the HVAC system
9 For crawl space buildings with exposed soil, install a operators, together with an adequate budget, so that the
subrnembrane depressurization system. The crawl space system is properly operated and maintained.
can also he constructed with a concrete slab floor with 9 In areas with large exhaust fans, supply more outdoor air
subslab aggregate and treated with a subslab depres- than air exhausted.
surization system.
9 Install a vent stack from the radon suction pit(s) under the
slab to the roof.
9 For an ASD system, install a suction fan on the vent stack N e w Construction Standards and Codes
and equip the system with an alarm.
9 Seal all major slab and foundation penetrations. The ASTM Subcommittee E6.41 on Infiltration Perfor-
mances is developing a consensus document on standardized
Rough-in for an ASD System approaches for controlling radon in buildings. For example, a
A rough-in for an ASD system is the same as an ASD system standard guide for radon control options in the design and
except that the fan is not installed initially. For new construc- construction of low-rise residential buildings was approved
tion where radon levels are elevated even marginally, the by ASTM in 1992 (E 1465-92) [52]. ASTM is also developing a
installation of a rough-in system, along with an electrical standard for prevention of radon entry in large buildings. In
supply near a potential fan location, is a prudent investment addition, EPA is developing proposed model standards and
and is recommended. If a building is found to have a radon techniques for control of radon in new buildings.
problem after completion, then a rough-in can easily be con- A number of states (e.g., Florida, New Jersey, Washington)
verted into an ASD system by installing a fan. have also developed model codes for preventing radon in new
Passive Soil Depressurization construction. New design criteria for radon resistance are
also being incorporated into the construction design policy
Research has shown that passive systems are sometimes
for some companies with such standard features as ASD sys-
effective in home construction; however, they are not recom-
tems, passive subslab depressurization systems, and controls
mended for use in schools and other large buildings [3].
for building pressurization with the HVAC system.
A Florida standard covers five types of control strategies:
Sealing Major Radon Entry Routes During sealing, soil depressurization, indoor air pressure control to
Construction prevent depressurization at ground contact, ventilation, and
Many of these sealing techniques are standard good con- crawl space ventilation [53]. Rather than giving guidance for
struction practices. As a minimum, radon entry routes that installation, the document provides brief m i n i m u m stan-
should be sealed are: dards for work performed and materials employed and refer-
ences appropriate Florida building codes.
9 Floor/wall cracks and other expansion joints. Where codes
A document similar to the Florida standard has been devel-
permit, replace expansion joints with pour joints and/or
control saw joints because they are more easily and effec- oped by the National Institute of Building Sciences with
tively sealed. assistance from EPA [54]. The document recommends con-
9 Areas around all piping systems that penetrate the slab or structing buildings with all applicable radon-resistant con-
foundation walls below grade (utility trenches, electrical struction techniques or, as a minimum, enabling the building
conduits, plumbing penetrations, etc). to be easily mitigated if elevated radon concentrations are
9 Masonry basement walls and penetrations through poured measured after construction. Although, for the most part,
concrete basement walls. specific installation or materials guidance is not provided,
suggested approaches or preventive measures are outlined
and other construction guidance documents referenced.
Designing HVAC Systems to Prevent Radon Entry
In addition, a summary of current radon resistant practices
The HVAC system design and operation guidelines listed from a number of organizations is included as an appendix to
below should be followed for radon prevention. (Note that the EPA radon resistant residential new construction guide
HVAC systems supplying outdoor air are generally installed [6].
130 MANUAL ON RADON
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS FOR RADON and mitigation costs for ASD of about $6 per m 2for a "typical"
CONTROL STRATEGIES s c h o o l [56]. T h e s e costs w o u l d b e h i g h e r in s c h o o l s w i t h
e x t e n s i v e s u b s l a b walls, v e r y p o o r P F E , a n d e x t e n s i v e build-
This section covers the costs of radon control strategies, ing c o d e a n d / o r a s b e s t o s c o m p l i c a t i o n s . Costs w o u l d b e l o w e r
post-installation testing and inspection of radon control sys- in s c h o o l s w i t h s i m p l e c o n s t r u c t i o n , v e r y g o o d PFE, a n d n o
tems, and long-term maintenance concerns. s u b s l a b b a r r i e r s to a n e g a t i v e p r e s s u r e field e x t e n s i o n .
Costs of Radon Control Strategies Post-installation Testing and Inspection

The radon control strategies discussed in this chapter are Short-term tests are needed after the installation of a radon
summarized in Table 1 together with typical ranges of radon reduction system to determine if radon levels have been ade-
reduction, contractor installation costs for houses, and oper- quately reduced [4]. A two- to seven-day measurement taken
ating costs for houses [4]. Additional cost information for at least one day after system installation is usually the best
houses can be found in Refs 2 and 55. way to initially test the system's effectiveness. This is because
Cost data for schools and other large buildings are more a longer-term measurement may not provide information
limited. One survey of radon mitigators indicated diagnostics quickly enough if radon levels have not been satisfactorily
TABLE 1--Installation and operatiffg costs [2,4,55].

Typical Annual Operating
Cost Range for Fan
Typical Range of Electricity and Heated/
Typical Radon Installation Costs in Cooled Air Loss
Technique Reduction Houses (Contractor) ~ (Houses) Comments
Active subslab 80-99% $800-2500 $40-300 Works best if air can move easily in
depressurization material under slab
Drain tile 90-99% $800-1700 $40-300 Works best if drain tiles form
depressurization complete loop around house
Blockwall 50-99% $1500-3000 $70-500 Only in houses with hollow
depressurization blockwalls; requires sealing of major
openings
Sump hole 90-99% $800-2500 $100-225 Works best if air moves easily to sump
depressurization under slab or if drain tiles form
complete loop
Submembrane 80-98% $1000-2500 $30-225 Less heat loss than natural ventilation
depressurization in cold climates
Crawl space 70-96% $400-1000 $50-350 Most common in inaccessible crawl
depressurization spaces; less effective than SMD
Sealing of radon 0-50% $100-2000 None Normally used with other techniques;
entry routes proper materials and installation
required
House (basement) 50-99% $500-1500 $100-500 Works best with tight basement
pressurization isolated from outdoors and upper
floors
Natural ventilation Variable $0-600 $50-700 Significant heated/cooled air loss;
operating costs depend on utility
rates and amount of ventilation
Heat recovery 25-50% if used for $1200-2500 $50-400 for Limited use; best in tight houses; for
ventilation full house; 25-75% continuous full house, use with levels no higher
if used for operation than 300 Bq m-3; no higher than
basement 600 Bq m 3 for use in basement;
less conditioned air loss than
natural ventilation
Air cleaners 25-90% RDP b $400-1200 Variable Rarely used by contractors or installed
by homeowners for radon reduction
Radon gas 25-75% Insufficient experience Insufficient experience Limited experience to date
sorption units
Water systems: 95-99% $3000-4500 $40-90 More efficient than GAC; requires
aeration annual cleaning to maintain
effectiveness & to prevent
contamination; carefully vent system
Granular activated 85-99% $1000-2000 None Less efficient for higher levels than
carbon (GAC) aeration; use for moderate levels
(around 200 000 Bq m -3 or less);
radon by-products can build on
carbon, may need radiation shield
around tank and care in disposal
~The fan electricity and heating/cooling loss cost ranges are based on assumptions for climate, house size. and fuel costs.
bRDP = radon decay products.
R A D O N CONTROL S T R A T E G I E S 131
lowered. However, once a short-term test indicates that a Research has shown that, when adequately maintained and
system is working properly, a long-term device should be serviced, air-to-air heat exchangers operate well over time
used. with few mechanical problems [57,58]. The only mainte-
Radon levels in all occupied or potentially occupiable areas nance required was replacement of some surrounding insula-
should be lower than the EPA action level of 148 Bq m-3 [1, 4]. tion to the units. However, some systems were reduced in
If levels are above this level, confirm that the radon control speed by the occupants, decreasing the air exchange rates.
system is operating properly, then consider additional con- Basement pressurization has been shown to keep radon
trol techniques. levels generally below the initial baseline radon concentra-
In addition to monitoring radon levels, post-installation tion [57,58]. However, each system tested showed periods of
measurements should be made to ensure that active (fan- equal or elevated concentrations from the baseline. These
assisted) systems are operating properly. Potential modifica- periods were correlated to occupants' altering the sealing of
tions for better system operation and increased radon reduc- the tightness of the basement or turning off the system fans.
tion may also be identified by these tests. If additional radon Each of the systems exhibited a 20 to 25% decrease in airflow
reduction is needed, it may be possible to modify the existing which prevented complete pressurization of the basement.
system. If not, it may be necessary to install an entirely new Findings of incomplete sealing of the basement led the re-
system. searchers to suggest that the system be oversized in order to
Radon grab samples of exhaust air and the air near exhaust accommodate future decreases in fan operating performance
vents can also provide useful information on system opera- and increased leakage area in the basement [57].
tion.
Long-term Maintenance of Radon Reduction SUMMARY

Systems
The fans for radon control systems should be operated The most common way for radon to enter a building is
continuously, and warning devices should be checked regu- through pressure-driven transport of soil gas. Other, but less
larly to make sure that the system is working properly. In prevalent, reasons for elevated indoor radon concentrations
addition, radon levels in a building with a radon control sys- include emanation of radon from well water containing ra-
tem should be measured at least every two years [4]. dium and use of uranium-contaminated building materials.
Literature suggests that many mitigation systems have Thus, much of the emphasis of radon reduction or control is
failed due to occupant intervention; thus, occupants should on prevention of radon entry from the soil gas into the build-
be reminded of the important aspects of system operation, ing.
the need for maintaining the system, and how to use the For radon control to be effective, proper diagnosis of radon
monitors or alarms [57,58]. In addition, any alteration of the entry routes and an understanding of the building's construc-
building structure for repair or renovation should consider tion are important. The most common steps used in diag-
the operation of the radon control systems installed. nosing a radon problem and determining the most appropri-
Occupants have, for reasons of comfort, noise, cost effi- ate radon control strategy include: measuring radon levels (in
ciency, or carelessness, turned off an active system or pre- room air, near suspected radon entry routes, and, if well
vented operation of a passive system, such as blocking crawl water is used, in the water), reviewing building construction
space vents or reducing the air intakes to subslab or wall plans, conducting a building investigation to determine
ventilation installations [56]. In one study, all homeowners radon entry routes, measuring subslab pressure field exten-
reported they did not always operate the systems. One of the sion, evaluating the HVAC system, measuring building
major reasons for turning off the systems was fan noise and tightness, and determining if building materials are a radon
vibration [57]. source.
A study concluded that any mitigation system needs to be Active soil depressurization (ASD) is the most widely used
checked periodically and that occupants should understand radon control method. For ASD, a fan is used to create a
the use and operation of the system [57]. Requesting occu- negative pressure field in the soil under the building relative
pants to re-explain the system to the installer may help to to the pressure in the building. This negative pressure field
confirm that they understand proper system operation and reverses the flow of radon--instead of entering the building,
maintenance. the radon is exhausted by the fan to the outdoors. Depending
In general, ASD systems have performed well in the long- on the prevalent entry routes and building construction fea-
term [2]. Fans may last five years or more (although manufac- tures, ASD techniques include: subslab depressurization,
turers' warranties tend not to exceed three years). Fan fail- sump hole depressurization, drain tile depressurization,
ures generally involve bearings or capacitors; bearings fail- block wall depressurization, submembrane depressurization,
ures are more noticeable due to noise [57]. Also, fan and crawl space depressurization.
mountings have been found to either loosen or vibrate. Piping A second control method that can prevent radon entry is
should be inspected on a regular basis for any breaks, cracks, sealing of radon entry routes. Sealing of major radon entry
or openings in joints, particularly in the areas surrounding routes is considered an essential part of most approaches to
fans and blowers. radon reduction. However, the effectiveness of sealing alone
Sealants can dry and fail over time, or new cracks/holes can is limited by the ability to identify, access, and seal all the
occur following remodeling or damage. Sealed areas should places where radon is entering. Building pressure control is a
be inspected regularly, and occupants should check for any third approach that can be used to prevent radon entry.
new cracks or openings. Building pressurization involves bringing in more air to the
132 MANUAL ON RADON
b u i l d i n g t h a n is exhausted, causing a slightly positive pres- vironmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC,
sure inside the b u i l d i n g relative to the subslab area. 1989.
A n o t h e r a p p r o a c h for r e d u c i n g risk f r o m r a d o n exposure is [9] Henschel, D. B., "Radon Reduction Techniques for Detached
b y dilution with o u t d o o r a i r o r b y t r e a t m e n t to r e m o v e r a d o n Houses--Technical Guidance," 2nd ed., U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, EPA-625/5-87-019 (NTIS PB88-184908), Jan-
o r r a d o n decay products. These techniques remove r a d o n
uary 1988.
only after it enters the building, but do n o t prevent r a d o n [10] "Radon Reference Manual," EPA-520/1-87-20 (NTIS PB88-
entry. Ventilation reduces the r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n t h r o u g h 196654), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
dilution, b u t its a p p l i c a t i o n is limited b e c a u s e of the i m p r a c - DC, September 1987.
ticality of increasing the ventilation rate b y severalfold in [ll]Brennan, T., Turner, W. A., and Fisher, G., "Building
o r d e r to achieve a sufficient r e d u c t i o n in r a d o n concentra- HVAC/Foundation Diagnostics for Radon Mitigation in Schools
tion. Further, energy penalties associated with even m o d e r a t e and Commercial Buildings, Part 1," Proceedings, The 5th Inter-
increases in ventilation often m a k e this a p p r o a c h u n a t t r a c - national Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate,
tive. R e m o v a l of r a d o n decay p r o d u c t s by air cleaning a n d Toronto, Ontario, 1990, pp. 439-443.
[12] Leovic, K. W., Craig, A. B., and Harris, D. B., "Radon Diagnostics
r e m o v a l of r a d o n t h r o u g h c a r b o n a d s o r p t i o n are o t h e r alter-
for Schools," presented at the Air and Waste Management Asso-
natives to r e d u c e the risk due to radon, b u t the actual benefit ciation Annual Meeting, Pittsburgh, PA, June 1990.
in r e d u c i n g h e a l t h risks f r o m these a p p r o a c h e s is uncertain. [13] Leovic, K. W., Craig, A. B., and Saum, D. W., "Radon Mitigation
To remove r a d o n f r o m water, a n activated c a r b o n unit or a n in Schools," ASHRAE Journal, Vol. 32, No. 1, January 1990, pp.
a e r a t i o n unit c a n be used. 40-45.
New c o n s t r u c t i o n offers a n o p p o r t u n i t y to reduce the po- [14] Osborne, M. C., Moore, D. G., Southerland, R. E., Brennan, T.,
tential risk of elevated radon, typically at a m u c h lower cost and Pyle, B. E., "Radon Reduction in a Crawl Space House,"
t h a n a retrofit, These techniques focus on prevention of r a d o n Journal of Environmental Engineering, Vol. 115, No. 3, June
e n t r y into the b u i l d i n g a n d include: specifications for design- 1989, pp. 574-589.
ing a n d constructing buildings to include a n ASD system or,
[15] Harrje, D. T. and Hubbard, L. M., compilers, "Proceedings of the
Radon Diagnostics Workshop, 13-14 April 1987," EPA-600/9-
as a m i n i m u m , a rough-in of a n ASD system for future use if
89-057 (NTIS PB89-207898), U.S. Environmental Protection
needed; sealing of m a j o r r a d o n entry routes; a n d designing Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, June 1989.
the HVAC system (if the building has one) to pressurize the [16] Brennan, T., "Overview of Selecting Radon Mitigation Meth-
lower levels. ods," in Proceedings, Radon Diagnostics Workshop, 13-14 April
The ASTM S u b c o m m i t t e e E6.41 on Infiltration Perfor- 1987, EPA-600/9-89-057 (NTIS PB89-207898), U.S. Envi-
m a n c e s is developing a consensus d o c u m e n t on s t a n d a r d i z e d ronmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, June
a p p r o a c h e s for controlling r a d o n in buildings. F o r example, a 1989, pp. 43-55.
s t a n d a r d guide for r a d o n control options in design a n d con- [17] Sanchez, D. C., Hubbard, L. M., and Harrje, D., "The Use of
struction of low-rise residential buildings was a p p r o v e d by Diagnostic Measurements to Enhance the Selection and Effec-
tiveness of Radon Mitigation for Detached Dwellings," Pro-
ASTM in 1992 (E 1465-92) [52].
ceedings, 4th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality
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for Water, Soil and Air Hygiene, Berlin, pp. 370-375.
[18] "ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook," ASHRAE, Atlanta, GA,
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[28] Colle, R., Rubin, R. J., Knab, L. J., and Hutchinson, J. M. R.,
and Control Strategies," DOE/ER-0480P, U.S. Department of
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[29] Fowler, C. S., Williamson, A. D., Pyle, B. E., Belzer, F. E., and [47] "Residential Air Cleaning Devices: A Summary of Available In-
Coker, R. N., "Handbook: Design and Installation of a Home formation," EPA-400/1-90/O02, U.S. Environmental Protection
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in Low-Permeability Soils," EPA/625/6-91/029 (NTIS PB93- [48] RAD Systems, Inc., "Product Information on RADsorb-222,"
116234) July 1991. Westborough, MA, September 1988.
[30] "Industrial Ventilation 19th Edition: A Manual of Recom- [49] Wasiolek, P., Montassier, N., Hopke, P. K., and Abrams, R.,
mended Practices," Committee on Industrial Ventilation, Lan- "Analysis of the Performance of a Radon Mitigation System
sing, MI, 1986. Based on Charcoal Beds," in Proceedings, The 1991 Interna-
[31] Pyle, B. E. and Leovic, K. W., "A Comparison of Radon Mitiga- tional Symposium on Radon and Radon Reduction Technology,
tion Options for Crawl Space School Buildings," in Proceedings, Vol. 3, EPA-600/9-91-037c (NTIS PB92-115377), November
The 1991 International Symposium on Radon and Radon Re- 1991, pp. P4-43 thru P4-60.
duction Technology, Vol. 2, EPA-600/9-91-037b (NTIS PB92- [50] Hess, C. T., Vietti, M. A., Lachapelle, E. B., and Guillemette, J. F.,
115369), November 1991, pp. 10-73 thru 10-84. "Radon Transferred from Drinking Water into House Air,"
[32] Dutt, G. S., Jacobson, D. I., Gibson, R. G., and Harrje, D. T., Radon, Radium and Uranium in Drinking Water, Lewis Publish-
"Measurement of Moisture in Crawl Space Retrofits for Energy ers, Chelsea, MI, 1990, pp. 51-67.
Conservation," presented at the Building Thermal Envelope Co- [51] Cothern, C. R., "Estimating the Health Risks of Radon in Drink-
ordinating Council, Ft. Worth, TX, 1986. ing Water," Journal of the American Water Works Association,"
[33] Scott, A., "Sealants for Z22RnExclusion," Health Physics, Vol. 62, April 1987, pp. 153-158.
No. 6, June 1992, p. 590. [52] ASTM Guide for Radon Control Options in Design and Con-
[34] Fleischer, R. L., "Reply to Comments by Scott," Health Physics, struction of Low-Rise Residential Buildings, E 1465-92, ASTM,
Vol. 62, No. 6, June 1992, pp. 590-591. Philadelphia, 1992.
[35] ASTM Test Method for Determining Air Leakage Rate by Fan [53] "Florida Standard for Mitigation of Radon in Existing Build-
Pressurization (E 779), American Society of Testing and Materi- ings," Department of Community Affairs, Tallahasse, FL, 1 Feb.
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[36] Medora, R. and Trefler, M., "Methods for Measuring Indoor [54] "Methods and Techniques for Reducing Radon Levels Within
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[37] Hildingson, O., "Radon Measurements in 12,000 Swedish [55] Henschel, D. B., "Analysis of Radon Mitigation Techniques Used
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[38] Cavallo, A., Gadsby, K., and Reddy, T. A., "Natural Basement door Radon Remedial Action at Rimini, Italy, 27 June-2 July
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[39] Dols, W. S., Persily, A. K., and Nabinger, S. J., "Environmental Diagnostics and Mitigation in School Buildings," Paper 92-
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[40] Li, C. S. and Hopke, P. K., "Efficacy of Air Cleaning in Control- "Radon Mitigation Failure Modes," in Proceedings, The 1991
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[41] Maher, E. F., "The Control and Characterization of Radon Decay November 1991, pp. P4-3 thrn P4-13.
Products in Residences," doctoral dissertation, Harvard School [58] Prill, R. J., Fisk, W. J., and Turk, B. H., "Evaluation of Radon
of Public Health, Boston, MA, April 1985. Mitigation Systems in 14 Houses Over a Two-Year Period,"
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MNL15-EB/Jun. 1994
EPA's Strategy to Reduce Risk

of Radon
by Steve Page 1
SINCE THE DISCOVERY OF EXTREMELY HIGH RADON LEVELS i n t h e 3. A continuum of strategies for reducing radon risks, ranging
Reading Prong region in 1985, there has been extensive prog- from public information efforts that let people make their
ress in the nation's program to reduce the risks of indoor own decisions about the need to test and fix their homes to
radon. EPA's Radon Program has grown from a handful of regulatory approaches that may ultimately require people
researchers in isolated problem areas to an organized part- to take action.
nership of government agerlcies and private organizations 4. A strong focus on those strategies that hold the greatest
working together on numerous fronts. To accommodate this promise for achieving long-term institutional change.
rapid growth and to keep national radon efforts on track, EPA These four key elements of EPA's strategy evolved over
has continually evaluated and refined its strategy by adapting time. The initial emphasis of early efforts was scientific re-
to new knowledge, increased experience, Congressional di- search on the magnitude and extent of the radon problem,
rection, and changing needs. mitigation research, health risk research synthesis, and de-
The Indoor Radon Abatement Act of 1988 (IRAA) directed velopment of sound policy guidelines. EPA then began devel-
EPA to undertake a variety of activities to address the grow- opment of a unique system for delivering this information
ing concern over dangers posed by exposure to indoor radon. and recommendations to the public, and began to explore a
Among other requirements, the law directed the Agency to variety of strategies for getting the public to take action. Most
study radon levels, evaluate mitigation methods, establish recently, EPA has consulted with scientists, government offi-
proficiency programs, assist states with program develop- cials, health organizations, and others to sharpen its focus on
ment, develop training centers, and provide public informa- those strategies which have the greatest potential for reduc-
tion. EPA has developed and implemented programs to ad- ing radon risks.
dress each of the key provisions of this statute. Today, EPA is continuing work in each of these four key
This chapter presents EPA's broad national strategy to areas. EPA is advancing and refining radon science and pol-
reduce radon risks. It combines and reinforces EPA's basic icy, expanding and improving the system for delivering pro-
foundation, including its guiding policies and cooperative
grams, incentives, and focusing all elements of this system on
partnerships, with an overall management approach and fo- those strategies which have a high potential for risk reduc-
cus for the future. The chapter starts with an overview that
tion.
introduces the strategy's four key elements: underlying poli- Although some scientists were aware of the U.S. indoor
cies and scientific principles, a decentralized system of states
radon problem, it was not until the Reading Prong discovery
and other partners for targeting the public, multiple strate- in 1985 that the U.S. Government developed a program to
gies for achieving radon risk reduction, and a strong focus on
address this issue. The government was unequipped to begin
five key program priorities. The chapter then discusses each
to advise the public on what, if anything, should be done in
of these elements in more detail and describes how they response to the problem and how to do it. The overriding
interact to guide future efforts and directions of the Agency.
need at the early stages of the Radon Program, therefore, was
to develop guiding policies and scientific principles on which
to base national risk reduction efforts. In response to this
need, federal agencies, the states, and the scientific commu-
STRATEGY OVERVIEW nity initiated and have continued an extensive research pro-
gram to establish and refine several underlying principles
As illustrated in Fig. I, EPA's radon strategy consists of four that serve to guide the entire radon effort and as a basis for all
key elements:
radon messages. These guiding scientific and policy princi-
1. Science and policy that provide the program foundation. ples are outlined in the section of this paper entitled, "Guid-
2. A decentralized system for informing the public that con- ing Scientific and Policy Principles."
sists of multiple, highly respected organizations that can Early on, EPA recognized the importance of working with
deliver radon messages through established channels to leading national organizations. EPA thus began to develop a
targeted audiences. decentralized system in the late 1980s. In this system, EPA
has worked to empower states and key national organizations
1Director, EPA Radon Division, 401 M St. SW, Washington, DC that serve as additional sources of radon messages. These
20460. partners have the special expertise, credibility, and commu-
134
S T R A T E G Y TO REDUCE R I S K OF R A D O N 135
L_~
4. FOC
l
3. STRATE~,,~.
APPROACHES ~ [ 2. SYSTEM
FIG. 1-Overview of key elements of the Radon Program strategy.
nications channels needed to reach target audiences. Such a summarized in the section of this paper entitled "Focus on
decentralized system is more flexible, innovative, and effec- Key Priorities." Further detail on these plans is also provided
tive than the centralized system traditionally used in govern- in "Implementation of OPPE Panel Recommendations,"
ment. The Agency's outreach system is explained in further which is the Radon Program's formal response to the Radon
detail in the section of this paper entitled "Decentralized Program's review p~nel [4].
System for Reaching a Diverse Public."
Through this network, the Agency's principal approach has
been a nonregulatory public information campaign designed GUIDING SCIENTIFIC AND POLICY
t o accurately and effectively inform and enable people to PRINCIPLES
reduce their health risk through voluntary action. However,
after years of public information efforts with limited public EPA has used the best available scientific data in develop-
response, states and national organizations have begun to ing risk assessments. Over the last several years, considerable
pursue a variety of other, more direct strategies. Similar effort also has been spent to build a national consensus on the
trends in approach have been observed during the evolution foremost scientific issues related to radon and on the transla-
of other national health and safety campaigns [1]. Many initi- tion of this scientific understanding into national policy. The
atives are now underway to actively encourage homeowners most significant scientific and policy principles that have
to test and fix their homes, as are activities to provide incen- been developed through this process are summarized below.
tives for radon action. Regulations that require people to take
action are being pilot tested in some areas. Congress, state
governments, and local authorities are also considering or There is No Known "Safe" Level o f Radon
implementing legislation that would mandate actions to re- Exposure
duce radon risk [2]. The continuum of strategies being used Although uncertainty exists, we know more about radon
by EPA partners is described in the section of this paper than most other cancer-causing environmental risks. In as-
entitled "A Continuum of Strategies for Solving the Radon sessing residential radon risk, EPA assumes that the expo-
Problem." sure-response relationship is linear at low exposures [5,6].
Finally, the Agency is focusing its efforts in five major areas This assumption is consistent with the evidence for linearity
recommended in a 1992 Radon Program review that was at a wide range of cumulative exposures in the radon epide-
conducted by leaders inside and outside of EPA [3]. These five miological studies of underground miners. There is no evi-
areas are: targeting efforts on the greatest risks first, promot- dence of a threshold for lung cancer from radon exposure,
ing radon-resistant new construction, supporting testing and that is, a level of radon exposure below which no increased
mitigation in connection with real estate transactions, using risk of lung cancer would exist. It is generally recognized that
public information and motivation programs to promote in- even at low doses of alpha radiation, most DNA damage is not
stitutional change, and developing a coordinated research effectively repaired [5,6]. Research further indicates that at
plan. Program plans to focus efforts in these five key areas are low doses of alpha radiation the dose-response relationship
136 M A N U A L O N R A D O N
for cell transformation and tumorigenesis is linear and inde- at 4 pCi/L (148 Bq/m 3) [7]). Based on these considerations,
pendent of dose rate [5,6]. EPA recommends 4 pCi/L (148 Bq/m 3) as the action level but
Continuing scientific research has helped to improve EPA's advises homeowners that they should consider mitigating
projection of lung cancer risk to the general population due to homes that have confirmed radon levels between 2 pCi/L (74
radon exposures in the home. EPA now estimates that 7000 to Bq/m3) and 4 pCi/L (148 Bq/m3).
30 000 lung cancer deaths per year in the United States are
caused by residential radon exposure. Figure 2 places the
People Should Use Proficient Radon
estimated cancer deaths from radon in context by showing
Measurement and Mitigation Companies
the number of annual fatalities due to common occurrences
that the public tries to reduce through safety and health pro- A basic function of the Agency has been to equip the public
grams. Further scientific evaluation of radon hazards will with the information necessary to make knowledgeable
serve to refine EPA's estimate of the annual number of radon- radon decisions, including information on competent mea-
induced lung cancer deaths. The Agency is committed to surement and mitigation firms. Accordingly, the Agency has
seeking the best science to guide its program. operated two voluntary proficiency programs for several
years--the Radon Measurement Proficiency (RMP) Program
and the Radon Contractor Proficiency (RCP) P r o g r a m - - t o
Homes With Indoor Radon Levels Above 4 pCi/L
evaluate the proficiency of radon measurement and mitiga-
(148 Bq/m 3) Should be Mitigated
tion companies, respectively. Last year, EPA added a new
EPA recommends that homeowners mitigate their homes if component to the RMP designed to evaluate the proficiency
radon levels above 4 pCi/L (148 Bq/m 3) are found and con- of those persons offering on-site residential measurement
firmed. This action level is based on a combined analysis of services. Both the RMP and RCP programs provide a mecha-
risk (no known "safe" level) and technological feasibility. nism for informing the public on proficient companies by
Because we have assumed that there is no "safe" level of publishing updated lists of firms that pass all relevant crite-
radon exposure, EPA has investigated a range of action levels ria. If a person plans to hire a trained contractor to test or fix
and found that mitigation technology available today can their home, the Agency recommends that he or she hire a
reduce elevated radon levels to 4 pCi/L ( 148 Bq/m 3) more than qualified radon firm as determined by the RMP or RCP pro-
98% of the time [7]. Available technology is consistently less grams. If a person plans to take his or her own measurement,
able to reduce radon levels down to lower levels, although an EPA recommends the use of an EPA-listed radon measure-
estimated 70 to 80% of homes with elevated radon levels ment device.
would be able to achieve an action level of 2 pCi/L (74 Bq/m 3)
at reasonable cost [7]. The 4 pCi/L (148 Bq/m 3) guideline is
All Homes and Schools Should Test for Radon
also supported by research showing that it is more difficult to
accurately measure radon at lower levels (e.g., measurement Elevated levels of radon have been found in all states and in
device error is significantly greater at 2 pCi/L (74 Bq/m 3) than all types of homes. State/EPA radon screening surveys show
30,000
deaths
per year
10,000
Drunk Airline
Driving RADON* Drownings Fires Crashes
9 Radon is estimated to cause about 14,000 deaths per year-however, this number
could range from 7,000 to 30,000 deaths per year. The numbers of deaths from
oti'mr causes are actuarial data taken from 1990 National Safety Council reports.
FIG. 2-Annual deaths from selected causes.
S T R A T E G Y TO R E D U C E R I S K OF R A D O N 137
that individual h o m e s in relatively low-risk areas m a y have 4 pCi/L (148 Bq/m 3) in their residence over their lifetime is
high r a d o n levels d e p e n d i n g on the complex interaction of e s t i m a t e d to be 2 • 10 -a. Table 1 shows h o w these r a d o n
soil, a t m o s p h e r i c , a n d ventilation factors [8]. Based on re- risks c o m p a r e .
sults from EPA's N a t i o n a l Residential R a d o n Survey, nearly 1 This scientific i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the synergistic relation-
out of every 15 h o m e s in the United States is e s t i m a t e d to ship b e t w e e n r a d o n a n d t o b a c c o s m o k e has i m p o r t a n t impli-
have a n n u a l average i n d o o r r a d o n levels exceeding 4 pCi/L cations for r a d o n o u t r e a c h p r o g r a m s . Beginning with the
(148 Bq/m 3) [8]. The only w a y to k n o w the r a d o n level in a 1986 Citizen's Guide, EPA has consistently i n c o r p o r a t e d "stop
given h o m e is to test it. Therefore, EPA a n d the Surgeon smoking" messages into r a d o n messages a n d materials. An
General r e c o m m e n d testing all h o m e s b e l o w the third floor. i m p o r t a n t initiative in this a r e a was the d e v e l o p m e n t a n d
EPA estimates that a b o u t nine million h o m e s have been d i s t r i b u t i o n of a 1992 public service a n n o u n c e m e n t featuring
tested to d a t e [8]. the U.S. surgeon general, A n t o n i a Novello, on the h a z a r d s of
Similarly, b a s e d on d a t a collected in its National School r a d o n a n d smoking. Messages a n d p r o g r a m s for s m o k e r s a n d
R a d o n Survey, the Agency estimates that 2.7% of ground- f o r m e r smokers will increase as the p r o g r a m further expands
c o n t a c t schoolrooms, o r a b o u t 75 000 rooms, have short- its focus on the highest risk areas a n d populations.
t e r m m e a s u r e m e n t s g r e a t e r t h a n the r e c o m m e n d e d a c t i o n
level of 4 pCi/L (148 Bq/m a) [8]. Nearly 20% of the public
Short-Term Tests Can Be U s e d to D e c i d e if a
schools nationwide, a p p r o x i m a t e l y 15 000 institutions, have
H o m e N e e d s Mitigation
at least one g r o u n d - c o n t a c t r o o m with a s h o r t - t e r m m e a s u r e -
m e n t g r e a t e r at 4 pCi/L (148 Bq/m 3) [9]. Based on this re- S h o r t - t e r m r a d o n tests are c o n d u c t e d over a p e r i o d r a n g i n g
search, the Agency r e c o m m e n d s testing for r a d o n in schools. from 2 to 90 days. Long-term tests are c o n d u c t e d for m o r e
EPA estimates that a b o u t 20% of schools n a t i o n w i d e have t h a n 90 days. Because r a d o n levels tend to vary from d a y to
been tested to date [9]. d a y a n d season to season, long-term tests are m o r e indicative
Ongoing efforts to identify areas where r a d o n p r o b l e m s are of a n n u a l r a d o n exposures. This is w h y EPA has always
m o r e c o m m o n , including the project to develop a M a p of r e c o m m e n d e d use of long-term r a d o n tests to d e t e r m i n e
R a d o n Zones a n d the High-Risk Areas Project, will be instru- w h e t h e r h o m e s should be remediated. However, due to t i m e
m e n t a l in targeting resources to high-risk areas. Such tar- constraints like those e n c o u n t e r e d in real estate transactions,
geting c a n provide the m a x i m u m a m o u n t of risk r e d u c t i o n m a n y c o n s u m e r s will not use long-term tests. Six years of
for each dollar spent a n d is a m a j o r p r o g r a m priority. p r o g r a m experience a n d extensive c o m m u n i c a t i o n s r e s e a r c h
show that people are unwilling to take long-term tests [11,12].
Given limited c o n s u m e r response to long-term r a d o n test-
The Health Risks P o s e d by R a d o n are Especially
ing, EPA c o n d u c t e d an extensive study on the m i t i g a t i o n
High if a P e r s o n is a S m o k e r
d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g a c c u r a c y of different testing p r o t o c o l s in-
Tobacco s m o k e acts synergistically with r a d o n to cause volving different c o m b i n a t i o n s of s h o r t - t e r m a n d long-term
m a n y of the r a d o n - r e l a t e d lung cancers. That is, while expo- r a d o n tests. C o m b i n i n g device a c c u r a c y d a t a with informa-
sure to elevated r a d o n levels m a y pose a serious health risk b y tion from n u m e r o u s studies on seasonal variability, floor-to-
itself, exposure to r a d o n in c o m b i n a t i o n with s m o k i n g poses floor r a d o n variation within homes, a n d the r a d o n distribu-
a n even m o r e serious risk. EPA estimates that r a d o n risk for tion in h o m e s across g e o g r a p h i c areas, EPA developed a
c u r r e n t s m o k e r s is 15 to 20 times the risk for never-smokers, m o d e l for estimating the a c c u r a c y of different n a t i o n a l test-
a n d the risk to f o r m e r s m o k e r s m a y be over 8 times greater ing scenarios [13].
t h a n the risk to never-smokers [10]. Still, never-smokers can In the 1992 A Citizen's Guide to Radon, EPA r e c o m m e n d s a
be at s u b s t a n t i a l risk from radon. The individual risk to a testing p r o t o c o l that allows h o m e o w n e r s the flexibility of
p e r s o n w h o has never s m o k e d a n d is exposed to an average of r e a c h i n g a m i t i g a t i o n decision b a s e d on either (1) two se-
TABLE 1--Radon risk comparison for smokers and non-smokers.

If 1000 people who smoked If 1000 people who never
were exposed to this level smoked were exposed to this
Radon Level over a lifetime . . . level over a lifetime...
20 pCi/L (740 Bq/m 3) About 135 people could get About 8 people could get
lung cancer lung cancer
2 pCi/L (74 Bq/m 3) About 15 people could get About 1 person could get
1.3 pCi/L (48.1 Bq/m 3) About 9 people could get Less than 1 person could get
0.4 pCi/L (14.8 Bq/m 3) About 3 people could get Less than I person could get
138 MANUAL ON RADON
quential short-term tests or (2) a short-term test followed by a

long-term confirmatory test [14]. The Citizen's Guide dis-
cusses the trade-offs between short- and long-term testing,
explaining that long-term tests are more representative of
actual exposures, but enabling citizens to choose a short-term
measurement process, especially for confirming initial mea-
surements above 10 pCi/l (370 Bq/m3). Similarly, the new
FIG. 3-Basic communications model.
Home Buyer's and Seller's Guide to Radon recommends three
short-term testing options when long-term testing is not pos-
sible. Like the Citizen's Guide, the Home Buyer's and Seller's ence (e.g., homeowners). Feedback and evaluation from the
Guide recommends long-term tests, but gives people the op- audience is used to refine the process until the desired effect
tion to choose an accurate short-term test when time is lim- is achieved.
ited in the context of real estate transactions. EPA recognizes that it should not be the sole "source" for
communicating about radon risks for a variety of reasons.
First, EPA messages would have a limited effect on many of
Continuing Scientific Research on Radon
the diverse audiences that must be reached with radon infor-
EPA is currently conducting, contributing, or coordinating mation. Second, informational materials produced by bu-
research to address a number of key scientific issues. For reaucracies are often not timely, and because they are written
example, EPA is supporting a National Academy of Sciences for a "generic" and general audience, they will not reach
BEIR VI study to update the radon risk information. Addi- many of the diverse groups that make up the U.S. public. For
tional ongoing research on radon includes: further refining example, national-level messages prepared for an "average
estimates of the magnitude of the health risk posed by resi- audience," consisting of people at middle income and educa-
dential radon exposure, assessing the interactive effect of tion levels, may not spark the interest of low-income and low-
smoking and radon, evaluating the distribution of indoor education populations. These "generic" messages may not be
radon levels in counties across the country, identifying geo- appealing and effective in prompting action among minority
graphic areas with the highest potential for radon problems, audiences. Third, compared to numerous other sources, EPA
research into the variation of radon levels in new homes, and has only a few effective channels available for sending out
studies to determine the cost and reliability of approaches for radon information to the public. Finally, other sources be-
measuring, mitigating, and preventing elevated radon levels sides the federal government are closely associated with tar-
in a variety of building types. Only with a better understand- get audiences and thus are in the best possible position to
ing of these and other scientific issues can the Agency con- quickly and easily evaluate the success of their communica-
tinue to articulate and implement effective national policies tions efforts. For all of these reasons, EPA has established an
for radon action. expanded communications network in which multiple, key
organizations serve as sources of radon information. Multi-
plying sources increases the likelihood that radon informa-
Translating Principles and Policies into Radon
tion will effectively reach different segments of the public and
Action
encourage public action.
The scientific principles and policies guiding the Radon As shown in Table 2, EPA works with prominent leaders in
Program have been distilled into succinct, "user-friendly" each of the key areas of state government, local government,
information for dissemination through radon public out- public health protection, media contact, and consumer pro-
reach programs. For example, the 1992 version of the Citi- tection. For example, EPA works with Radon Program con-
zen's Guide contains each of these key scientific and policy tacts in all 50 States, the District of Columbia, and Guam.
messages. Consistent and accurate information about radon These contacts use their special affinity and geographic prox-
is critical to the sources of a nonregulatory health protection imity to encourage radon action by their state constituents
program like the Radon Program. However, the message is and other organizations.
only one component of the overall communication process. Similarly, the American Medical Association, the National
Accordingly, EPA has developed and employs a decentralized Medical Association, the American Lung Association, the Na-
communications system for reaching the diverse audiences tional Association of Counties, the Consumer Federation of
potentially at risk from indoor radon. America, the National Association of Homebuilders, the
Regional Radon Training Centers, National Safety Council
and others have joined with EPA in cooperative programs
DECENTRALIZED SYSTEM FOR REACHING to reduce radon health risks. These cooperative partners
A D I V E R S E PUBLIC use their expertise to reach target audiences such as doc-
tors, county health officials, public service directors, home-
As shown in Fig. 3, a basic communications model has five builders, and others.
major components. The model starts with a source (e.g., Each state and respected national organization sends
government agency) developing a message (e.g., "test for radon information to many target audiences through a vari-
radon"). The message is then delivered through selected ety of innovative and diverse communications channels. For
channels (e.g., brochures, technical background documents, example, the American Medical Association has its own com-
TV programs, and press releases) to reach the intended audi- munications channels like the Journal of American Medicine,
TABLE 2--Reaching audiences through radon partners.

Source Message(s) Channel(s) Audience(s)
American Medical Association Physicians should encourage AM news, conferences, TV shows, Physicians
radon action. physicians guide
American Lung Association People in this area should test/ Local media campaigns, health Local public
fix. fairs, direct marketing,
promotions
Advertising Council Radon is bad in your area. Use TV, radio, print media, public Public service directors
the radon PSAs. service announcements
National Association of Build radon-resistant homes in National resolution, EPA/NAHB Homebuilders
Homebuilders highest risk radon areas. Use radon in new construction
the following techniques. brochure, research program
National Association of County governments need to Conferences, "county news" County commissioners,
Counties reduce radon health risks. radon articles, National county health directors,
Advisory Committee, model code officials
radon counties, county grants
in high-risk areas
American Public Health Radon is bad in this area. State radon campaigns, low State and local public health
Association Health leaders should lead income and minority radon officials
on radon. programs
American College of Preventive Employers, HMOs and Radon leader kits, radon training Preventive medicine
Medicine preventive medicine programs, newsletter; articles physicians, corporate
physicians need to medical executives
encourage radon action.
Consumer Federation of People in this area should test/ Door-to-door campaigns, local Local public
America fix. media campaigns
National Conference of State Need more legislation Director membership, State legislatures
Legislators regarding radon. Need newsletters, conferences, radon
education for State seminars, model radon
legislators concerning radon legislation
issues. State governments
need to reduce radon risks.
International City Managers City governments need to Radon testing of administrators City administrators
Association reduce radon health risks. homes, training conferences,
model city radon programs
Surgeon General Use this PSA. Radon is bad. Radon public service Media public service
Test your home. Fix high announcement, letter to public directors, general public
levels. Call 800-SOS-Radon service directors health professionals
ARELLO States should address radon in Conferences State real estate off•
real estate transactions.
National Safety Council Radon is worse than most Reporter's guide to radon, NSC Environmental journalists
people think. News media newsletters, regular "radon
should cover the issue more tips" mailings to reporters
often.
Conference of Radiation Promote information exchange Radon bulletin, newsletters State radon contacts
Control Program Directors between states concerning
radon legislation. Keep
states in communication
with current EPA legislation
regarding radon.
National Medical Association Member physicians should be Fact sheets, newsletters African American physicians
informed regarding radon
issues.
National Coalition of Hispanic Radon is a health hazard and Newsletter, community-based Hispanic, Spanish-speaking
Health and Human Services home testing is necessary. computer link up population of the United
Organizations States
Environmental Law Institute Radon is a health risk. Radon Press releases from Public Affairs Public, homebuyers and
should be addressed during Office sellers, the radon industry
real estate transactions.
AM News, American Medical Television, and frequent contin- works with the states and other partners to evaluate the
uing education conferences. These organizations have devel- effectiveness of each radon initiative according to a number
oped a wide range of channels for delivering information to of key evaluation criteria. These criteria include: the number
their target audiences--their members and affiliates. of people contacted, number of radon tests conducted, and
In turn, each of these target audiences uses its own chan- the number of homes mitigated or built with radon-resistant
nels to deliver radon information to individual members of construction. In addition, bottom-line environmental results
the public. This means that the ultimate consumer, the home- are also evaluated through extensive state and national sur-
owner, ends up receiving a consistent message on radon from veys by CRCPD, CDC, and others. These surveys assess public
a number of key sources. The radon communications pro- awareness, testing rates, and number of homes mitigated.
gram is thus highly leveraged, as illustrated in Fig. 4. Each Through this decentralized system, EPA has made signifi-
target audience, like physicians and local government offi- cant progress in raising public awareness and understanding
cials, becomes a source of information for new target audi- of the health risks associated with indoor radon. Surveys
ences like their patients and local constituents. Consistent show that about 70% of the U.S. public is aware of the radon
and accurate information delivered by multiple sources health problems [15]. In addition, the Program has fostered
through multiple channels will repeat and reinforce the need the development of a well-trained and competent industry for
for public action. radon testing and mitigation, as well as a large and diverse
group of program partners that stand ready to provide the
Management of the Radon Program's decentralized system
public with necessary advice and assistance.
is predicated on four basic operating principles. First, the
Program has developed a clear mission--to reduce the public
health risk of indoor radon. The Radon Program seeks to
accomplish this overall missior~ by setting measurable goals A CONTINUUM OF STRATEGIES FOR
that keep efforts focused and allow the Program and its coop- SOLVING THE RADON PROBLEM
erative partners to both quantify success and eliminate waste
(Table 3). The Program, however, maintains flexibility so that In developing strategies for reducing radon risks, the
the states and cooperative partners can achieve program Radon Program is learning from the experience of other
goals in ways that make the most sense considering their successful national public health campaigns. As summarized
individual capabilities and constraints, and that enable rapid in the examples below, the experience gained through these
program adjustments and improvements. programs provides valuable lessons that have been integrated
Finally, the Radon Program stresses evaluation to ensure into the Agency's strategy to reduce risk from radon.
that results are monitored routinely and program activities 9 U.S. Anti-Smoking Campaign. Beginning in 1966, the De-
are redirected and refined as needed. For example, EPA partment of Health, Education, and Welfare (later reorga-
RMP/RCP NAHB
ALA
NAS
AdC
Radon Home / SAB
N~ Local Industry Builders f
Affiliates
Public Sersice ~ ~
s~ienti~ AMA
NSC Directors . s/ Scientists f
En,ironmental N ~ 9 a/
Media .~..t ~ ~ ~ r Physicians
Federal ~ { T k a l~,kl-',~ ~ ~ Black
CIAQ ~ Agencies ~ ~t a l g a u t ; , , ~ ] Physicians NMA
~. ~ / ~ ~ PreventiveMedicine
State ~ __ . ~ Physicians
Legislators / 9 9 ~IL N
NCSL ~ states f T "~ OX~cthk "~ ACPM
County. Hispanic
Officials City Health Officials
Administrators
\
APHA
NACo COSSMHO
ICMA
FIG. 4-Repetition and reinforcement of radon messages.
TABLE 3--Measurable goals for the radon program.

Current Estimates 1993 Targets 2000 Targets
Key Area National High-Risk National High-Risk National High-Risk
Awareness 63% NA* 65% + 5% 75% 90%
Testing 9% NA* 2.3M (2.9%) 2'3 1.0M (5.0%) 2.3 26.1M (31%) 3 ll.3M (57%) 3
Mitigation NA* NA* 50K (0.8%) 2,4 31K (1.3%) 2'4 810K (13.5%) 4 480K (20%) 4
School testing 1 22% NA* 29% 62% 75% 90%
New construction: 4% NA* 5% + 10K homes 2 33% 2 50% 2
radon-resistant
homes built
New construction: NA* NA* 2 states 1 state; 5 20 states; 25% 20 states;
laws or policies localities of localities 33% of
w/code localities
authority w/code
authority
State real estate laws 5 states with NA* 6 states with 3 states with 45% of zones 45% of zone
or policies laws; 2 proposed proposed 2 and 3 1 testing or
states laws; 5-10 laws; 3-7 with disclosure
with states with states with disclosure laws (5
policies policies policies laws or states)
policies
NOTE:M = million; K = thousand.
*NA: Data not available at this time.
1Figures are cumulative by years 1993 and 2000.
2Figures show incremental gain in years 1993 and 2000.
3percentagesare of all homes coveredby EPA'stesting policy (83 million national; 20 million in high-risk areas). Target for 2000 assumes base of 9 million homes
(10.8%) tested to date.
4percentages are of homes testing greater than 4 pCi/L [148 Bq/m3] (6 million nationally; 2.4 million in high-risk areas).
nized into H H S ) b e g a n a public a w a r e n e s s c a m p a i g n to years. Both British C o l u m b i a a n d Quebec have imple-

i n f o r m the public a n d reduce cigarette c o n s u m p t i o n . While m e n t e d s i m i l a r p r o g r a m s a n d now have usage rates greater
the c a m p a i g n has achieved d r a m a t i c success over the p a s t t h a n 90% as well [18].
26 years, this success has c o m e only after concerted efforts A review of these a n d o t h e r national p r o g r a m s reveals a
t h r o u g h a variety of strategies. Namely, H H S c o m b i n e d n u m b e r of i m p o r t a n t lessons for EPA. F o r example, success
forces with a n u m b e r of cooperative p a r t n e r s (e.g., the in c h a n g i n g h u m a n b e h a v i o r takes t i m e a n d c o m e s only
A m e r i c a n Lung Association, states, the private sector, a n d
t h r o u g h strong n a t i o n a l a n d local networks delivering consis-
others) to d i s s e m i n a t e public i n f o r m a t i o n and actively en-
tent information. The experience of these p r o g r a m s , as well
courage people to quit smoking. The c a m p a i g n also has p u t
as the R a d o n P r o g r a m experience, also shows that success
in place incentives to stop smoking, such as insurance pre-
requires a mixture of diverse strategies. The c o n t i n u u m of
m i u m discounts, a n d has sought a n d helped to establish
strategies used by these p r o g r a m s is s h o w n in Fig. 5.
a n t i - s m o k i n g regulations [16].
Several of the strategies s h o w n in Fig. 5 are n o w being used
9 U.S. Seat Belt Program. Since its b e g i n n i n g in the mid-
b y states a n d c o o p e r a t i n g n a t i o n a l organizations. F e d e r a l
1970s, this p r o g r a m has increased front seat belt use from
a n d state p r o g r a m s have developed a n d d i s s e m i n a t e d p u b l i c
a b o u t 11 to 49%. Most of this increase followed the passage
of state m a n d a t o r y use laws, which were enacted t h r o u g h i n f o r m a t i o n m a t e r i a l s a n d p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n m a t e r i a l s that
the c o m b i n e d efforts of states, m e d i c a l a n d public health inform people a b o u t the risk of i n d o o r r a d o n a n d w h a t they
organizations, the a u t o m o b i l e industry, a n d grassroots or- can do to reduce that risk. Over time, these m a t e r i a l s have
ganizations like Mothers Against D r u n k Driving. While the grown m o r e specialized as large, technical d o c u m e n t s are
passage of these laws in m o s t states has resulted in an being replaced with m o r e targeted m a t e r i a l s designed to en-
initial, significant increase in seat belt usage, the rate of belt c o u r a g e specific actions a m o n g certain groups. F o r example,
use has subsequently stabilized o r declined moderately. the Home Buyer's and Seller's Guide to Radon is specifically
This "post-law stabilization" is p a r t l y due to the fact that designed to e n c o u r a g e i n f o r m e d decisions d u r i n g real estate
m o s t states are not actively enforcing m a n d a t o r y use laws, transactions. R a d o n b r o c h u r e s a n d p u b l i c service a n n o u n c e -
n o r are they providing public i n f o r m a t i o n that calls atten- m e n t s also e n c o u r a g e the public to act by linking r a d o n to
tion to the laws a n d the penalties for not w e a r i n g seat belts family health risks. And the Consumer's Guide to Radon Re-
[17]. duction provides g u i d a n c e to c o n s u m e r s w h o have a l r e a d y
9 Saskatchewan Seat Belt Program. To c o m b a t the s a m e tested for r a d o n a n d are considering their m i t i g a t i o n options.
"post-law stabilization" in seat belt use rates in C a n a d a as At the s a m e time, EPA is researching incentive p r o g r a m s to
has been observed in the United States, the Province of p r o m o t e r a d o n testing a n d mitigation, such as d i s c o u n t e d o r
S a s k a t c h e w a n initiated a c o m b i n e d p u b l i c relations a n d free test kits, especially for high-risk populations.
advertising campaign. This c a m p a i g n , w h i c h showed driv- Finally, states a n d o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s are p u r s u i n g a vari-
ers being ticketed for not w e a r i n g their seat belts, increased ety of r e g u l a t o r y r a d o n initiatives. S o m e states have a l r e a d y
belt usage in S a s k a t c h e w a n to m o r e t h a n 90% in just a few e n a c t e d laws that require school testing a n d disclosure of
142 MANUAL ON RADON
Most 9 Most
Flexible Prescriptive
I I I
Information: Motivation: Incentives: Regulation:
Let citizens make their Encourage the public Provide an immediate Require citizens to
own choices to act advantage for acting take action
I=lG. 5-Continuum of radon risk reduction strategies.
potential radon problems in real estate transactions. Several 9 Target the greatest risks first. The Radon Program Review
states and local jurisdictions are either implementing or panel recommended that the Radon Program focus its
considering radon-resistant new construction requirements. efforts and resources in the near-term on high radon poten-
Many new homebuilders are voluntarily using radon-resist- tial areas and smoking-related risks.
ant new construction techniques. Some real estate associa- 9 Promote radon-resistant new construction. The Program
tions are voluntarily incorporating the use of radon disclo- should encourage and support pilot projects at the state
sure forms into their regular business practices. Congress is and local levels to promote radon-resistant new construc-
considering new regulatory options such as mandatory test- tion, which has the potential to reduce risks in a very cost-
ing of schools and federal buildings, as well as minimum effective manner.
radon reduction measures for new construction. In the fu- 9 Support testing and mitigation in connection with real estate
ture, all of these strategies will continue to be pursued in transactions. The panel recommended that the Radon Pro-
combination by states, national organizations, EPA, and gram encourage and support pilot projects at the state and
others to combat the radon problem. local levels to further promote testing and mitigation as
part of real estate transactions.
9 Develop a new strategy for public information. The Radon
Program should continue its nationwide public informa-
FOCUS ON KEY PRIORITIES tion efforts such as the Citizen's Guide and the advertising
campaign, focusing on high radon potential areas and high-
Given the breadth of radon scientific issues and policies, as risk populations in the short-term. In the longer-term, the
well as the decentralized outreach system and range of strate- panel recommended that the Program use public informa-
gies outlined above, the number and diversity of ongoing tion, motivation, and incentives programs to build institu-
Radon Program activities is significant. While flexibility is in tional support for construction of radon-resistant new
itself an important element of the Program, it is also crucial, homes and for regulations or policies to require testing and
especially in light of substantial budget constraints, that the mitigating when existing homes are sold.
Program set priorities to help concentrate efforts on those 9 Develop a coordinated research plan. Finally, the panel rec-
activities that will be most effective in achieving the overall ommended that the Radon Program develop a long-term
mission of radon risk reduction. research plan to prioritize and coordinate potential future
The Radon Program is establishing these priority activities research.
based on recent recommendations from a broad internal and
The Radon Program, states, and cooperating national orga-
external Radon Program Review which was coordinated by
nizations have, for several years, focused on many activities
EPA's Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation (OPPE). In
that are consistent with the recommendations and directions
the fall of 1990, the Radon Division requested that OPPE
developed by the Radon Program Review panel. The Program
organize a process to evaluate the Radon Program and make
is now aggressively reviewing and expanding these ongoing
recommendations on future directions to increase risk reduc-
efforts.
tion. OPPE organized a panel of senior headquarters and
regional managers from across the Agency who held a series
of meetings with experts outside the Agency to include their
Target Greatest Risks First
perspectives. As part of its review, the panel discussed the
relative merits of a range of radon strategies, including geo- The Radon Program is focusing resources and initiatives
graphic targeting, testing, and mitigation during real estate aimed at targeting the greatest risk areas and populations.
transactions, and public information strategies. Radon Pro- Examples of new and ongoing activities include: developing
gram plans for focusing efforts in each of the five key areas and releasing the National Radon Potential Map, targeting
are further detailed in the strategy entitled "Implementation State Indoor Radon Grant (SIRG) funds to highest risk geo-
of OPPE Panel Recommendations. ''1 The Radon Program Re- graphic areas and populations, cooperating with the U.S.
view panel issued the following recommendations in their Geological Survey and the Department of Energy on a special
final report: project to develop a model which could further refine the
identification of high radon areas, cooperating with the
1Copies can be obtained from the EPA Radon Division; the address American Lung Association and others to target smokers, a
is provided at the end of the reference section. new initiative in cooperation with the Consumer Federation
of America to encourage mitigation among people who have America, and the American Public Health Association affili-
tested and found high radon levels, a new cooperative pro- ates in high-risk areas, and working with the National Associ-
gram with the National Association of Counties to establish ation of Counties and the International City Managers Associ-
25 "Model County Radon Programs" in high-risk areas, and ation to develop dozens of model city and county radon
others. programs in high-risk areas.
Promote Radon-Resistant N e w Construction Develop Coordinated Research Plan

The Radon Program is expanding initiatives aimed at pro- EPA and other federal agencies have conducted extensive
moting radon-resistant new construction especially in high- research and collected large amounts of data on radon-re-
risk areas. Examples of ongoing and new activities in this lated issues. However, there are still many areas that require
area include: completing review of and issuing the EPA further research. In order to ensure that the Agency's addi-
Model Radon Building Standards and Techniques, working tional radon-related research efforts are coordinated, taken
with the national building code organizations to encourage advantage of by key organizations developing programs,
incorporation of these radon-resistant techniques into the prioritized, and do not duplicate efforts by other offices
national and regional building codes in high-risk areas, work- within EPA or other agencies, the Radon Division is working
ing with builders to encourage voluntary use of radon-resist- to develop a long-term coordinated research plan. The Radon
ant construction techniques, cooperative research to refine Division plan has three objectives: (1) identify key research
and improve existing techniques for reducing radon in new needs; (2) identify research gaps; and (3) encourage responsi-
construction, a cooperative program with the National Asso- ble agencies to fill research gaps. The Radon Division is ini-
ciation of Counties to promote adoption of radon-resistant tiating a plan to work with other EPA offices, the Department
techniques into local building codes and builder practices in of Energy (DOE), the EPA Science Advisory Board, and
high-risk areas, a cooperative project with the National Con- others to develop the overall coordinated research plan.
ference of States on Building Codes and Standards Initiatives
to identify the state and local building code authorities, and
others. CONCLUSION
As discussed in the preceding sections, EPA's strategy to

Promote Radon Action During Real Estate
reduce radon risk consists of four key elements: guiding sci-
Transactions
entific and policy principles, a decentralized management
The Radon Program is expanding initiatives aimed at pro- system, a continuum of strategies, and a strong program
moting radon action in the context of real estate transactions. focus. These elements are summarized in Fig. 6.
Examples of ongoing and new activities include: releasing the The states, the scientific community, the radon industry,
new Home Buyer's and Seller's Guide to Radon, working with local governments, national health and consumer organiza-
national organizations and state governments to promote tions, EPA, and others that contribute to the national Radon
radon disclosure, testing and mitigation policies and man- Program have accomplished a great deal since 1985. In the
dates in connection with real estate transactions especially in years since the Reading Prong discovery, EPA has signifi-
high-risk areas, conducting a series of forums in partnership cantly increased radon awareness and understanding. There
with the Environmental Law Institute to educate realtors on are numerous radon publications in wide circulation that
radon action, research with the Massachusetts Institute of provide information to targeted audiences (see Table 4). A
Technology to assess the efficacy of existing state radon dis- competent and well-trained industry for radon testing and
closure requirements, and others. mitigation has emerged. About nine million homes have been
tested for radon, and three hundred thousand homes have
been mitigated [14]. Many builders now incorporate radon-
Sustain Public Information Campaign
resistant features in new h o m e s - - a b o u t 300 000 have been
The Radon Program is sustaining major national public built with such features--and the first state and local radon
information programs and expanding initiatives to target key building codes have been adopted [19]. Grass roots aware-
populations. Examples of ongoing and new activities in this ness and support have produced real estate radon disclosure
area include: continuing to update and provide basic radon laws in five states, and the real estate industry has voluntarily
public information materials such as the Citizen's Guide to adopted disclosure policies in many other areas of the coun-
Radon, the Physician's Guide and others, continuing the na- try. The relocation industry regularly requires a radon test
tional radon TV, radio, and print advertising campaign, con- and remediation, if necessary, as a condition of property
tinuing National Radon Action Week, and expanding adver- transfer [19]. About one fifth of U.S. schools also have been
tising and cooperative minority and low-income outreach tested for radon [9].
programs aimed at achieving action on radon in minority and EPA is committed to focusing on environmental results to
low-income populations. The Radon Program is expanding assess programmatic progress, "The Radon Risk Communi-
initiatives aimed at targeting high-risk areas and populations cation and Results Study," a survey effort conducted by
through initiatives such as a cooperative public service an- the Conference of Radiation Control Program Directors
nouncement with the U.S. Surgeon General aimed at smok- (CRCPD) in 1993, is the first comprehensive study of all 50
ing-related radon risks, increasing the proportion of grants to states and the District of Columbia which addresses key
the American Lung Association, the Consumer Federation of Radon Program indicators of progress. The extensive survey
144 MANUAL ON RADON
FIG. 6-Summary of key elements of EPA's strategy to reduce radon risk.
provides statistically valid baseline i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a wide Less success has been achieved with both ethnic minorities
array of indicators of p r o g r a m progress a n d indicates that a n d low to moderate i n c o m e groups. A s u m m a r y of some of
n a t i o n a l a n d state efforts have been successful at achieving the results are included in Figs. 7, 8, a n d 9. The results of the
respectable levels of r a d o n awareness a n d testing t h r o u g h o u t study will allow EPA a n d states to set p r o g r a m goals a n d
the country, particularly in u p p e r - i n c o m e caucasian families. targets for increased risk reduction, to share successful ap-
TABLE 4--List of currently available radon publications.

9 Radon in Schools brochure
9 Reducing Radon Risks, general public radon brochure
9 Physicians Guide to Radon
9 Consumer's Guide to Radon Reduction
9 Citizen's Guide to Radon
9 Technical Support Document to the Citizen's Guide
9 Removal o f Radon in Water, Factsheet
9 Homebuyer's and Sellers Guide
9 Radon Reduction Techniques in Schools
9 Radon-Resistant Construction Techniques for New Residential Construction
9 Radon Reduction Techniques for Detached Houses
9 Application o f Radon Reduction Techniques
9 Interim Protocols for Screening and Follow-up Radon and Radon Decay Product Requirements
9 State Indoor Radon Grants Policy Priorities for F Y 1993
9 Radon Measurements in Schools
9 Indoor Radon Survey Results
9 Community action kits (including all the brochures and a 10-min videotape).
NOTE:The publicationslisted aboveare availablefrom the EPA'sPublicInformationCenterat (202) 260-7751 or from
EPA's Radon Divisionat (202) 233-9370,
S T R A T E G Y TO REDUCE R I S K OF RADON 145
FIG. 7-National summary of CRCPD results.
FIG. 8-National demographics on radon awareness from CRCPD results.

146 MANUAL ON RADON
FIG. 9-National demographics on radon awareness from CRCPD results (cont'd).
proaches, to assess a n d refine c u r r e n t efforts, a n d to ensure [2] Environmental Law Institute, "Preliminary Research Report,
t h a t the r a d o n message is d i r e c t e d effectively to all popula- Radon and Real Estate: A Survey of Selected State Laws, Pro-
tions at risk. CRCPD plans to continue to c o n d u c t the study posed Laws and Litigation," May 1992.
[3] U.S. EPA, Office of Policy, Planning, and Evaluation, Office of
p e r i o d i c a l l y to assess the ongoing efforts of each state r a d o n
Regulatory Management and Evaluation, Program Evaluation
program. Division, Radon Program Review, May 1992.
The Agency is also c o m m i t t e d to continuing scientific re- [4] U.S. EPA, Radon Division, Implementation of OPPE Panel Rec-
search on h e a l t h risks. EPA will continue to w o r k closely with ommendations, July 1992.
the N a t i o n a l A c a d e m y of Sciences (NAS), EPA's Science Advi- [5] National Council on Radiation and Measurements, NCRP Re-
sory B o a r d (SAB), a n d o t h e r m e m b e r s of the scientific com- port 64, "Influence of Dose and Its Distribution in Time on Dose-
m u n i t y to use the latest scientific r e s e a r c h to estimate risks to Response Relationships for Low-LET Radiations," Bethesda,
the general p o p u l a t i o n from i n d o o r r a d o n exposure. MD, 1980.
To b u i l d on initial success, EPA will also continue to deliver [6] National Academy of Sciences, Health Risks of Radon and Other
consistent r a d o n i n f o r m a t i o n to the public, continually rein- Internally Deposited Alpha-Emitters: BEIR IV, National Academy
forcing b a s i c scientific principles a n d policies t h a t guide the Press, Washington, DC, 1988.
[7] U.S. EPA/Office of Research and Development, "Cost of Indoor
P r o g r a m . To increase the likelihood that r a d o n messages will
Radon Reduction Systems," memorandum to the U.S. EPA
result in p u b l i c action, the P r o g r a m also will continue to rely
Radon Division Director, 1989.
on its n e t w o r k of states a n d o t h e r organizations. Effective [8] U.S. EPA, Radon Division, Technical Support Document for the
c o o p e r a t i n g n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s serve as m u l t i p l e sources 1992 Citizen's Guide to Radon, EPA 400-R-92-011, May 1992.
of r a d o n messages, have special expertise a n d c o m m u n i c a - [9] U.S. EPA, Radon Division, Estimates from the National School
tions c h a n n e l s n e e d e d to r e a c h target audiences, a n d leverage Radon Survey, RTI/5158/45-03F, 28 Sept. 1992.
EPA, state, a n d local efforts by enlisting their m e m b e r s a n d [10] Memorandum to U.S. EPA, Internal Office of Radiation Pro-
affiliates as catalysts for local r a d o n action. The P r o g r a m will gram's Estimate, prepared by ICF Incorporated, June 1991.
c o n t i n u e to develop a n d i m p l e m e n t activities along a con- [111 Bruskin Associates, New Brunswick, New Jersey, OmniTel--
t i n u u m of strategies. Efforts to i n f o r m the p u b l i c a n d encour- Radon Awareness Survey, October 1989.
age a c t i o n are i m p o r t a n t a n d will be continued, b u t they will [12] Memorandum of Johnson, F. R., "Analysis of the Wirthlin Sur-
be c o m b i n e d with incentive p r o g r a m s a n d initiatives to b u i l d vey Radon Questions," U.S. EPA Office of Policy, Planning, and
institutional s u p p o r t for b u i l d i n g codes a n d policies to re- Evaluation, 1990.
quire r a d o n testing a n d m i t i g a t i o n w h e n existing h o m e s are [13] U.S. EPA, SAB Report, "Correlation of Short-Term and Long-
Term Test Results for Indoor Radon," EPA-SAB-RAB-92-008,
sold, especially in high-risk areas. Finally, the R a d o n Pro-
December 1991.
g r a m will increase its focus on the p r i o r i t y activities r e c o m -
[14] U.S. EPA, Radon Division, A Citizen's Guide to Radon, ANR-
m e n d e d in the R a d o n P r o g r a m Review to ensure t h a t the 464.402-K92-001, May 1992.
overall m i s s i o n of r a d o n risk r e d u c t i o n is a c c o m p l i s h e d as [15] U.S. EPA, Office of Air and Radiation, and the Conference of
r a p i d l y a n d efficiently as possible. Radiation Control Program Directors (CRCPD), CRCPD Radon
Risk Communications and Results Study, March 1993.
[16] U.S. Surgeon General, "Reducing the Health Consequences of
REFERENCES Smoking, 25 Years of Smoking: a Report of the Surgeon Gen-
eral," U.S. Department of Health and Human Service, Centers
[1] U.S. EPA, Survey of Selected Public Awareness Campaigns, pre- for Disease Control, Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and
pared by ICF Incorporated, February 1991. Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, 1989.
[17] National Highway Traffice Administration/National Center for Written requests for copies of the referenced materials m a y
Statistics and Analysis, "Occupant Protection Facts," August be sent to:
1990.
EPA's R a d o n Division 6604-J
[18] Medysei, M., "Interim Evaluation of Saskatchewan's 5 Year Oc-
401 M St. SW
cupant Restraint Program," February 1990 (updated December
1990). Washington, DC 20460
[19] National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) Research Cen-
ter, Final Report on Radon Mitigating Practices of Home Builders,
6 Aug. 1992.
MNL15-EB/Jun. 1994
Current and Future 10

Perspectives*
by Susan L. Rose 1
THE PREVIOUSCHAPTERSHAVEFOCUSEDon our current under- whose cornerstones were laid in 1984-85 and which has
standing of the prevalence of radon in indoor environments, grown exponentially in size and scope.
the potential health risks associated with indoor exposure, This program, to many, is a model federal program, em-
the available techniques to measure and mitigate indoor phasizing outreach and public information. It has been
radon levels, federal radon legislation, and the U.S. Environ- viewed within and outside EPA, despite some excesses, as one
mental Protection Agency's (EPA) Radon Action Program. of the better programs that EPA has produced. The EPA
This final chapter builds upon this understanding and the program is unique in that it addresses a pollutant which
existing uncertainties in the knowledge base to identify future occurs naturally (no one caused it), is found indoors (in
policy perspectives and the research needed to adequately homes where EPA does not regulate the air quality), and is a
support these policies. well-documented (at least for smoking uranium miners)
The chapter is divided into five sections. The first section health risk. In fact, this risk is better documented than almost
addresses current federal radon policies and activities. The any other risk about which EPA is concerned. Radon is found
second section examines reactions to current radon policies virtually everywhere. The EPA radon action program ad-
from the perspective of the various interest groups, e.g., the dressing these issues is located in the Office of Radiation and
public, business, and government agencies at several levels. Indoor Air. The original aspects of the radon program are still
The third section identifies the unresolved issues surrounding in place today. These are: problem assessment, mitigation
current radon policies and develops potential options for fu- development, capability development, and public informa-
ture policies. The fourth section identifies the research tion.
needed to support different policy options and provides basic The program objectives are:
scientific information on radon. The fifth and concluding 1. To reduce and prevent risks from exposure to naturally
section provides additional perspectives on indoor radon to occurring radon through nonregulatory activities.
provoke further discussion on the subject. 2. To build a state-private sector partnership to respond to
the issue.
3. To develop an effective national program to consider exist-
ing and new structures.
C U R R E N T R A D O N POLICIES
4. To conduct a modest federal program that maximizes in-
volvement by the homeowner, the private sector, and the
By 1984, federal and state policies on radon had been in
states [1].
place for some time, including regulations of mine ventilation
and guidelines for use of uranium mill tailings in Colorado All U.S. indoor radon actions, policies, industries, and re-
and reclaimed phosphate lands in Florida. Research on in- search needs derive from the EPA program. Obviously, this
door radon was already under way and small surveys had has had a major impact, and EPA is working toward meeting
been done. Yet, in late 1984 when the Stanley Watras house in the original goals. In retrospect, neither EPA nor any other
Eastern Pennsylvania became news with a level of 10 000 radon-involved entity could have perceived the impact and
Bq m 3 (2700 pCi L ~) of radon, even radon-aware scientists repercussions of the Watras house and the resultant federal
actions, some of which will be explored in the following
and policymakers were stunned. This event proved catalytic
pages.
for major federal and state actions, surveys, and research, as
The core of present U.S. policy for controlling exposure to
well as causing public alarm and a media blitz.
indoor radon includes the following: the EPA and the Centers
Since 1984, the EPA has been the leading federal agency in
for Disease Control (CDC) have made recommendations to all
radon outreach and mitigation activities. Early EPA efforts to
homeowners for taking radon measurements and foIlowing
work with the state of Pennsylvania, citizen's groups, and
federal guidelines for remedial action; in October 1988, Con-
others were followed by the initiation of a radon program
gress passed an amendment to the Toxic Substances Control
Act Title III, Indoor Radon Abatement, that, among other
~Radon Research Program Manager, U.S. Department of Energy, provisions, established a long-term national goal for reducing
Health Effects & Life Sciences Research Division, GTN, ER72, Wash-
ington, De 20585. radon exposure; and the EPA Office of Drinking Water has
*The opinions expressed in this chapter do not necessarily reflect proposed a standard to limit radon in public water supplies
the opinions of the U.S. Department of Energy. [2].
148
C U R R E N T AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES 149
In September 1988, EPA and CDC issued a joint health radon issue, therefore, has provided a unique opportunity to
advisory recommending to homeowners that a screening examine public reactions to what appeared to be a "new
measurement be made for indoor radon concentrations in risk"--a colorless, odorless, radioactive gas entering private
every U.S. household below the third story level. The mea- homes that was not a concern for homeowners just a few
surement protocol, now modified, called for a two-day sam- years ago. Suddenly there is a radon industry, major radon
ple to be taken on the lowest livable level of the home. De- legislation, vast radon programs in local, state, and federal
pending on the results, one of four responses was agencies, radon media, radon risk communicators, and a
recommended with increasing urgency in responding. The great increase in local, state, and federally sponsored radon
lowest criterion, 4 pCi/L -I (150 Bqm-3), corresponded to surveys, radon research, and proposed regulations. The focus
EPA's current recommended action level for radon reduction. of all this attention is on homeowners or renters and eventu-
The rationale for this particular level combines historical ally school districts and workplaces. The apparent goal is to
precedent, the objective of reducing exposures to the lowest make them respond to this issue. Will homeowners/renters
extent possible, and EPA's assessment of the level of reduc- read information? Do they measure? Will they mitigate?
tion that could practically be achieved [3]. At the direction of What are their exposures? Can they buy, sell, or build homes
Congress, this recommendation has been reevaluated and without being involved, even inadvertently, in this issue? Are
reissued and will be again in the future, possibly to a lower they being "informed" or "persuaded," and by whom? Are
"health-based" standard. they victims of fraud and deceit? Who will protect the public?
It is important to note that this recommendation does not Who will provide scientific answers? Can mortgages be
constitute a standard. At present, the EPA does not have affected?
legislative authority to regulate indoor air quality. According
to current policy, individual homeowners must weigh the risk
of radon exposure against the cost of control. In this regard, The Public
the strategy for controlling indoor radon departs radically in many parts of the country where radon surveys have
from that for controlling outdoor air pollutants. In the latter been undertaken by the government or the media, the public
case, federal standards have been established, and the impo- often responds to promotional materials by a surge in pur-
sition of sanctions has been threatened for regions that do not chases of radon measuring devices, a lesser number of mea-
achieve compliance. The differences in approach arise natu- surements actually being made, and fewer yet repeat mea-
rally because outdoor air is a community resource, whereas surements and mitigations installed. This response appears
indoor environments are largely private. The outdoor pollu- to be predictable from many studies on risk communication
tants that are regulated are not naturally occurring, a very and risk perception for a variety of hazards including radon.
different situation from indoor radon. However, this position Radon is not a regulated pollutant in residences, has no
does not accommodate the large number of public buildings sensory clues, has a delayed health effect, occurs naturally,
whose radon levels have yet to be determined [2]. and is competing with myriad other government pollutant
Using available scientific knowledge on radon, radon poli- alarms. Yet this is a radiation issue, a term which appears to
cymakers worldwide have developed a full spectrum of radon frighten most people, and it presents a greater and better
policy responses ranging from no action to guidelines to documented health risk than most other risks regulated by
standards. Although all policies were developed to reduce the EPA [5]. What can or should be done to change the public
indoor radon exposure, international policies differ in their response pattern?
approach, choice of recommended levels, and impact on While individual choice is the optimum goal in terms of
affected populations. European policymakers, in contrast to citizen action, the better educated, more affluent, and more
those in the United States, have selected different policy ap- risk-averse segments of the population seem to respond in
proaches to reduce indoor radon levels. For example, in the greatest numbers to this issue. For example, as reported by
United Kingdom and Sweden a two-tiered system was cre- Fisher and Sjoberg [5], a sample of homeowners studied in
ated which treated new dwellings differently from existing Maine showed that over half reported mitigation in their
structures. In addition, in Canada, policymakers have chosen homes, but less than half of these had radon levels over 4
an action level of 0.1 WL, corresponding to 7400 Bq m -3 (20 pCi/L 1. Given current EPA guidelines and documented
pCi L -1) for all residences. Figure 1 [3,4] superimposes differ- health effects, this may appear as a waste of resources, with
ent international policies onto the frequency distribution of analysis showing no relation between mitigation performed
radon concentrations in U.S. homes. It is important to em- and elevated radon levels. The issue here remains--how to
phasize that the percentage of homes affected, and hence present the scientifically sound information that citizens re-
populations affected and costs incurred, are dramatically af- quire, encourage actions designed to reduce actual health
fected by the choice of action level. risk, and allow citizens freedom of choice to do nothing if
they so choose. Indeed, states where high radon areas have
been identified, accurate information has been made avail-
PUBLIC, INDUSTRY, AND STATE able, and appropriate responses have resulted should be
REACTIONS models for other areas of the country. Government and
health departments clearly must avoid actions to manipulate
The differing perspectives of the public, radon measure- the public response, a great temptation once goals are set.
ment firms, radon mitigation contractors, real estate agents, Two views of risk communication are stated by Sandman
home builders, and state and local governments are reflected et al., [6]; one is grounded in information, while the other is
in their reactions to current radon policies and activities. The grounded in audience attitudes, emotions, and behavior.
150 MANUAL ON RADON
HISTOGRAM SHOWS PERCENTAGE OF HOUSES

HAVING GIVEN RADON CONCENTRATION
30- SOLID CURVE IS LOG-NORMAL FIT TO
CONCENTRATION DATA WITH:
GM = 0 . 9 6 p C i / 1
GSD = 2.84
25- AM = 1.66 pCi/1
DASHED CURVESHOWS DISTRIBUTION

OF EXPOSURESOR RISK AS
FUNCTIONOF CONCENTRATION
I.-. 20- (ASSUMES 0.5 EQUILIBRIUM FACTOR)
2:
LIJ
O EPA GUIDELINE FOR
ACTION
UJ (0.02 WL)
,, 15-
\ SWEDEN
ACTION
SWEDEN DESIGN LEVEL
m %% (400 Bg/m ~
LEVEL
(100 Bg/m 3 PROGENY) PROGENY]
,~ UNITED KINGDOM CANADIAN
NCRP EXISTING DWELLING RADIATION I
5- 9 ,,
"~',,,,,~
ACTION LEVEL
12 ACTION LEVEL PROTECTION
WLM/Yr) (20 r n S v / y r ) BUREAU
(0.1 WLI I
0 o - . . . . . . ~___
0 4 8 12 16 20
FIG. 1-Distribution of Radon Concentrations and Lung Cancer Risk in 552 Homes (3,4)
Each risk c o m m u n i c a t o r must design differing communica- instead creating its own information brochure. While origi-
tion strategies to accomplish his or her goals. When c o m m u - nally intending to r e c o m m e n d twelve-month alpha-track
nication of risks is intended as an educational process, "risk measurements to its citizens, Minnesota eventually partici-
communicators (especially government agencies) should pated in the EPA state survey using short-term charcoal can-
avoid the arrogance of prejudging what citizens ought to ister measurements in the state. Several small radon surveys,
think, feel, or do. Instead, they should confine themselves to however, had been made with longer term measurements. A
explaining the relevant information as clearly as they can and significant n u m b e r of homes in Minnesota appear to have
should measure their success by what facts the audience has radon levels in excess of 4 pCi/L-1, although not m a n y are
learned . . . . The b o u n d a r y between persuasion and informa- greatly elevated. Wherever possible, long-term measure-
tion is far from well defined" [6]. ments are the preferred option as state policy. Minnesota also
participated in the EPA n o n r a n d o m school survey and care-
fully informed schools and parents when elevated levels were
State Responses--Minnesota, California, and found. Attention to public reaction has been a major part of
Florida the effort expended on this issue.
At present, the majority of states either have performed The state acquired funding for an EPA Radon Training
their own residential r a d o n surveys or have participated in Center and is establishing r a d o n as part of a total I n d o o r Air
EPA-assisted surveys. Studies of radon in the workplace and Quality Plan. It encourages testing whenever possible with
in schools are underway, or will be, in m a n y states. twelve-month detectors to better understand average annual
As case studies for this chapter, the "radon experience" in exposures. The state is also working with health care pro-
three states is briefly examined: (1) Minnesota, where a 1988 viders, the American Lung Association, Honeywell, Inc., and
EPA press release characterized Minnesota as the "second several health insurance companies to approach this issue in
Reading Prong," a charge that Minnesota officials reacted to as comprehensive a way as possible. The plan design and the
strongly; (2) California, where state surveys have found very frankness and willingness of the state health department to
limited areas of elevated radon [7]; and (3) Florida, where undertake research and create its own educational materials
elevated levels of radon generally correlate with elevated provide an excellent model.
levels of soil phosphate.
California
Minnesota The radon issue in California also began prior to the discov-
As part of u r a n i u m exploratory drilling, radon testing of ery of the Watras house, with a failed attempt to obtain
m a n y wells and municipal drinking water supplies was con- federal funding for a statewide indoor radon survey. The state
ducted in the late 1970s. When the Watras home was discov- has since performed its own twelve-month alpha-track sur-
ered in 1984 and the national indoor radon issue hit Minne- vey, and there have been others statewide, including a survey
sota, the state was already alert to this topic. It took an with twelve-month alpha-track measurements by the Los An-
independent stance and rejected the first EPA Citizens Guide, geles Times [8]. The state also performed a r a n d o m survey of
CURRENT AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES 151
two-day m e a s u r e m e n t s in schools. The a p p r o a c h in Califor- nent for the creation and distribution of materials. The
nia has been centralized, and state research funding has often p r o g r a m requires m a n d a t o r y testing for all state owned, op-
been provided. Except for a very localized g e o g r a p h i c area, erated, regulated, or licensed properties, as well as kindergar-
no significantly elevated r a d o n p r o b l e m s have been seen in ten t h r o u g h high schools a n d 24-h care facilities. State m o n e y
California. In 1988, the state's Health Director, Ken Kizer, is not provided for testing o r mitigation. Measurers m u s t
went on r e c o r d to say "that it is not necessary for all home- notify the state with the n u m b e r s being compiled. The state
owners in California to test for radon," [8], a policy directly at developed and used its own public service a n n o u n c e m e n t .
odds with EPA's national policy. California policy c o n t i n u e d Although the state is moving a h e a d vigorously with r a d o n
to differ from EPA policy, the issue of r a d o n in schools being activities, building code revisions, and legislative activities, it
a n o t h e r example. California officials found virtually no ele- is a p p a r e n t that costs, both public or private, are a con-
vated levels of r a d o n in schools and thus publicly q u e s t i o n e d straining factor. The F l o r i d a p h o s p h a t e p r o b l e m is u n i q u e
the usefulness a n d cost of the national policies on school a n d the r a d o n a p p r o a c h has been scientific a n d balanced, yet
measurements. cost c o n s i d e r a t i o n s here, as elsewhere, affect the goals of the
F o r years, California c o n t i n u e d to do its own research, to state r a d o n p r o g r a m . The state calls its original r a d o n pro-
p e r f o r m r a n d o m surveys, and to set policy goals as d e e m e d g r a m a "discovery phase." Once finished, no one is certain
a p p r o p r i a t e for its geological/geographical setting. The state w h a t will follow. F l o r i d a has w o r k e d long a n d h a r d with EPA
has 11% of the U.S. population, so its r a d o n actions deserve on the r a d o n issue, as well as with the p h o s p h a t e industry.
attention. California is an example of the need to tailor envi- Both EPA and DOE h a d research p r o g r a m s in the state a n d
r o n m e n t a l policies to local a n d unique conditions. National have learned m u c h from a unique but generalizable r a d o n
policies often take a m o r e generic approach. problem.
At the state level, it does a p p e a r that public reaction to the
r a d o n issue is mixed: the m o r e publicity, the m o r e interest.
This has r a n g e d from n e a r hysteria to extreme skepticism. Radon Measurement Companies
The n u m b e r s of m e a s u r e m e n t s and mitigations undertaken,
resulting from state surveys o r m e d i a coverage, seem to ebb S o m e insights m a y be gained from looking at the experi-
a n d flow with m e d i a events. Both California and Minnesota, ences of both a small and a large r a d o n m e a s u r e m e n t com-
with different geologic settings, have taken very proactive pany. One small M a r y l a n d c o m p a n y sees m e a s u r e m e n t re-
roles on this issue. Both states have acted with great c o n c e r n quests peak, as would be predicted, in fall and early winter. It
in terms of public health, public information, a n d potential observed an initial large response to the early m e d i a r a d o n
expense. Both continue to a t t e m p t to carry out r a d o n activi- p r o n o u n c e m e n t s in the Washington, DC area, followed by a
ties within state funding constraints, a n d both differ from lesser, m o r e brief, flurry of interest each time r a d o n has
federal policies a n d actions w h e n conditions a p p e a r to m e r i t a p p e a r e d in the news. Many "risk averse" c u s t o m e r s a p p e a r
their own responses. to be testing, indifferent to w h e t h e r the m e d i a highlights the
issue o r not. This c o m p a n y does not follow up on which cus-
Florida tomers mitigate o r not. It does see some "panic" reactions at
The state of F l o r i d a b e c a m e involved in the issue of i n d o o r all levels of m e a s u r e m e n t results. This p a n i c seems to relate
r a d o n for a u n i q u e r e a s o n - - p h o s p h a t e m i n i n g a n d r e c l a i m e d m o r e to families with children, especially where s u b u r b a n
p h o s p h a t e lands in the state. These areas provided a source lifestyles have children playing in lower level family r o o m s
for elevated r a d o n exposure to citizens. In the 1970s, con- m u c h of the time. The m o s t steady r a d o n - m e a s u r i n g business
cerns led to a survey of over 1000 homes, p r i m a r i l y in two for this firm continues to c o m e from schools a n d parent-
counties, w h e r e a n u m b e r of elevated r a d o n levels were t e a c h e r organizations, where r e d u c e d rates are offered to
found. Seasonal a n d a n n u a l m e a s u r e m e n t s were m a d e in 100 families w h e n their schools are m e a s u r e d u n d e r county con-
of these homes, a n d no significant seasonal difference was tracts. A n o t h e r avenue for steady business a p p e a r s to be
found. h o m e o w n e r s associations w h e n g r o u p rates are p r o v i d e d be-
In 1984, the state of F l o r i d a developed, with EPA guidance, cause equity concerns motivate interest in radon.
an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e rule on r a d o n for new c o n s t r u c t i o n in Larger firms a p p e a r s to be less vulnerable to r a d o n m e d i a
certain areas of the state, a guideline of 4 p e i / L ~ i n d o o r attention b e c a u s e they have established m a j o r c o n t r a c t s with
radon. In 1986-1987 the state u n d e r t o o k a r a d o n survey to large c o r p o r a t i o n s a n d school districts a n d are suppliers to
categorize counties with definite evidence of elevated radon, g o v e r n m e n t surveys. One large firm sells alpha-track,
counties with limited evidence of elevated levels, a n d count- electret, a n d c h a r c o a l canister m e a s u r i n g devicesi while the
ies with no potential for excessive r a d o n levels [9]. s m a l l e r firm interviewed sells only charcoal c a n i s t e r devices
A r a d o n statute p a s s e d in 1988 [10] provided F l o r i d a with a a n d m e a s u r e m e n t s . F o r situations where EPA protocols are
r a d o n p r o g r a m to identify a n d eliminate r a d o n p r o b l e m s a n d unavailable, the large firm designs s a m p l i n g protocols for
to change a n d verify building codes. The statute established a c o r p o r a t e needs. Even though their business is c o r p o r a t e a n d
r a d o n trust fund w h i c h levied a surcharge of 1 cent p e r square real estate driven, EPA r a d o n publicity is still eagerly awaited.
foot on new c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d renovation of buildings. The F o r m e a s u r i n g companies, s o m e earlier p r o b l e m s with
trust fund, in turn, s u p p o r t e d a wide-ranging r a d o n r e s e a r c h m o i s t u r e and i n a c c u r a t e charcoal canister r e a d i n g s were re-
p r o g r a m in Florida. solved. Significantly though, m a n y c o m p a n i e s often serve
The statute also p r o v i d e d the F l o r i d a p r o g r a m with re- real estate t r a n s a c t i o n s b a s e d solely on s h o r t - t e r m charcoal
quired testing, certifying, a n d training of m e a s u r e r s a n d miti- m e a s u r e m e n t s . This occurs despite the w i d e s p r e a d knowl-
gators. The statutes included a public i n f o r m a t i o n c o m p o - edge that t a m p e r i n g with canisters can occur, that u s e r in-
152 MANUAL ON RADON
structions are often not followed, and that short-term mea- confirmation testing. Mitigators fear that current quality con-
surements do not reflect average annual exposure. trol procedures are not reliable. Some mitigators return an-
The small measuring firm does not recommend specific nually to mitigated homes for follow-up radon measurements
mitigators to its clients but nonetheless does get customer to assure themselves that the mitigation techniques they in-
feedback on good and bad mitigators (some large firms do stalled are still operating correctly. This is not a required
both measuring and mitigating). Health information from service, but the way some companies have developed their
the "EPA Citizens' Guide" is provided to its customers. In operation. Others may not return for post-mitigation testing,
many large and small measuring companies the staff partici- but do guarantee a certain maximal level of radon in homes
pate actively in scientific and technical societies for radon- they have "fixed."
measuring professionals, which gives them an advanced look One Reading Prong mitigator expressed observations
at what problems and solutions may be heading their way. about the engineering quality and the escalating cost of miti-
Information provided to customers in most cases is limited to gation, as well as a lack of reality as to published mitigation
government-provided scientific data sheets, while advice on costs. Even for new construction, costs are probably closer to
risk and mitigation action is often not given. $500 per home than the $200 figure often cited. The following
The companies providing information for this chapter are of EPA guidelines, continual training, and expensive govern-
responsive to a climate of changing EPA protocols and new ment fees imposed on mitigators to regulate the industry all
products. They are also subject to the EPA Radon Measure- contribute to rapidly increasing costs. Other major concerns
ment Proficiency Program, a voluntary program in which voiced include getting and paying for insurance and worker
successful measurers are listed. A variety of problems have liability issues. Another significant consequence of much mit-
arisen with EPA Radon Measurement Proficiency Program igation practice was the resultant violation of fire codes, an
delays, business lost, increasingly poor results industry-wide, issue that has been addressed. Backdrafting from combus-
and no appeal process. Many of these issues have been re- tion appliances in mitigated homes has been of concern as
solved by EPA and the industry. well.
The radon industry has experienced the vagaries of a new
industry, one that perhaps grew too rapidly. In addition, be-
Radon Mitigation Companies cause EPA policies have recommended winter radon mea-
Radon remediation companies and construction firms surements, the industry suffered a summertime slump. To
have now sprung up over the country; they constitute a new compensate, the industry has marshalled its resources to
industry, with both new and retrofitted businesses participat- legislatively encourage national or state requirements for
ing. In some cases, pesticide or home-improvement compa- radon measuring and mitigating. At present, radon industry
nies or construction firms have added radon mitigation to goals include programs to keep the radon issue strong in the
their list of services, while, in others, entrepreneurs have public mind, requiring certain types of certification and train-
learned the techniques required and set up business de novo. ing for radon specialists and attempting to make radon test-
Radon mitigation is not difficult engineering technology, but ing and mitigation by EPA-listed professionals a legal re-
does present some diagnostic challenges and some interest- quirement in Congress and in the states. They also want
ing ethical issues. The most significant ethical issue is that mandatory school and workplace measurements and regula-
those who measure and those who mitigate a home should tions requiring radon measurements when real estate trans-
not be the same due to the potential conflict of interest. The actions occur. The outcome of these efforts is uncertain, as
person mitigating should be properly trained to identify and other competing forces, including mortgage lenders, home
correct a problem at minimal expense. builders, real estate firms, and banking interests, all have an
Several mitigation companies have provided typical cus- interest in these issues.
tomer patterns for use in this chapter and insights into the As seen by the radon industry [11], the primary "drivers" of
radon mitigation business. For one small company, the ser- the radon business are law, mortgage lenders and guarantors,
vice area includes the affluent Washington, DC suburbs, real estate companies, the media, public awareness, and the
where residents have been subjected to many radon media radon industry. As any other industry would do, the radon
events, including a campaign by a local TV station and a industry uses, and will continue to use, whatever drivers will
major food chain. The typical profile of calls is a handful of increase business and profits.
homeowners with radon levels between 2 and 4 pCi/L ~, most
between 4 and 40 pCi/L- 1, some between 40 and 200 pCi/L ~,
Real Estate Industry/Homebuilders
and a handful over 200 pCi/L-1. Phone call intensity does not
seem to be directly related to media events. About half the The real estate, homebuilding, and mortgage banking in-
calls received are generated by real estate transactions, possi- dustries are directly affected by radon policies and media
bly 20 to 30% are based on fear of radon, and most of the rest activities. Potential liability, real estate equity, radon mea-
are based on a belief that radon mitigation is a cost-effective surements for real estate transfers, availability of insurance,
means of risk avoidance. radon "proofing" of homes, employee relocation policies, etc.
In many companies, the staff are radon professionals who are among the many facets of the radon issue of concern to
have been trained in EPA courses; these businesses have these industries. That radon measurements are most often
established model business ethics. There appears to be con- short-term charcoal canister, are not tamper proof, and do
cern voiced by these mitigators, perhaps generic to the miti- not relate to inhabitants' average annual exposure all play
gation industry, about the accuracy and reliability of various havoc with radon measurements for real estate transactions.
radon testing methods which they use for post-mitigation The real estate industry's initial position was that real estate
transactions should not drive the radon issue, which is a maining in this issue and to aid policymakers in making wise
public health matter. Yet the situation has evolved that real and economically sensible choices.
estate transactions are a major driving force for radon mea- Radon policy changes are likely in the near future. The
surements and mitigation [12] and may very well be imposed government has chosen to try to actively influence citizens to
by future regulation, either state, local, or federal. take radon actions rather than to just provide them with
These affected industries work closely with the EPA, fed- scientific information, for example, the radon ad campaigns
eral and regional trade association offices, the Employee Re- [14] distributed nationwide. Short, pithy, advertising spots
location Council, and others concerned with the radon issue have been designed to strongly motivate people to take ac-
to see that the public gets the information necessary to make tion. No indication of the vast uncertainties of risk at low
an educated choice about radon measuring and mitigation levels of radon has been provided in order not to confuse the
and that federal and local policies are modified if possible to advertising goal of making the public measure the radon in
suit consumer or industry needs. These industries also lobby their homes. Information related to the uncertainties is espe-
federal and state legislatures when legislation is proposed cially important for nonsmokers so that they may realistically
that will directly affect the homebuilding or real estate indus- look at their lung cancer risks.
tries and add costs and uncertainties with questionable bene- The two-measurement strategy recommended initially by
fit. EPA as a way to quickly identify elevated homes proved con-
These affected industries have witnessed a surge of local fusing to consumers. Current policy has altered this strategy.
interest in radon when a local TV station or newspaper does a The great variability of radon levels from day to day or the
radon series or when a local governmental agency releases a uncertainties of current measurement technology may not be
radon survey or finds elevated radon levels locally. Because reflected in short-termed testing. Risk numbers, once up to
these industries work closely with federal and local agencies 43 000 radon deaths per year [15] and now lowered to an
and Congress, their individual members are usually well in- upper bound of 30 000 (with a central value of 13 600), are
formed on radon through their national organizations. Their again being evaluated by the National Academy of Science
trade associations have provided policy guidelines, "radon- Beir IV panel. The lowering of the range to 30 000 in 1991
proof" home building techniques, radon fact sheets, and reflected a significant report by an National Academy of Sci-
workshops and symposia for members. They have, for the ence (NAS) panel on Comparative Dosimetry of Radon in
most part, stayed well ahead of local concerns regarding the Mines and Homes [16]. This panel determined that risk in
need for information. Nonalarmist, sound, nonregulatory homes per unit of exposure is 30% less than in the mining
radon policies based on adequate scientific information re- atmosphere. No change in guidelines is contemplated as a
main the working goals of all these organizations. National result. The EPA Science Advisory Board has recommended
organizations seek to address radon as part of a comprehen- that the central value be the figure used consistently and that
sive federal approach to all indoor and environmental pollu- uncertainty bounds be applied.
tants, while at the same time advocating research to obtain EPA measurement protocols for residences, workplaces,
better risk estimates and selectively targeting areas of ele- and schools are changing as problems become apparent or
vated radon [13]. new information is made available. It is still recommended
that every home in the U.S. be measured for radon. Should
scientific input modify federal policies for local applicability?
POLICIES A N D S C I E N C E Should homeowners be told that their risk, while likely small,
is never zero?
Radon policies have been established fairly rapidly in the Population-risk versus individual-risk policies represent
United States, both nationally and locally following the dis- very different strategies and remedies. Highly elevated homes
covery of Stanley Watras' house. Yet there remains much represent fairly certain individual risk, yet how do we identify
uncertainty in every aspect of the radon issue--location of these homes without measuring everywhere? Will targeting
the geologic areas with elevated radon potential, radon con- the entire population for radon reduction actually accom-
centrations and distributions nationally and within individ- plish anything in terms of lung cancer reduction? Should our
ual residences, actual radon risk to nonsmokers, measure- immediate goal be to find and fix truly elevated homes and
ment technology, durability of mitigation systems, and much address the overall reduction in population exposure over
more. While many federal agencies are involved in perform- many years? The costs will be dramatically lower.
ing research to reduce these uncertainties, policy choices New radon programs and surveys are looking at schools,
may not always reflect available scientific knowledge. It re- workplaces, and commercial buildings. Are workplaces a
mains to be seen what will be learned from current radon source of radon risk? What does it add to one's cumulative
research. The economic costs of radon policies (in excess of exposure to work in a workspace that is over 4 pCi/L 1 for
40 billion dollars) require that there be a strong link between several hours per day, or sit in a classroom over 4 pCi/L-
the science and policy. daily for nine months? Are children at greater risk? Available
This book has taken a broad look at what is known about evidence seems to indicate they are not [17], and the well-
the radon issue: how a new radon industry has grown up and publicized BEIR IV study [I8] describes the effect of expo-
its problems, how state governments have reacted to protect sure earlier in life as diminishing over time.
citizens and allay their concerns, and how scientific and pol- Federally recommended radon levels are currently in the
icy uncertainties have impacted the realtors and homebuilder form of guidelines, not standards. Will the objectives set for
industries. Clearly, much remains to be done from a research the country be possible on a voluntary basis or will regula-
perspective to resolve important scientific questions re- tions ultimately be necessary? What about smokers and
154 MANUAL ON RADON
radon? Isn't realistic hope for lowering lung cancer rates alter the outcome? Do radon mitigation systems survive years
really based on changes in smoking incidence and smoking of use? How do we know if levels have crept back up, or if the
policies? ground or foundation underneath a house cracks from years
Short-term tests are the currently recommended federal of radon mitigation? The United States differs from other
approach. What do these tests tell us about average annual countries by recommending that new and existing housing
exposure? What do they tell us about real exposure at all? Are have the same action level for radon. It is easier and cheaper
measurements currently reliable enough to set hard numeri- to put radon mitigation systems into new construction. What
cal goals instead of ranges? If equity in a home is at issue, can will be the cost and effect if a two-tier policy is adopted in the
one feel comfortable making a two-day measurement with a United States? Should only certain geologic areas be required
technique that can be off routinely by 25 to 50% (either to build these systems into new construction? Gradually
through sampling error or analytical accuracy)? Blind testing lowering population exposure represents an alternative.
is providing a bleaker picture of measurer reliability. Several What about groundwater as an indoor radon source? Radon
years ago, a study and campaign by the Buyers Up organiza- in groundwater regulations are pending that would put many
tion with the attendant publicity resulted in EPA revising the water supplies out of use. What is the risk? In some granular-
radon measurement program to make quality assurance activated charcoal systems that remove radon from water,
stronger. There has also been interest in having the National the mitigation itself creates a hazardous waste disposal prob-
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) become in- lem as well as a potential source of gamma-ray exposure.
volved in radon standard setting as a national reference labo- Lastly, risk communication has not produced an adequate
ratory for indoor radon measurements. Similarly, consensus national citizens response, according to the radon industry
protocols and standards being developed by such bodies as and EPA. What should one do to convey to citizens the need
the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) will to measure while not unduly alarming people? An adequate
be of considerable benefit. What would be the effect of either description of the issue, its risks, and uncertainties must also
a tougher certification program at EPA or the availability of be communicated.
an NIST standard? Both presumably would contribute to Having established that indoor radon presents a risk, espe-
making the measurements received by homeowners a more cially for smokers, that is admittedly more serious at higher
reliable and accurate representation of the actual value at exposures, what do we do about it? We have seen that we
time of sampling. often must go ahead with policy choices before all the scien-
There is great variability in radon levels in homes over tific answers are in. Let us now explore the radon research
time, and great uncertainty in short-term radon measure- that is or should be on-going to address the major uncertain-
ment accuracy and precision. Are the spikes, blanks, and ties in the radon problem.
duplicate samples being measured enough to assure the con-
sumer that a radon concentration obtained is really the value
for their home? Are the uncertainties greater at lower levels of
radon? And what of mitigation? Are licensing and training
programs sufficient or are they too restrictive? FEDERAL RESEARCH: CURRENT AND
Some residential radon epidemiology studies are showing FUTURE
an effect, others are not. What do limited residential radon
epidemiology results mean? Some studies have not adequate Radon research undertaken since the late 1970s has pro-
statistical power to show an effect individually. They will vided much of our current information on radon concentra-
need to be part of a major data pooling effort [19]. What do tions in U.S. homes, factors that influence indoor concentra-
environmental epidemiology studies (those that make corre- tions, and the risk of lung cancer associated with indoor
lations without individual measurements) mean? Pooling of exposures. The results strongly indicate the need for further
case control studies needs to be done but is not yet available. investigations because many scientific uncertainties continue
From the perspective of public policy, it is also important to exist. During the same time period, discoveries of excep-
to consider the future rates of radon-associated lung cancer tionally high indoor radon concentrations in the eastern
incidence. Such projections are highly uncertain because, United States raised the level of public concern. The in-
among other factors, smoking habits have changed substan- creased scientific and public interest resulted in the initiation
tially with time. A Journal of the National Cancer Institute of a more comprehensive research program in order to re-
article, reported in the Washington Post, acknowledged that spond better to the public health concerns and provide a
for the first time U.S. lung cancer rates appear to be declining stronger basis for formulating national policy decisions [22].
[21]. The documented decreases in lung cancer incidence, At present the U.S. Department of Energy and the NIH
however, are actually occurring. They are a reflection of suc- support large federal programs of basic radon research and
cess with anti-smoking campaigns. What does this decline epidemiology, while EPA funds applied (mitigation oriented)
mean in terms of radon policies and radon and lung cancer? research and outreach programs. The National Cancer Insti-
Smoking remains the overwhelming cause of lung cancer. tute, the National Institute of Environmental Health Sci-
What of mitigation? Can we use different techniques for ences, the Centers for Disease Control, the United States Geo-
different initial radon levels or different geographic areas? logical Survey, and the National Institute of Standards and
There are requirements to measure workplaces and schools. Technology are each doing radon research in the area of their
Do we know how to measure, or when or where? What do expertise and mission. Additionally, state, local, and private
"elevated levels" mean and how does one mitigate in a large research and a multitude of indoor radon surveys will all
commercial building? Does the level of contractor proficiency contribute vitally needed information on this issue.
Basic Science [22] Current understanding of the mechanisms that govern radon
progeny kinetics is not sufficient for accurate predictions.
Availability and Transport of Radon
Physical-chemical properties of radon progeny aerosols ob-
People living in areas of the United States that have high tained for use in exposure assessment and dosimetric studies
concentrations of uranium and radium in the soil and soil may lead to more reliable and cheaper measurement and
that allows for rapid gas transport are likely to receive the mitigation techniques.
highest radiation exposures from indoor radon progeny.
Thus, it is important to identify these areas for more detailed Relationship Between Exposure to Radon Progeny and
evaluation. As part of this effort, studies are being conducted Dose to Cells at Risk
to determine the applicability of using existing geological and
A major obstacle to quantifying radiation doses to people
radiometric data such as airborne surveys of gamma-emit-
exposed to radon progeny indoors is the lack of information
ting radioactivity in the ground, regional radon measure-
on several key factors of exposure that impact on the dosime-
ments, uranium geology, and soil maps to predict radon
try calculations. Research has recently shed light on the types
availability at different geographical locations.
o; activities and locations of people within homes, the
The rate at which radon is transported in soil depends upon
amount of time spent indoors, breathing modes, and the
many factors. These include soil properties such as porosity,
amounts of indoor air that people inhale. This information is
moisture content, and nonhomogeneous layering of different
critical to estimating the total amount of radon progeny in-
soil types, as well as atmospheric parameters such as temper-
haled, as is the influence of age and gender on the population
ature and pressure gradients caused by wind and changes in
dose distribution. The National Academy panel that exam-
weather. Because the interactions of these parameters are
ined this research established a 30% decrease between indoor
complex, both model calculations and detailed field measure-
and mine doses at the same exposure levels [16].
ments are necessary to predict the rates at which radon may
Studies have been done to determine the influence of aero-
be transported at different locations. The resulting informa-
sol parameters, body size, and breathing pattern on adults
tion along with indoor radon surveys has been utilized to
and children for the purpose of extrapolating exposure-dos e -
accomplish two policy significant outputs, one, the EPA
risk relationships obtained for underground miners to expo-
Radon Potential Maps of the U.S., and, two, the "Hot Homes
sures to the general population. The huge estimated eco-
Feasibility Study" funded by EPA and DOE to identify those
nomic costs of radon measurement and possible mitigation
areas of the United States expected to have the majority of
for large portions of U.S. building stock make it essential that
homes greater than 20 pCi/L. The EPA National Residential
radon risk numbers be narrowed and uncertainties reduced
Radon Survey, based on long-term measurements, estimates
so that costs relate to actual risk reduction.
less than 6% of U.S. homes have more than 4 pCi/L. This
study, underway for several years, is being validated in Min-
nesota, New York, and Washington State.
Lung Cancer Risk to the Public from Exposure to
Radon Indoors
Transport of Radon Into and Within Buildings While respiratory tract cancer risk from exposure to radon
Current understanding of radon entry into houses suggests progeny in homes may be estimated from the epidemiologic
that it is a function of differential pressures between the soil studies of underground miners, these estimates are uncertain
gas bearing the radon and the houses. The pressures inside for several reasons. Important differences between miners
the houses can change from operation of heating, ventilating, and the general public are: (1) the uranium miners' exposure
and air conditioning systems. Also, internal combustion estimates and smoking histories were very poor, (2) the
sources and external weather patterns can have major effects miners were exposed to an occupational setting that included
on radon entry and transport inside buildings. Studies on a variety of toxic airborne pollutants, (3) nonmalignant respi-
these issues provide valuable information on mitigation prac- ratory disease is more prevalent among miners, and (4)
tices and contribute to the "Hot Homes" study base. miners perform heavier manual labor. Lastly, in dusty mine
Only a small number of homes have been surveyed to char- environments a larger fraction of the radon progeny is at-
acterize the aerosols in indoor air to which radon progeny tached to particles, which differs greatly from residential set-
attach. Better knowledge of the types of aerosols in homes is tings.
required before predictive models of radon progeny behavior Mathematical models are now being developed to estimate
can be formulated. It is likely that the aerosols are influenced risk from radon. These models accommodate new informa-
by seasonal variations, geographic location, presence of ciga- tion about differences between exposures in mines and
rette smokers, and home ventilation patterns. It is also impor- homes as well as new information about radon doses to cells
tant to improve the techniques and instrumentation by which at risk [16].
radon and radon progeny may be measured, as well as the
measurements of particles and other indoor co-contami- Mechanisms of Lung Cancer Induction
nants. These aerosols contribute to dosimetric calculations Cellular and molecular studies are being used to investigate
and evaluating mine versus home differences. the mechanisms of radiation injury and repair from high
linear energy transfer (LET) radiation and the interactions
Physical-Chemical Interactions of Radon Progeny in between radiation and carcinogenic chemicals (e.g., cigarette
Ambient Air smoke) in producing respiratory tract cancer.
To predict the behavior of radon progeny in indoor air, a Measurements of chromosome and DNA damage and re-
fundamental knowledge of basic aerosol physics is required. pair and of cell transformation can be used with exposures to
156 MANUAL ON RADON
radon progeny to assess the effect of combined radon and co- Applied Research
pollutant exposures. The effectiveness of DNA repair mecha- Mitigation
nisms and the validity of extrapolating from effects observed
Because the radon issue is amenable to solution and be-
at high doses to doses near background level is also being
cause it is largely the federal government that has raised the
determined. Genetic susceptibility, which may play a key role
issue as a major public concern, efforts are underway to
in lung cancer development, is being explored in a study
using uranium miners, some of whom have not yet developed provide radon mitigation for homes, schools, and commer-
frank tumors. cial buildings. Government research provides the basic tech-
Besides contributing to an understanding of radiation-in- niques, which are then used by private sector mitigators. The
duced lung cancer, these fundamental studies may ultimately goal of the research is cheap, durable, and reliable mitigation
provide a general understanding of the process of carcinogen- techniques for different levels of radon problems, different
esis and lead to early detection and possible therapeutic types of housing or other buildings, and different geographic
outcomes. These studies--new in technique and a p p r o a c h - - areas. Research is also underway to develop diagnostic tests
provide the only hope for identifying any effects at the low that provide adequate information on how long mitigation
levels of radon exposure common to the majority of homes, systems can operate reliably and how long-term mitigation
schools, and workplaces. will affect the house foundation or subsurface soil.
LIFETIME RISK OF
EARLY DEATH
RISKS OF VARIOUS RADON D
LIFESTYLE RISKS
DECAY PRODUCT CONCENTRATION
AVERAGE RISK FROM
CIGARETTE SMOKING
1500 B q / m 3 -
. 10-1
RISK FROM LIFETIME

OCCUPANCY OF HOME WITH -- AVERAGE RISK FROM
INDICATED RADON DECAY LUNG CANCER
400 B q / m 3 _ _ PRODUCT LEVEL
9,I AVERAGE RISK FROM OCCUPATIONAL
CAR ACCIDENTS RISKS
150 B q / m 3 - ILINKED TO
10-2 BENEFITS)
75 B q / m 3 - -
150 Bqlm 3 " AVERAGE RISK FROM

RISK FROM J
20 YR. O C C U P A N C Y ' ~
HOME ACCIDENTS
75 B q / m 3 - - AVERAGERISKFROM
INDOOR RADON
P
L
. lO-Z
~AVERAGERISKFROM
OUTDOOR
RADON
10 4 ENVIRONMENTAL
POLLUTANT
RISKS
(NO PERSONAL
BENEFITS)
&VERAGE RISK FROM

RADON IN PUBLIC
WATER SUPPLIES - 10 +
- 10 4
FIG. 2-Comparison of risk (reprinted with permission of A. V. Nero, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory).
Mitigation in new c o n s t r u c t i o n differs greatly from mitiga- there by h u m a n beings by negligent or ignorant activity a n d
tion as a retrofit procedure. It is usually easier, cheaper, a n d which can be r e g u l a t e d against in a prospective sense" [24].
m o r e reliable. R e s e a r c h is being done to develop inexpensive The m e s s a g e from these two perspectives is that we c a n n o t
passive a n d active systems for various types of new construc- use t r a d i t i o n a l assessments a n d policies for these differing
tion. This is especially i m p o r t a n t for regions with elevated situations. A r e a s o n e d a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e a p p r o a c h should
r a d o n potential w h e r e builders can install this "radon proof- be sought just as o t h e r issues such as asbestos, electromag-
ing" in all new h o m e s a n d only activate the active system netic fields, a n d i n d o o r lead m u s t also be addressed. As the
when the i n d o o r m e a s u r e m e n t s of the finished h o m e indicate debates on the r a d o n issue get noisier, the science hardens,
a need. Results of m i t i g a t i o n research are quickly a d a p t e d a n d policies b e c o m e institutionalized, o t h e r n o n t r a d i t i o n a l
into b u i l d i n g codes a n d EPA protocols. Systems built into perspectives are w o r t h thinking about.
new c o n s t r u c t i o n need not be used if actual i n d o o r r a d o n As in all such areas of g o v e r n m e n t involvement, m u c h
m e a s u r e m e n t s are low. Mitigation studies continue to ad- m o r e needs to be done in terms of research a n d transfer of
dress p r o b l e m s such as o p t i m a l gravel size a n d b a c k d r a f t i n g information. Policies that were developed quickly will need to
that has been observed in systems that are being used widely. be refined as m o r e i n f o r m a t i o n b e c o m e s available. The p u s h
a n d pull of the i n d u s t r y a n d the costs b o r n e by the real estate
Risk Communication a n d h o m e - b u i l d i n g sectors a d d an e l e m e n t of check a n d
Risk c o m m u n i c a t i o n is an i m p o r t a n t a p p l i e d a r e a of r a d o n balance to this unfolding story. Research progresses slowly
research. It m a y be motivational or e d u c a t i o n a l in intent. w h e n c o m p a r e d to policy needs. C o m p r o m i s e between the
Research a n d field testing is u n d e r w a y to develop a m y r i a d of two m u s t be u n d e r t a k e n .
written a n d visual i n f o r m a t i o n a l r a d o n m a t e r i a l s that ad-
dress different groups, needs, and levels of education, a n d yet
provide a b a l a n c e of easily u n d e r s t o o d scientific i n f o r m a t i o n
with a p p r o p r i a t e m o t i v a t i o n a l impact. These materials m u s t REFERENCES
r e c o m m e n d sensible actions, provide solutions, a n d a n s w e r
questions that the public will raise. These are not easy goals, [1] Potter, J. C., Outline for Radon Briefing for the Acting Director,
a n d effective risk c o m m u n i c a t i o n m u s t be an on-going test- Office of Science and Technology Policy, 8 May 1986, Washing-
ing a n d refining process. These m a t e r i a l s m u s t also be up- ton, DC.
d a t e d as m o r e scientific i n f o r m a t i o n b e c o m e s available a n d [2] Nazaroff, W. W. and Teichman, K. Y., "Indoor Radon: Explor-
as the m o s t effective m e t h o d s of risk c o m m u n i c a t i o n are ing Policy Options for Controlling Human Exposures," Environ-
determined. mental Science and Technology, Vol. 24, No.1 6, 1990, pp.
774-782.
[3] Nero, A.V., Schwehr, M.B., Nazaroff, W.W., and Revzan,
K. L., Science, Vol. 234, 1986, p. 992.
CONCLUSIONS [4] Teichman, K. Y., "A Little Exposure to Radon," Statistical Sci-
ence, Vol. 3, No. 3, 1988, pp. 374-376.
An often-raised a r g u m e n t is that r a d o n exposure at lower [5] Fisher, A. and Sjoberg, L., "Radon Risks: Peoples Perceptions
levels represents a h a z a r d k n o w n to be m u c h greater t h a n and Reactions," forthcoming in Environmental Radon: Occur-
m a n y o t h e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l h a z a r d s regulated with far less rence, Control and Health Hazards, S.K. Majumdar, R.E.
scientific knowledge. Dr. Anthony Nero of the L a w r e n c e Schmalz, and E. W. Miller, Eds., Pennsylvania Academy of Sci-
Berkeley L a b o r a t o r y says that, "Radon risk is in the s a m e ence.
range as the risks from dying of a fire in one's h o m e o r dying [6] Sandman, P. M., Weinstein, N. D., and Klotz, M. L., "Public
from falling d o w n the stairs, risks we accept everyday" [23] Response to the Risk from Geological Radon," Journal of Com-
munication, Summer 1987, pp. 93-107.
(Fig. 2). The level of r a d o n - r e l a t e d risk will never be zero, a n d
[7] Personal Communication Staff, Minnesota Department of
n a t i o n a l policies m u s t reflect the different situations encoun-
Health, Division of Environmental Health; Staff, California De-
tered in an i n d o o r life style. Although r a d o n - r e l a t e d risks can partment of Health Services, Air and Industrial Hygiene Labora-
be r e d u c e d t h r o u g h mitigation, just as fire-related risks can tory, 1991.
be r e d u c e d t h r o u g h the use of s m o k e detectors, a risk as low [8] Los Angeles Times, Radon Series, 13 Sept. 1988, 4 Oct. 1988, 21
as one d e a t h p e r million p o p u l a t i o n m a y not be achievable for April t989.
radon. [9] Nagda, N. L., Koontz, M. D., Rector, H. E., and Nifong, G. D.,
Another view of this s a m e issue comes from Dr. J u d i t h "Design of a Statewide Radiation Survey," Environment Interna-
Klotz of the State of New Jersey D e p a r t m e n t of Health: tional, Vol. 15, 1989, pp. 229-238.
"When we talk a b o u t a d d e d e n v i r o n m e n t a l risks that have [10] Florida Administrative Code 10D-91, Part XI, Environmental
been caused by either negligence o r i g n o r a n t actions by hu- Radiation Standards, Tallahassee, FL, 3 Jan. 1989.
m a n s . . . . we have to separate those we can avoid from those [11] Radon Week, Vol. 1, No. 7, week ending 30 June 1989; Radon
w h i c h h a p p e n to be there b e c a u s e this is the planet we are Week, Vol. 1, No. 11, week ending 28 July 1989.
[12] Personal communication: Government Affairs Staff, National
living on. We can't do anything a b o u t c o s m i c rays a n d
Association of Realtors, Washington, DC.
n o b o d y talks a b o u t not flying in planes b e c a u s e that m a y [13] Position Statement of the National Association of Realtors on
increase r a d i a t i o n doses. There are certain risks that are Radon Gas, revised and approved by the Board of Directors, 9
inherent in being a h u m a n b e i n g . . , on this planet. Unavoid- May 1988.
able risks that are n a t u r a l m a y have to at times be on a [14] Reilly, W., EPA Radon Press Conference, 18 Oct. 1989, EPA,
slightly different scale from avoidable risks which a r e p u t Washington, DC.
158 MANUAL ON RADON
[15] Memorandum from M. Oge, Director, EPA Radon Division, on [19] Proceedings, U.S. Department of Energy/Commission of Euro-
current ORP estimate of annual radon-induced lung cancer pean Communities, International Workshop on Residential
deaths in the general population, 17 Aug. 1989. Radon Epidemiology, Alexandria, VA, July 1989.
[16] National Research Council, Comparative Dosimetry of Radon in [20] Cohen, B., "A Test of the Linear-No Threshold Theory of Radi-
Mines and Homes, National Academy Science Press, Washing- ation Carcinogenesis," Environmental Research, Vol. 53, 1990,
ton, DC, 1991. pp. 193-220.
[21] Devesa, S. S., Blot, W. J., and Fraumeni, J. F., Journal of the
[17] Personal communication, Dr. J. Lubin, National Cancer Insti-
National Cancer Institute, Vol. 81, No. 20, 1989, pp. 1568-1571.
tute (project monitor, Radon Epidemiology in China Tin Mines;
[22] FY 1988 Radon Research Program, U.S. DOE Publication, DOE/
Biostatistician BEIR IV). ER-0405, February 1989.
[18] Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations, [23] Nero, A. V., "Controlling Indoor Air Pollution," Scientific Ameri-
Health Risks of Radon and Other Internally Deposited Alpha can, Vol. 258, No. 5, 1988, pp. 42-48.
Emitters: BEIR IV, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, [24] Edelstein, M. R. and Makofske, W., Eds., Radon and the Envi-
1988. ronment, Noyes Publications, 1988, pp. 189-190.
MNLI5-EB/Jun. 1994
Subject Index
A Appalachian Mountains, radon potential, Charcoal canister (see Activated carbon

90-92 monitor)
Absorbed dose, 15 Appalachian Plateau, radon potential, 92 Closed accumulation method, 61
Actinon, 9 ASTM E 1465-92, 6 Coastal Plain, radon potential, 89-90
Activated carbon monitors, 4-5, 49, Availability, 155 Colorado Plateau province, radon
55-58 potential, 92
factors affecting performance, 56-57 Columbia Plateau, radon potential, 93
performance, 57-58 B Concentration patterns, 4-5, 97-110
Active soil depressurization, 114-115, national and regional perspectives,
119-123 Barometric pressure, effects on soil 97-100
block wall depressurization, 122 radon transport transport, 87 state and sub-state perspectives,
crawl space depressurization, 123 Basement walls 99-105
design, 121-122 concrete block, radon entry, 113 see also Florida; Indoor radon; New
features, 120-121 poured concrete, radon entry, 114 Jersey
drain tile depressurization, 122 Basin and Range province, radon Conference of Radiation Control
fans, 120 potential, 92 Program Directors, results, 143,
installation during construction, Bateman equations, 12 145-146
128-129 Becquerel, 1, 13 Continuous monitoring methods,
rough-in for, 129 Blank measurements, 80 airborne radon measurement, 53
submembrane depressurization, Block wall depressurization, active soil Continuous monitors, decay products,
122-123 depressurization, 122 measurement, 59-60
subslab depressurization, 121-122 Blower door tests, 119 Continuous working level meters, 50
Building materials Control strategies, 5-6, 112-132
subslab pressure field extension
as indoor radon source, 25-26 active soil depressurization, 114-115,
measurement, 117-118
radon from, 113-114 119-123
sump hole depressurization, 122 Buildings air cleaning, 115-116, 127-128
Active subslab depressurization, 5-7 depressurization, reducing, 124-125 building pressure control, I 15
Advection, in soil, 84 effects on indoor environment, 18-20 costs, 129-130
Air floor inspection, 117 entry prevention, 114-115
outdoor, as indoor radon source, 25 HVAC system evaluation, 118-119 EPA recommendations, 116
physical-chemical interactions, federal interaction with soil, 22 long-term maintenance of reduction
research, 155 investigation, 117 systems, 131
Airborne radon, measurement measurement, 116-117 new construction
activated carbon monitors, 55-58 determining entry routes, 116 prevention in, 128-129
alpha-track detectors, 54-55 in water, 117 promoting radon-resistant, 143
continuous monitoring methods, 53 pressure control, 115 standards and codes, 129
continuous scintillation cells, 53 pressurization post-installation testing and inspection,
diffusion-electrostatic radon monitor, with HVAC system, 125-126 130-131
54 without HVAC system, 126 pressurization
diffusion radon only monitor, 54 radon entry, causes, 112-I 13 with HVAC system, 125-126
electrets, 58 radon transport into and within, 155 without HVAC system, 126
grab sampling, 51-53 review of construction plans, 117 reducing building depressurization,
integrated measurement methods, sealing entry routes, 123-124 124-125
54-58 tightness measurement, 119 removal after entry, 115-116, 126-128
ionization chambers, 52 removal from water, 128
liquid scintillation methods, 56 sealing radon entry routes, 114-115,
pulse ion chamber monitors, 49, 53-54 C 123-124
scintillation cells, 51-52 source removal, 115, 126
solvent extraction method, 52-53 Calibration, 79-80 ventilation, ! 15, 127
Air cleaning, 115-116, 127-128 California, radon issues, 151 Convection, in soil, 84
Alpha activity, total, 12-13 Canadian Shield, radon potential, 93 Cosmic radiation, 15-16
Alpha particles, detection, 51 Canister method, soil gas measurement, Costs, control strategies, 129-130
Alpha-track monitor, 49 61 Crawl space
Animal studies, lung cancer, 40-41 Centers for Disease Control, joint health depressurization, active soil
Anti-smoking campaign, 140-141 advisory, 149 depressurization, 123
159
Copyright9 by ASTM International www astm org
160 MANUAL ON RADON
foundation, radon entry routes, 114 Florida screening measurement, by state and
inspection, 117 geologic profiles and elevated radon region, 5-6
sealing, 124 potential, 104, 108-109 sources, 21-26
CR-39 film, alpha-track detectors, 54 patterns of indoor radon, soil radon, building materials, 25-26
Curie, 13 geological occurrences, and natural gas, 26
terrestrial uranium, 104, 110 outdoor air, 25
radon issues, 151 soil, 21-23
I) spatial pattern of radon potential, 100, water, 23-25
105 variations in radon and environmental
Daily variations, in radon, 68-71 Flow-through accumulation, 61 parameters, 23-24
Decay products, 58-61 Flux density, as function of Indoor Radon Abatement Act of 1988, 7,
air cleaning, 127-128 diffusion coefficient in concrete, 26 134
behavior indoors, 27-29 soil permeability, 22 Integrated measurement methods
concentration in mines, 34 airborne radon measurement, 54-58
deposition in lungs, 35 decay products, measurement, 60
determination of concentrations, 51 G International Commission on
exposure-dose relation, 35 Radiological Protection, risk
measurement, 4 Gas, natural (See Natural gas) assessment model, 42-43
continuous monitors, 59-60 Geographic areas, surveys, 78 Ionization chambers, 52
grab sampling methods, 58-59 Geology, 4-5 Ionizing radiation, sources, 1-2
integrated sampling methods, 60 Glaciated areas, radon potential, 93
standardization activities, 62 Grab sampling
radon-222, 16 airborne radon, measurement, 51-53 K
respiratory dosimetry, 34 decay products, measurement, 58-59
unattached (see Unattached fractions) DOE protocols, 75-76 K factor, 36
Diagnosis of problem, 116-119 Granular activated carbon treatment Known samples, 80
building investigation, 117 unit, 128 Kodak-Pathe technique, 75
building materials as radon source, Great Plains, radon potential, 92
119 Great Valley of California, radon
building tightness measurement, 119 potential, 93
floor inspection, 117
HVAC system evaluation, 118-119 Leaching, 85
measurements, 116 It Legislation, 6-7
in buildings, 116-117 Liquid scintillation methods, 56
review of building construction plans, Half-life, 1 Lucas cells (see Scintillation cells)
117 Half-title, 10 Lung cancer, 33
subslab pressure field extension Health effects, 2-3, 33-45 animal studies, 40-41
measurement, 117-118 epidemiologic studies, 33 epidemiological studies, 36-40
Diffusion, in soil, 83 other than lung cancer, 44 general population, 38-40
Diffusion barrier charcoal absorber, see also Lung cancer miners, 37-38
56-57 Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning future rates,, 154
advantages, 57 systems mechanisms of induction, 156
Diffusion-electrostatic radon monitor, 54 building pressurization with, 125-126 mortality rates, 42-43
Diffusion radon only monitor, 54 designing to prevent radon entry, 129 most common types, 36
Direct reading instruments, calibration, evaluation, 118-119 risk, 1, 33, 135-136
80 types, 19-20 federal research, 156
Dose equivalent, 15 Homebuilders, effect of policies and risk assessment, 41-44
Dosimetry, 34-36 media activities, 153 Risk coefficients, selection, excess
concentration and exposure, 34 Hourly variations, in radon, 68-71 lung cancer risk, 42
indoor, compared to mining Houses smoking and, 36-37
environments, 36 measurement strategies, 72-77
respiratory, decay products, 34-36 DOE protocols, 74-76
Drain tile depressurization, active soil EPA protocols, 76-77 lYl
depressurization, 122 need for universal testing, 136-137
temporal and spatial variations of Mass-balance equation, time-dependent,
radon, 68-74 17-18
E Measurement, 49-63
activated carbon monitor, 49
Electret, 49, 58 alpha-track monitor, 49
Entry routes, sealing, 114-115, 123-124 continuous working level meters, 50
during construction, 129 Illuviation, 85 electret, 49
Environment Indoor radon errors, 70-72
natural, 1-2 building factors, 18-20 methods and instrumentation, 3-4
see also Indoor environment concentration distribution, 20-21 airborne radon, 52
Equilibrium equivalent concentration, decay product behavior, 27-29 calibration, 79-80
13, 15 dosimetry, compared to mines, 36 performance and background
Equilibrium factor, 15 entry rate, 23 checks, 80
Extraction methods, soil gas, 62 historical overview, 3 selection, 50
model for pollutant concentrations, principles, 51
17-18 protocols, 4, 67-81
F predictors of, 100-104, 106-110 blank measurements, 80
foundation type, 100, 106 calibration, 79-80
Fans, active soil depressurization, 120 soil concentrations, t04, 106-110 DOE, in houses, 74-76
Filtered-Cup method, 75 radon-222 sources and concentrations, duration and season of
Floor inspection, 117 26-27 measurement, 67
SUBJECT INDEX 161
EPA, in houses, 76-77 P continuum of strategies for solving the

instrument performance and problem, 140-142
background checks, 80 Pacific Coast Ranges, radon potential, decentralized system for reaching
known samples, 80 92-93 public, 138-140
location in building, 67 Passive radon measurement detector developing coordinated research plan,
measurement and sampling errors, systems, calibration, 80 143
70-72 Passive soil depressurization, in new guiding scientific and policy principles,
quality assurance, 78-80 construction, 129 135-138
replicate measurements, 80 Picocurie, 1 health risks in smokers, 137
sampling conditions, 67 Policy key elements, 134-135, 144
temporal and spatial variation current, 148-149 key priorities, 142-143
in houses, 68-74 population-risk versus individual-risk, lack of known safe level of exposure,
in schools, 69-70 154 135-136
radon flux and soil gas concentration, versus science, 153-155 measurable goals, 140-141
61-62 Pollutants, model for indoor mitigation threshold, 136
radon in water, 62 concentrations, 17-18 program objectives, 148
radon progeny integrating sampling Polyvinyl chloride pipes, active soil promotion of radon action during real
units, 50 depressurization, 120 estate transactions, 143
sampling duration and desired output, Potential alpha energy concentration, 13 promotion of radon-resistant new
50 Pressure, difference between indoors and construction, 143
scintillation cells, 49 outdoors, 18 sustaining of public information
standardization activities, 62 Pressure coefficient, 19 campaign, 143
strategies, 72-78 Pressure field extension, 118 targeting of greatest risks first,
houses, 72-77 Prompt Alpha-Track method, 75 142-143
Properties, 9 translating principles and policies into
large-scale measurement programs,
Public, reaction to policies and activities, radon action, 138
78
149-150 universal testing of homes and schools,
in schools, 77-78
Publications, currently available, EPA, 136-137
in workplaces, 78
144 use of proficient radon measurement
units, 1, 13-15 Public information programs, 143 and mitigation companies, 136
conversion factors, 14 Pulmonary function, abnormalities, use of short-term tests, 137-138
see also Airborne radon, measurement; uranium miners, 44 Radon flux, measurement, 61-62
Decay products, measurement Pulse ion chamber monitors, 49, 53-54 Radon gas, adsorption, air cleaning, 128
Measurement companies, 151-152 Pulse-type ionization chambers, 52 Radon potential
Miners Appalachian Mountains, 90-92
lung cancer risk, 37-38 Appalachian Plateau, 92
respiratory diseases, 33 O Basin and Range province, 92
stomach cancer, 44 Canadian Shield, 93
Mines Quality assurance, protocols, 78-80 Coastal Plain, 89-90
decay product concentration, 34 Quality factory, 15 Colorado Plateau province, 92
dosimetry, compared to indoor Columbia Plateau, 93
environment, 36 glaciated areas, 93
Minnesota, radon issues, 150 R Great Plains, 92
Mitigation, federal research, 156 Great Valley, 93
Mitigation companies, 152 Radiation mobility principles application, 84
Monthly variations, in radon, 68, 72-73 average background, 15-17 Pacific Coast Ranges, 92-93
man-made sources, 16 Rocky Mountains, 92
natural sources, 15-16 Sierra Nevada, 92
N Radioactive decay, 10-13 Radon progeny, federal research,
Radiometric data, rocks and soil, 88-89 155-156
National Council for Radiation Radionuclides Radon progeny integrating sampling
Protection and Measurement, risk cosmogenic, 15 unit, 50, 60, 74-75
assessment model, 42-43 terrestrially derived, 16 Radon transport
National Research Council, Biological Radium diffusion-driven, 113
Effects of Ionizing Radiation IV concentration in rock and soil, 83 federal research, 155
Committee, risk assessment in soil, 86 mechanisms, 113-114
model, 42-44 Radon pressure-driven, 112-113
Natural gas, as indoor radon source, 26 availability, federal research, 155 Real estate industry, effect of policies
New construction current and future perspectives, 7-8, and media activities, 153
preventing radon in, 128-129 148-157 Real estate transactions, radon action
promoting radon-resistant, 143 importance of, 1 during, 143
standards and codes, 129 risk communication, 156 Replicate measurements, 80
New Jersey Radon-220 Risk projection models, 41-44
decay series, 10-11 Rocks
results by geologic province, 104, 106
relative activity concentration as radiometric data, 88-89
spatial pattern
function of time, 12-13 radium concentration, 83
gamma anomalies and elevated Radon-222 Rocky Mountains, radon potential, 92
indoor radon, 104, 107 decay series, 10-11 Room model, 27-28
radon potential, 100, 104 exposure to decay products, 16
indoor sources and concentrations,
26-27
O relative activity concentration as
function of time, 12 Sampling errors, 70-72
Occurrence, 4-5 Radon Action Program, 6-7, 134-146 Saskatchewan seat belt program, 141
Origin, 9-10 continuing scientific research, 138 Schools
162 MANUAL ON RADON
measurement strategies, 77-78 weathering processes and products, measurement protocols, 70-71
need for universal testing, 136-137 85-86 Office of Health and Environment,
temporal and spatial variations in Soil gas, measurement, 61-62 research program, 7
radon, 69-70 Solid state nuclear track detector, 54 protocols, measurement strategies in
Science, versus policy, 153-i55 Solvent extraction method, 52-53 houses, 74-76
Scientific research, 138 Source removal, 115, 126 U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
federal, 155-156 Spatial variations, in radon, 69, 73-74 currently available publications, 144
Scintillation cells, 49, 51-52 Stack effect, 18-19, 112, 121 joint health advisory, 149
calibration, 80 States, concentration patterns, 97-100 measurement protocols, 71
continuous, 53 Stomach cancer, in miners, 44 protocols, measurement strategies in
Sealants, recommended, 123-124 Submembrane depressurization, active houses, 76-77
Sealing radon entry routes, 114-115, soil depressurization, 122-123 Radon Action Program (see Radon
123-124 Subslab depressurization, active soil Action Program)
during construction, 129 depressurization, 119-120, risk assessment model, 43
Seasonal variations, in radon, 68, 72-73 121-122
Seat belt program, 141 Sump hole depressurization, active soil
Sierra Nevada, radon potential, 92 depressurization, 122 V
Slabs, sealing, 124 Superfund Amendments and
Smokers Reauthorization Act of 1986, 7 Ventilation, 18, 115, 127
health risks, 137 forced-air, 127
lung cancer risk, 1, 36-37 natural, 127
Soil rates, 19
characteristics, 84-86 Ventilators, heat recovery, 127
Temperature, effects on soil radon
as indoor radon source, 21-23 transport, 87
interaction with buildings, 22 Terrestrial radioactivity, 15-16
pressure and flow fields, 22 Thorium-232, decay series, 9-10 W
radiochemical composition, 9-10 Thoron, 9
radiometric data, 88-89 Total alpha activity, 12-13 Walls
radium concentration, 83 Tsivoglou method, 59 below-grade, sealing, 124
radon emanation, 83 inspection, 117
radon measurement, 50 Water
radon mobility, 83-84 U aeration, 128
radon transport as indoor radon source, 23-25, 113
barometric pressure and wind Unattached fraction, 15 radon measurement, 62
effects, 87 as determinant of dose received, 35 radon removal, 116, 128
precipitation and soil moisture measurement, 60-61 Weathering, of soils, 85-86
effects, 86-87 Uranium Wind
pressure-driven, 112-113 mineralogy and occurrence, 87-88 effects, 121
temperature effects, 87 radioactive decay, 86 on soil radon transport, 87
structure, texture, and permeability, Uranium-238, decay series, 9-10 interaction with building walls and
84-85 United States, concentration patterns, roof, 18-19
uranium mineralogy and occurrence, 97-100 Working level month, t 5
87-88 U. S. Department of Energy Workplaces, measurement strategies, 78

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Radon:

Niren L. Nagda, Editor

ASTM Manual Series: MNL 15

1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA 19103

Chapter 2 ~ R a d o n and the Natural Environment

Chapter 3--Health Effects of Radon 33

Chapter 4 ~ M e a s u r e m e n t Methods and Instrumentation 49

Chapter 5 - - R a d o n Measurement Protocols 67

Chapter 6--Geology and Occurrence of Radon 83

Chapter 7--Concentration Patterns 97

Chapter 8 - - R a d o n Control Strategies 112

Chapter 9--EPA's Strategy to Reduce Risk of Radon 134

Chapter 10--Current and Future Perspectives 148

I M P O R T A N C E OF R A D O N risk is borne by smokers who comprise approximately 30% of

Copyright9 by ASTMInternational www.astm.org

FIG. 1-Sources of radiation exposure to the U.S. population [6].

TABLE 1--An historical overview of indoor radon-related developments 1955-1985.

Risk-projection models, expressed in t e r m s of o c c u r r e n c e jectives, type of desired output, and s a m p l i n g duration. F or

FIG. 3-Generalized geologic provinces [28].

,j/ DEPRESSURIZATION FAN

"~"~ LOW AIR PRESSURE

Radon and the Natural

Uranium Decay Series Thorium Decay Series

FIG. 2-The decay series for 2a~h, which in-

M a j o r R a d i a t i o n Energies Potential Alpha E n e r g y Calculation

TABLE 2--22~ decay series".

M a j o r R a d i a t i o n Energies Potential Alpha E n e r g y Calculation

224Ra 3.66 days 2.19 • 10 - 6 5.45 (5) d ... 4 . 6 X 105 . . . . . .

212Bi ~ d e c a y ( 6 4 ) f . . . . . . . . . 727 (100) .

~All d a t a o n half-lives, alpha- a n d g a m m a - d e c a y energies, a n d d e c a y intensities are f r o m Ref 94.

, , , ,,,,,I I i I I lltll l I l i i llii I l I I I II

._> /" _. -214pb

i i I llltl i ' ' ,,,,~I I I I I IIII[ I I I I I III

Potential Alpha Energy Concentration (PAEC)

Cosmic 0.26~ 9. . . . . 0,28 8

232Th series 0.13~ .. . . . . 0.3 9

Other primordial (mainly 4~ 0.10~ 0.2tY ... 0.30 9

Medical 0.40d 0.14d --. 0.54 16

Fraction of all sources, % 27 16 57 ..- 100

organic c o m p o u n d s (VOCs) dissolved in water, the contami-

- 0 . 2 . Thus, at a w i n d velocity of 3 m s 1, the resulting

aNo q / d e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n of the structure is ~ - 1 Pa. Since the pres-

Week: 2/25 to 3/3 4/29 to 5/5

0.4 0.0 rC)

m o s t i m p o r t a n t source of building depressurization. Obser- relative pressure in the room; higher r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

provide an i n d i c a t i o n of w h e t h e r a n individual h o m e has m e a s u r e m e n t s in the high c o n c e n t r a t i o n "tail" of the distribu-

Radon Concentration (pCi L-1)

0.05- > 300 Bq m -3

scribed; the n o m i n a l i n d o o r r a d o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n due to each 0 L__ I ; ~ , I

The principal source of r a d o n in homes with elevated in-

as a n i m p o r t a n t soil gas transport and entry process [60-64].

can be d e s c r i b e d by a b u r i e d cylinder of d i m e n s i o n s equal to c o m p a r i s o n with the c o n t r i b u t i o n s from other sources listed

<- ~ I A basement rado

'~ ,: ;2',,,~ ....... delta P

soil radon (/10) /

9- soil T (1.0 m deep)

~, ..... " "'.. -...... soil T (0.15 m deep

07 NOV 09 NOV 11 NOV 13 NOV 15 NOV 17 NOV 19 N0V 21 NOV

heat and a e r a t i o n or agitation are involved, such as in a - 0 . 3 to - 3 Bq m -3 for a r a d o n - i n - w a t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n of