Group 1: Judaism

Learning Competency 1:
Examine the brief history, core teachings, fundamental beliefs, practices, and related
issues of Judaism.

Learning Objectives: At the end of this lesson, the learners are expected to:
1. examine the history of Judaism;
2. identify the core teaching, beliefs, and practices of Judaism;
3. analyze other related issues of Judaism.

Judaism is an ancient monotheistic religion that traces its origin as an organized

belief system during the Bronze Age in West Asia. The religion of the Jewish people,
Judaism is one of three Abrahamic religions that also include Christianity and Islam. It
is the religion professed by the Jews known as the “people of the Book” in reference
to their sacred text written covering nearly a thousand years and formalized as a canon
of teaching by the end of the first century C.E.
It is quite difficult to study key events in the historical foundation of Judaism
without discussing the history of the Jewish people from the time of the Hebrews’ mass
departure from Egypt or the Exodus. During the 20th century, the growth in their
population has remained sluggish for quite a long time as it grew to only 25% after the
catastrophic event called Holocaust.
According to a 2014 report, there were around 14 million Jewish people
representing 0.2% of the entire world population. The largest concentration of Jews
can be found in Israel, North America (United States and Canada), and Central
Europe. Other countries with sizable Jewish population include France, United
Kingdom, Russia, Argentina, Germany, and Australia.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
It is quite difficult to separate the history of Judaism from the history of the Jews
themselves (Parrinder 1971). The ancestors of the Jews were groups of Semites
called Hebrews whose origin can be traced in the desert lands of Arabia (Brown 1975).
The origin of the Jewish people and the beginning of Judaism are recorded in the first
five books of the Hebrew Bible, the Pentateuch. As a religion and culture, Judaism has
three notable founding figures or patriarchs, namely, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
These biblical patriarchs are the physical and spiritual forebears of the Jewish people
and their narratives can be found in Genesis 12-50 of their scripture.
Judaism is anchored upon God’s revelation to Abraham that He is the creator
and ruler of the universe, and that He loves His creatures and demands righteousness
from them (Losch 2001). God chose Abraham and his family from all the people living
on earth as recorded in Genesis 12. After a series of tragic events involving
humankind, God entered into a covenant with Abraham promising him that he would

1
become the father of a great nation and would possess vast tracts of land. Abraham,
in return, must remain devoted to the covenant. He would become the embodiment of
uprightness and holiness to the world. Later on, he was succeeded by his son Isaac,
his grandson Jacob, and Jacob’s twelve sons (Hopfe 1983).
These patriarchs are depicted as nomads in biblical stories. According to
tradition, Abraham’s original name was “Abram” who was born in the city of Ur of the
Chaldeas around 1800 B.C.E. Questioning the folly of idol worship, Abram left his
home and family to heed the call of God en route to Canaan situated on the western
side of the Fertile Crescent. The Jewish people believe that they descended from a
tribe in Canaan located in the eastern Mediterranean presently occupied by Israel,
Jordan, and Syria (Bowker 1997).
A covenant has been established between God and Abram, and Abram must
prove his worth to this agreement by way of tests of faith throughout his lifetime. While
Abram and his wife Sarai were initially childless, Abram bore a son to Sarai’s Egyptian
handmaid Hagar. He was named Ishmael who is considered as the ancestor of the
Arabs. However, Ishmael was not the heir to God’s promise. God changed Sarai’s
name to “Sarah,” meaning “princess” or “noblewoman.” Later in life, the old Abram and
Sarah had a son named Isaac, the heir to God’s covenant and the ancestor of the
Jewish people. Abram’s name was changed to “Abraham” or the “the father of many
nations.” Abraham’s story is narrated in Genesis 11-25 of the Hebrew Bible.
The most difficult trial given to Abraham came when God commanded that he
sacrifice his own son Isaac at an altar in Mount Moriah. Abraham obeyed by building
a fire and tying up Isaac. With Abraham’s obedience being put to the test, an angel
stopped him and he was eventually reunited with his son. A ram was instead sacrificed
in place of Isaac. Later on, Isaac married Rebecca who bore him twin sons, Jacob and
Esau. Always in constant strife, the younger Jacob bought Esau’s birthright and tricked
his father Isaac into giving him Esau’s blessing as the eldest son (Bowker 1997). Jacob
fled to his uncle’s house to escape Esau’s fury.
Later on, Jacob returned home and reconciled with Esau. A close encounter
with an angel merited him a change of name from Jacob to “Israel” which means “the
one who wrestled with God.” The Jewish people are referred to as the “children of
Israel.” Among four different women, Jacob fathered twelve sons and one daughter.
The twelve sons who became the ancestors of the tribes in Israel were Reuben,
Simeon, Levi, Judah, Zebulun, Issachar, Dan, Gad, Asher, Naphtali, Joseph, and
Benjamin. After being sold to slavery by his jealous brothers, Joseph was brought to
Egypt where his ability to see and interpret visions earned him a place in the court as
a vizier, a position next only to the pharaoh. As famine struck Canaan, Jacob and his
family were forced to settle in Egypt.
While the book of Genesis ends with a great nation emerging from Abraham’s
descendants, the book of Exodus begins with them crying out for deliverance from
Egyptian bondage (Hopfe 1983). They were not in Canaan as initially promised but
were under enslavement in Egypt. As centuries passed and the descendants of Israel
grew in number, the alarmed pharaoh decreed that all male children be put to death
by throwing them to the river.
 A woman from Levi’s tribe, Jochebed, secretly placed her youngest child in a
woven basket and sent him down the Nile River. The pharaoh’s daughter, Bithia, found
the child, rescued him, and reared him as her own. Jochebed volunteered to nurse the
child, now named Moses, who was raised within the Egyptian royal family.

At the age of forty, Moses killed an Egyptian in defense of a slave and fled to
the Sinai desert where he spent the next forty years as a shepherd (Hopfe 1983). On
Mount Horeb, Abraham’s God revealed himself to Moses as he spoke through a
burning bush that was not consumed. Revealing God’s name as “Yahweh,” he
commanded Moses to return to Egypt and demand the release of Israelites from
slavery. After his initial refusal, the Egyptian pharaoh conceded after the ten
miraculous and horrific plagues were inflicted by God upon Egypt and its people, most
especially the plague on the firstborn. While the firstborn sons of every Egyptian
household would die, sons of Israelites would be saved if they marked their door posts
with the blood of lamb killed in sacrifice. In that fated night, the lamb must be cooked
and eaten with bitter herbs and unleavened bread. This is known as the Passover, an
important Jewish festival.

The Israelites were banished from Egypt with Moses leading them across the
Red Sea (Yam Suph or “Sea of Reeds” in some accounts). When the pharaoh
changed his mind and began to pursue the fleeing Israelites, Moses parted the Red
Sea that allowed them to cross the water and reach the dry lands of Sinai. Meanwhile,
the pursuing Egyptian chariots were drowned after the waters receded. This event
called Exodus became part of Jewish history that manifested Yahweh’s intervention
to deliver his chosen people (Hopfe 1983).

Another significant event in Jewish history was the giving of the Ten
Commandments at Mount Sinai. These supreme laws, which are basic to the Jewish
people, were communicated to the Israelites through Moses during their time in the
wilderness. Moses eventually united the different tribes into one group and
consecrated to the worship of the one living god (Brown 1975). Forty years after the
Exodus, Moses died in the desert within reach of the “Promised Land.”

SOCIO-POLITICAL DYNAMICS OF JUDAISM

The Old Testament gives us ideas on socio-political dynamics of Judaism.

Understanding the Jewish concepts on politics and society would help us understand
the historical development of Judaism as one of the world’s religions and see its
relevance in contemporary times.

The Jewish concept of leadership based on the Old Testament directs us to

certain types of leadership, one of which is kingship as the ideal form of government.
This can be deduced from the chronicles of the Kings of Israel and Judah, as well as
in the Book of Deuteronomy, which stated, “Let me put a king over me like all the
nations that are around me”(Deut. 17: 14-15). In relation to the idea of kingship, the
concept of “covenant” between the ruler and the ruled is equally important as well in
Judaism. Just as God the Father entered into a covenant with His people (such as the
covenant between God and Abraham), the same should also be true for the King and
his subjects. Thus, socio-political dynamics can also be described as following the
model of tribal federation in which various tribes and institutions shared political power.
Although they practice communal living, there were certain people who hold important
positions in society with regard to their roles in Judaism, such as the rabbi who
functions as a teacher and interpreter of the Jewish law and customs. Thus, it can be
deduced that for the Jews, politics, society, culture and religion are all interconnected,
thus Judaism is not only considered as a religion but as a way of life as well.

SACRED SCRIPTURES

The Jewish people have been called the “people of the Book” in reference to
the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh or Mikra) that has been the authority, guide, and inspiration
of the many forms of Judaism that have evolved throughout the different periods of
time and in various places (Parrinder 1971). Composed over a period of almost a
thousand years, collections within the Bible became established in its full canonical
form by the end of the first century C.E. (Parrinder 1971).

According to the Jewish tradition, the Hebrew Bible is divided into three
principal sections, namely the Torah, Nevi’im, and Ketuvim. The foundational text
Torah (“Teaching”) is composed of the first “Five Books” or the Pentateuch traditionally
believed to have been authored by Moses through divine instruction in Sinai. These
include Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Apart from
containing basic laws for Jewish self-understanding, the Pentateuch also narrates the
history, religious statues, and moral regulations for individuals and society, ceremonial
rites and creation stories by Yahweh, and the origin and growth of mankind (Braswell
1994). Meanwhile, the Nevi’im (“Prophets”) is subdivided into Earlier Prophets, Later
Prophets, and twelve minor prophets. Prophets served as spokespersons who criticize
the hypocritical practices of Jewish rituals. They were specifically chosen by God to
preach his message to the people. Lastly, the Ketuvim (“Writings”) form the third
section of the Tanakh that contains works on poetry, temple ritual, private prayer,
philosophical explorations, and other canonical works.

In the strictest sense, Torah refers to the “Five Books of Moses.” However, it
can also pertain to the entire Hebrew Bible known as the Old Testament to non-Jews
but Tanakh (or the “Written Torah”) to the Jews. Broadly speaking, Torah could mean
the whole body of Jewish laws and teachings.

Another sacred writing of Judaism is the Talmud (or the “Oral Torah”) which
means “study.” All studies and interpretations done by Jewish rabbis or teachers of
the Torah are contained in the Talmud. In short, the Talmud is an authoritative
collection of rabbinic interpretations of the sacred scriptures. It contains materials of
law and moral codes. Around the second century C.E., this oral law was compiled and
written down as Mishnah or a restatement of the law by a respected opinion. The next
few centuries witnessed the writing of an additional strand of commentaries in
Jerusalem and Babylonia about the Mishnah. Known as Gemara, it includes legends,
folklores, and sayings (Brasswell 1994). The Mishnah and Gemara comprise the
Talmud that was completed in the 5th century C.E. Serving as the foundation for all
Jewish laws codes, the whole Talmud contains 63 tractates that is often printed over
6,200 pages long. Apart from being a book of law, the Talmud is also a fountain of
religious thought and inspiration similar to the Pentateuch (Jurji 1946).

The Pentateuch is the single most important scripture for the Jewish people that
became the source of their inspiration and direction for centuries. It became the
foundation of other essential Jewish writings, such as the Talmud and Mishnah. With
all these codified laws and legal materials, Judaism has become a religion of the law
and the Jews as the chosen people have shown obedience to God’s covenant
throughout their long and tumultuous history (Hopfe 1983).

BELIEFS AND DOCTRINES

In Judaism, actions are more significant than beliefs. However, while Judaism
has no dogma, there is definitely a place for belief within the religion since it focuses
on the worship of one god, the practice of good deeds, and the love of learning
(Brasswell 1994). For the Jews, there is one everlasting god who created the universe
in its entirety and remains the master of it (Parrinder 1971).
Human beings were created by God who provided them the capacity to decide
what is right and wrong, and gave them the freedom and responsibility for their own
actions (Losch 2001). Humans have the ability to restrain their evil intentions because
of their propensities for both good and evil (Parrinder 1971). For Jews, all human
beings are created equal. While God can communicate with humans through
revelations, humans can also commune to him by means of prayers and meditations.
With regard one’s Jewishness, a Jew is someone whose mother is a Jew,
although some sectors recognize the children of Jewish fathers as Jews, too. While a
Jew may not lose one’s technical status as a Jew by converting to another religion, he
or she loses the religiosity emanating from his or her Jewish identity. A person may
also convert to Judaism, but he or she has to undergo numerous rituals.

ARTICLES OF FAITH
Perhaps the closest approach in
having an acceptable creed in Judaism
was proposed by the eminent medieval
Jewish philosopher Moshe ben Maimon
(also known as Rambam or Moses
Maimonides) during the latter part of
twelfth century C.E as an appendix to his
commentary on the Mishnah. According
to Moshe ben Maimon, the minimum
requirements of Jewish belief as listed in
his thirteen principles of faith are as
follows:
 These statements of belief were eventually constructed as credo with every
article beginning with “I believe” and then later versified, set to music, and included in
prayer books (Jurji 1946). Though controversial when first formulated and evoked
much criticism or even disregarded for many centuries, these principles are generally
accepted nowadays by the Jewish community.

The Ten Commandments

The Ten Commandments are a set of absolute laws given by God to Moses at
the biblical Mount Sinai that shall govern the life of every Israelite. Most scholars
consider this period as the official beginning of Judaism as an organized and
structured belief system. These laws are twice mentioned in the Hebrew Bible,
particularly, in Exodus and in Deuteronomy.

Source: “10 Commandments List,” Life Hope & Truth. https://lifehopeandtruth.com/bible/10-commandments/the-ten-commandments/10-commandments-list/

 Inscribed on two stone tablets, these commandments present God’s complete
and enduring standard for morality. These include instructions to venerate only one
god, to honor one’s parents, and to observe the Sabbath as a holy day. Meanwhile,
some proscribed acts that are pointed out in the commandments include idolatry,
infidelity, murder, theft, and deceit. For more than three thousand years, the Ten
Commandments have been embraced by almost two thirds of the entire world
population.
Apart from the Ten Commandments that form the theological basis of other
commandments, there are also 613 mitzvot or laws found within the Torah (as
identified by Rambam) that guide the Jewish people in their daily living. Traditionally,
there are 248 positive and 365 negative commandments within the Torah (Parrinder
1971). These include laws about the family, personal hygiene, diet, as well as duties
and responsibilities to the community.
WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES
The Jewish community utilizes a lunar calendar with twelve months, each
beginning at the new moon of 29 or 30 days. Every festival and Sabbath commences
and terminates at dusk (or sunset) rather than midnight in adherence to the biblical
pattern. The Jewish calendar is followed in observance of festivities, holidays, and
community and family celebrations (Brasswell 1994). Jewish holidays are special days
observed to commemorate key events in Jewish history and other events that depict
the special connections with the world, such as creation, revelation, and redemption.

✓ Sabbath
The most important day in the Jewish calendar is the Sabbath (or Shabbat)
which commemorates God’s completion of the creation of the universe and his rest
after the six-day toil (Parrinder 1971). This is the fourth law within the Ten
Commandments. It begins a few minutes before sunset on Friday and runs until an
hour after sunset on Saturday or almost 25 hours to be precise. At Friday sundown,
Sabbath candles are lighted and kiddush (“sanctification”) is recited over wine or grape
juice. Children are then blessed by their parents. Jews must abstain from work and
must study the Torah. Some work prohibitions include lighting fires, using money, and
writing. The Sabbath ends through the symbolic ritual of havdalah (“division”) done by
dousing wine on candles and smelling sweet spices.

✓ The Days of Awe

Tishri is the seventh month in the ecclesiastical year of the Jewish calendar.
The first ten days of Tishri are called the “Days of Awe” (Yamim Noraim) wherein the
first two days comprise the New Year (Rosh Hashanah) and the tenth day as the Day
of Atonement (Yom Kippur). Rosh Hashanah marks the start of the ten-day period of
penitence leading to the Yom Kippur and is distinguished from other days by blowing
a ram’s horn trumpet (shofar) in the synagogue and eating apples dipped in honey
which is symbolic for a sweet new year. Using the shofar, a total of one hundred notes
are sounded each day. All Jews must undergo self-reflection and make amends for all
the sins they have committed. Rosh Hashanah is also a day of judgement wherein
God assesses one’s deeds and decides what lies ahead of him or her in the following
year. These deeds are recorded in the “Book of Life” and sealed on Yom Kippur. Work
is not permitted during the Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.
Yom Kippur is the most sacred and solemn day in the Jewish calendar that
brings the period of repentance to its conclusion. The eve of the day is called Kol Nidrei
(“all vows”) which are the opening words of a prayer. The words and music of the Kol
Nidrei are said to be the most powerful single item in the Jewish liturgy. A day of fasting
and praying for absolution of one’s sins, it provides every Jew an opportunity for both
personal and communal repentance (Parrinder 1971). One must also refrain from
eating and drinking, even water. Additional restrictions include washing and bathing,
using perfumes, wearing leather shoes, and engaging in sexual relations. Symbolizing
purity, it is customary for the Jews to wear white during the holiday. An entire day must
be spent in the synagogue while reciting prayers. Another blowing of the ram’s horn
ends the final prayer service.

Pilgrimage Festivals
During the olden days, the Torah commanded the ancient Israelites to go to
Jerusalem on three pilgrimage festivals and participate in the worship at the Temple.
Also called the Shalosh Regalim, these are Pesach (Passover), Shavuot (Weeks or
Pentecost), and Sukkot (Tabernacles). These festivals spiritualize human life and
merge nature and history in a divine pattern (Jurji 1946).
Pesach is an eight-day festival that originally marked the beginning of the barley
harvest (Parrinder 1971). Its principal purpose is to commemorate and recreate the
Exodus of the Jews from Egypt. A festive meal (seder) is celebrated wherein the story
of Exodus is narrated by the heads of the family to the children.
Shavuot is a two-day festival that was originally a celebration of the wheat
harvest. Presently, it is now being held to commemorate the revelation of the Torah to
Moses at Mount Sinai.
Sukkot is a nine-day festival commemorating the autumn harvest and the forty
years of the Israelites’ stay in the desert wilderness subsisting solely on the bounty of
God. Temporary booths or structures (sukkah) are built in homes with a roof through
which one can see the stars in the sky. This is an attempt to recreate Israelite life in
the desert.

Other Important Days

There are many feasts and festivals celebrated by the Jewish people. The
family assumes the principal responsibility for worship, religious education, and moral
behavior (Braswell 1994). Rituals and ceremonies are done both at home and in the
synagogue.
 Other important events in the Jewish calendar include the Hanukkah, Purim,
and the Independence Day of the State of Israel. Hanukkah (“Festival of Lights” or
“Feast of Dedication”) is a celebration to commemorate the victory of Jewish fighters
against the Seleucid Empire in 165 B.C.E. Purim (“Feast of Esther”) celebrates the
deliverance of the Jews during the Persian Empire, specifically from the vizier Haman
who wanted to annihilate all Persian Jews as recorded in the Book of Esther.

Halakha
Because Judaism is also a comprehensive way of life, Jewish people follow a
set of rules and practices that govern their everyday living. Collectively called halakha
which translates as “the path that one walks,” these are Jewish religious laws derived
from the “Written Torah” and “Oral Torah” including the 613 mitzvot. Jewish laws
contain directions on how to revere God and treat other people and animals. Halakha
instructs Jews what to do as they wake up in the morning, what foods to eat, what
clothes to wear, who to marry, and how to observe Sabbath and holy days. When
properly observed, halakha increases one’s spirituality as even mundane acts become
essential to his or her existence.

Synagogues
Synagogues are Jewish temples of worship, instruction, and community
fellowship that contain separate rooms designed for specific activities, such as praying
and studying. In Orthodox Judaism, men and women sit separately at the synagogues;
in Reform Judaism, they sit altogether in temples.
Similar to a Christian church, synagogues have seats facing an elevated
platform with one or two lecterns or chair. The central feature at the platform (bimah
or tebah) and the holiest spot inside a synagogue is the ark where the Torah scrolls
are kept. Reminiscent of the original Ark of the Covenant, an ark inside a temple is
normally placed in a manner that when people face the ark, they are facing in the
direction of Jerusalem. An ornate curtain (parochet) veils the ark while a lamp or
lantern (ner tamid) burns before it symbolizing the constantly lit six-branched
lampstand (menorah) in the Temple of Jerusalem (Braswell 1994).
While a Jewish layman may lead a prayer service during Sabbath if there are
10 adult males present (minyan), the religious leader is oftentimes a trained rabbi. He
delivers sermon and interprets the Torah. The rabbi serves as a pastor, administrator,
and counselor.

The Temple
Around 1003 B.C.E., David conquered Jerusalem and made it his capital.
Bringing with him the “Ark of the Covenant,” David intended to build a temple to
become the first and fixed place of worship for the Jews. However, God told David that
it would be one of his sons who will have the privilege of accomplishing this task.
 The Hebrew Bible acknowledged Solomon, David’s son, as the builder of the
First Temple in Jerusalem around 1000 B.C.E. which was also known as Solomon’s
Temple. Within the temple, the most important room was the “Holy of Holies” where
the Ark of the Covenant was kept. The ark contained the tablets of the Ten
Commandments and the Pentateuch. The First Temple became the focus of Jewish
worship for four hundred years until Nebuchadnezzar II and the Babylonians
completely destroyed the structure in 587 B.C.E during the siege of Jerusalem.
Allegedly located in Temple Mount or Mount Zion, the remains of the First Temple
have never been found and the “Ark of the Covenant” has continually been shrouded
in mystery.
In 353 B.C.E., the Jews began to rebuild their temple under the Persian king
Darius who ratified their effort. The Second Temple was completed in 349 B.C.E. and
was substantially altered under Herod around 20 B.C.E. (Douglas 2007). This Second
Temple lasted for about 420 years until the Romans razed Jerusalem in 70 C.E. All
but a portion in the western section was completely destroyed. Presently, this is the
famous “Western Wall” (“Wailing Wall” or Kotel) that has been a popular site of prayer
and pilgrimage for the Jews throughout many centuries.
For Orthodox and Conservative Judaism, a Third Temple will be established
before the coming of the messiah. Prophesized in the Book of Ezekiel, it will be known
as “Ezekiel’s Temple” that will become a lasting structure and serve as permanent
abode of the God of Israel. The concept of messiah or mashiach (“anointed one”) in
Judaism pertains to a great political human leader descended from David who shall
accomplish prearranged things in the coming future, such as bringing of Jews to Israel,
rebuilding a new temple in Jerusalem, and establishing Jewish law as the law of the
land (Jurji 1946).

SUBDIVISIONS
Being one of the oldest religions in the world, Judaism has undergone various
changes in response to changing times and cultures brought about by key historical
events or philosophical upheavals. While there are certain beliefs shared by most
adherents, differences and diversity in faith also abound among Jewish denominations
and sects. Within Judaism are three present day movements that emerged in
response to the modern and secular culture of Europe and America. These are
Reform, Orthodox, and Conservative Judaism. Two other smaller sects, namely
Hasidism and Kabbalah, are mystical approaches to the Jewish religion that
emphasize spiritual experiences over rational knowledge.
Orthodox Judaism is the most traditional of modern Judaism that adheres to
the authority of the entire Torah as given to Moses by God at Mount Sinai. The Torah
is the sole authority that must be strictly followed until the present time. As it considers
itself the sole and genuine heir to the Jewish tradition, it rejects all other Jewish
movements as undesirable deviations from the original Jewish religion.
Reform Judaism (Liberal or Progressive Judaism) is considered the most liberal
expression of Judaism that subjects religious laws and customs to human judgment.
To a certain extent, it developed due to internal changes in Judaism as well as other
factors operating within society. Members of this denomination sought to adhere to the
original teachings of Judaism while allowing some changes in their traditions. For
example, services were permitted to be conducted in mixed Hebrew and English, no
longer conducted solely in the Hebrew language. Moreover, women were also
accorded equality in terms of sitting together with men in synagogues and allowing
them to become rabbis unlike in other denominations.
Largely developed in the 20th century, Conservative Judaism seeks to
conserve the traditional elements of Judaism while at the same time allowing for
modernization that is less radical than Reform Judaism. The application of new
historical methods of study in the light of contemporary knowledge but within the limits
of Jewish law may be applied to safeguard Jewish traditions. Gradual change in law
and practice is allowed only if such occurrence is in harmony with Jewish traditions.
Because Conservative Judaism falls halfway between the two other major Jewish
denominations, it is sometimes described as traditional Judaism without
fundamentalism.
Hasidism or Hasidic Judaism emerged in Germany during the twelfth century.
It was largely a spiritual movement that gives prime importance to asceticism and
experience as a result of love and humility before God. During the eighteenth century,
a modern Hasidic movement was started in Poland by Baal Shem Toy (“Master of the
Good Name”) as a reaction to the excessive legalistic nature of Judaism during that
time.
Lastly, Kabbalah is another mystical form of Judaism that attempts to penetrate
deeper into God’s essence itself. While Kabbalists believe that God moves in
mysterious ways, they also hold that genuine knowledge and understanding of that
inner process is achievable. In the end, the most fulfilling relationship with God can be
accomplished. One important commentary on the Torah that underpinned Kabbalah
is the Zohar (“Splendor” or “Radiance”) that first appeared in Spain in the thirteenth
century.

SELECTED ISSUES

✓ Women in Judaism
Women’s role in the Jewish religion is determined by the Tanakh, the “Oral
Torah,” and Jewish customs. Mishnah instructs that women must follow nearly all the
negative commandments except trimming the beard and viewing a dead body. Women
must also follow all positive commandments not structured by time but are exempted
from those that are restricted by time. The reason here is quite simple, that is, to
release women from laws that they find difficult or impossible to perform given their
traditional domestic roles, such as giving birth, taking care of the family, and
accomplishing household chores. In addition, women have the right to be consulted
on matters concerning marriage. Judaism offers tremendous respect to roles given to
women as wives and mothers. Even Jewishness or the question of Jewish self-
identification is passed down through the mother.
For Orthodox Judaism, there exist different roles for men and women in their
religious lives. For example, it is sufficient for any woman to understand the practical
nature of the Torah, but she is traditionally excused from furthering her education
beyond that knowledge. In addition, she is dissuaded from studying the Talmud and
other complex Jewish writings up until the twentieth century. However, provision for
education for Jewish women has progressed rapidly in the past century. One
interesting phenomenon in Judaism is the concept of agunot or married women who
wish to divorce their husbands but whose husbands decline to do so. In Orthodox
Judaism, only the husbands are given this privilege.
Meanwhile, Conservative Judaism has acted upon several areas that enable
women to actively participate in Jewish rituals thereby minimizing legal disparity
between men and women. For example, women can now read the Torah in public and
be counted as part of a minyan.
Lastly, Reform Judaism affirms that men and women should be equal in terms
of performing their duties within the Jewish community. Prayer books have been
revised in order to avoid words and pronouns that appear male in character. Jewish
patriarchs and matriarchs must be placed side by side whenever they are mentioned
in prayer books. While men and women generally sit separately in most synagogues,
Reform Judaism has allowed women to sit together with men.

✓ Jewish Diaspora and Zionist Movement

In the 16th and 17th centuries, there had been calls to persuade the Jews to
return to Palestine. During the late 18th century, the Haskalah (“Jewish
Enlightenment”) movement promoted Jewish assimilation to Western secular culture
(Parrinder 1971). In the early 19th century, the idea of Jewish returning to Palestine
was kept alive by Christian millenarians or believers of divine intervention that will
ultimately bring a new world order. However, these movements failed in their
objectives. In 1881, a state-supported mob attack or pogrom against the Jews
occurred in Ukraine. While a pogrom was aimed to persecute religious, racial or
national minorities, this violent riot became frequently directed at Jews. From 1881 to
1884, over 200 pogroms occurred in the Russian Empire. As a result, Russian Jews
emigrated to the US and Western Europe (Perry 1988).
At the end of the nineteenth century, the Hungarian journalist and political
activist Theodor Herzl founded the Zionist movement that advocated the return of
Jews to Eretz Yisrael or “Land of Israel.” The term zion, also a Jewish synonym for
Jerusalem, came from the name of a mountain where Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem
was located. Originally secular in nature, supporters of this movement are called
Zionists.
The Zionists believed that Jews as the chosen people of God will be reunited
from dispersion or exile back to their rightful homeland. The dispersion of Jewish
communities outside Israel that have continually occurred since ancient history is
called diaspora. Leon Pinsker, another Zionist pioneer and activist, published his work
Auto-Emancipation in 1882 that urged the Jewish people to strive for independence
and appealed for the establishment of a Jewish colony in Palestine.
Eventually, Zionist activities in the US became influential in garnering American
congressional and presidential support that led to the creation of the state of Israel in
1948. Since that time of establishment, the Zionist movement has come to promote
the development and protection of Israel.
✓ Holocaust
The term Holocaust is of Greek origin that means “sacrifice by fire.” In history,
Holocaust pertains to the methodical, bureaucratic, and state sponsored persecution
and execution of around six million Jews undertaken by the Nazi regime and its
collaborators from 1933 to 1945. For the Hitler-led Nazis, the Germans were racially
superior and considered themselves as the master race as compared to the Jews who
were seen as inferior people. Hitler’s police chief, Heinrich Himmler, also believed in
Aryan superiority leading to the enslavement and extermination of “non-Aryans” and
the inferior race (Perry 1988). He was one of the German officials directly responsible
for the holocaust.
Another high-ranking German official, Reinhard Heydrich, became the chief
planner of the Nazis to wipe out the Jews in Europe (Perry 1988). Other groups that
were considered inferior were the Romani (or gypsies), some Slavic peoples (such as
the Poles and Russians), and even the physically and mentally handicapped.
Nonetheless, the Jews were perceived as the major threat to the German racial
community that had to be exterminated en masse especially since there were over
nine million Jews in Europe by 1933.
From 1941 up until 1945, Heydrich’s plan called the “Final Solution to the
Jewish Problem” was implemented by the Nazis with the main objective of annihilating
European Jews through genocide or murder of an entire group of people (Parrinder
1971). It came to be known as holocaust. Jews were arrested, brought to death camps,
became victims of mass shootings, and placed in gas chambers, while others were
beaten, starved, and tortured to death. Still others became subjects of ruthless medical
experiments (Perry 1988). Apart from the six million Jews who lost their lives, around
200,000 Romani and 200,000 disabled patients became victims of Nazi policies. The
Nazis also targeted Jewish children for extermination to create a biologically pure
Aryan society. The killing of Jewish children aimed to prevent the emergence of a new
generation of European Jews. As a result, about one and a half million children were
murdered all across Europe.
✓ Anti-Semitism
The term anti-Semitism pertains to hostility towards and discrimination against
the Jewish people that was strongly felt in France, Germany, Poland, and Russia in
the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The term was popularized in Germany
around 1870s. The most common manifestations of anti-Semitism were the many
violent riots or pogroms undertaken against the Jews. The planned extermination of
the entire Jewish race during the time of the holocaust was the most extreme form of
anti-Semitism. Other forms of anti-Semitic activities include the persecution and
massacre of Jews throughout history.
Political parties that were anti-Semitic in character were founded in Germany,
France, and Austria. Quite notable was the Nazi Party formed in 1919 that provided
political articulation to theories of racism and achieved popularity through
dissemination of anti-Jewish propaganda. Adolf Hitler’s Mein Kampf (My Struggle)
called for the removal of Jews from Germany. These deplorable activities continued
with the Nazi’s rise to power as the party that called for economic boycotts against the
Jews, burned Jewish books and enacted laws that were anti-Jew. On the night of
November 9, 1938, coordinated deadly attacks were carried out by the Nazis that
destroyed synagogues and shop windows of Jewish-owned stores throughout
Germany and Austria. More than a thousand synagogues were burned and over seven
thousand Jewish businesses were destroyed or damaged. The event was known as
Kristallnacht or “Night of Broken Glass,” referring to the shards of broken glass that
littered the streets.
Group 2: Christianity
Learning Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the learners are expected to:
1. examine the history of Christianity;
2. identify the core teaching, beliefs, and practices of Christianity;
3. analyze other related issues of Christianity.

Christianity is considered the most popular religion in the world with the most
number of adherents among all religions. Starting around the 1st century C.E., it
developed out of Judaism during the reign of the Roman Empire in West Asia. It
centers on the life, teachings, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ, who is
considered the Messiah or Savior of humanity. The most common symbol for
Christianity is the cross, for Christians believe that Jesus died on the cross to save
humanity from their sins and to restore people’s relationship with God the Father.
Christians also believe in the Holy Trinity, which means God has three aspects—
Father, Son, and the Holy Spirit. It is believed that God the Father sent His only Son,
Jesus, to earth to redeem humanity from their sins for them to avoid the eternal flames
of hell.

Although there has been a prophesy in Judaism that God the Father will send
His only Son to redeem humanity from their sins and to restore relationship with God,
the Jews do not accept that Jesus was the fulfillment of that promise. Instead, the
Jews are still waiting for the Messiah to be sent by God the Father. Christians, on the
other hand, have accepted that Jesus is the fulfillment of God’s promise. Nonetheless,
Christianity is considered one of the first monotheistic religions in the world and shares
many similarities with Judaism in terms of belief in prophets, angels, judgement day,
among others. Together with Judaism and Islam, Christianity is considered one of the
world religions which traces its origins to the patriarch Abraham.
Christianity is a religion that is very familiar to Filipinos because the Philippines
has become predominantly Catholic since the Spaniards occupied the country from
the 16th to the 19th centuries, with the spread of Catholicism as one of their enduring
legacies to the Filipino people. It is considered the world’s largest religion, a religion
based on the teachings of Jesus Christ who is considered the Son of God and the
Messiah or Savior.
Symbols
The symbols shown above are the most common symbols associated with
Christianity. The cross serves as a symbol of Jesus Christ’s victory over sins when He
died on the cross for humanity’s redemption and salvation. Christ died on the cross
and the cross serves as a reminder of the sacrifices made by God in order for humanity
to live. In Roman Catholic churches, the crucifix is a regular feature, with the image of
Christ nailed on the cross. This aims to emphasize Christ’s sufferings for humanity.
Meanwhile, Protestant churches often feature only the cross without the image of the
body of Christ, to emphasize Christ’s resurrection and not His suffering.
Meanwhile, the fish symbol is as old as Christianity itself, for it was used by
persecuted Christians as a secret sign when meeting other Christians. Because
Christians were threatened by the Romans during the time, they had to make a secret
code to avoid persecution. Thus, when meeting strangers on the way, a Christian
would draw one arc of the fish outline, and if the stranger drew the other half it means
they are both Christians and therefore safe in each other’s company. The word “fish”
also has a secret meaning, for Christians made an acrostic from the Greek word for
fish, which is ichtys: Iseous Christos Theou Yios Soter, meaning Jesus Christ, Son of
God, Savior.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Christianity developed in Palestine around 100 C.E. It was founded by Jesus,
considered to be the Son of God and Messiah or Savior. Regarded as an offshoot of
Judaism, Christianity has survived and even surpassed Judaism and other religions in
terms of number of adherents. Today Christianity is divided into three major sects—
Roman Catholicism, Greek Orthodox Church, and Protestantism. These major
Christian sects are further subdivided by Christian denominations that differ in certain
beliefs and practices but are united in worshipping Jesus Christ as the Son of God.

Historical Context
Judea, the mountainous southern part of Palestine, was the home of
Christianity. During that time, Judaism was the dominant religion in Palestine and it
was considered by the Jews as land promised to them by God. However, historical
developments in the region we now call West Asia have shown that successive powers
have dominated Mesopotamia and nearby territories, including Palestine which is
considered to have a desirable location. Thus, it was conquered by the Assyrian
Empire, then by the Babylonian Empire which enslaved the Jews, then the
Achaemenid or Persian Empire under Cyrus, who permitted the Jews to return to their
land. Soon the Greeks under the leadership of Alexander the Great conquered West
Asia including Palestine around 400 B.C. Then the Romans conquered Jerusalem in
63 B.C. When Jesus was born, Palestine was still under Roman rule.
Thus, Christianity was born in an era when Palestine was ruled by a foreign
power, the Romans. Conditions were ripe for the beginning of a new religion. Since
the concept of Messiah (which was promised in Judaism as the one who will liberate
them from the evils of the world) proved to be very attractive for a group of people
being colonized by a foreign power. Social conditions cooperated with the relatively
free atmosphere created by Agustus’ Pax Romana or Roman Peace. Also, the birth of
a man who was considered as the fulfilment of the prophesy among the Jews that God
will send His Son to liberate the people from sufferings and sins paved the way for the
development and spread of a new religion called Christianity.

Jesus as the Founder of Christianity

It was in this backdrop that Jesus, founder of Christianity, lived and preached
teachings that served as criticisms of Judaism, although he himself was a Jew. His
ministry began when he was in his early thirties. Preaching and healing in the villages,
he started to preach teachings which were considered revolutionary at that time. For
example, He criticized the uprightness and insincerity of religious officials and
emphasized that God values service and love. He also taught about the new covenant
that God will bring to humanity: that of sending His begotten son to save humanity
from their sins and restore the people’s relationship with Him. Jesus preached that he
was sent by God to fulfill this goal by dying on the cross, then resurrecting to life after
three days to prove that God’s plan had succeeded. Hearing these messages, Jesus
soon attracted a group of followers who became his disciples and who called Him their
teacher. Thus, Christianity started with a prophecy in the Old Testament: that God will
send his only begotten Son to save humanity from eternal damnation. Jesus was seen
by his followers to be the Messiah they were waiting for. Meanwhile, Jews did not
accept this to be true; instead, they are still waiting for the promise to be fulfilled.
Religious Leaders

The Catholic Church follows a certain hierarchy based on the Canon Law of the
Catholic Church. At the top of the hierarchy is the pope, considered as Peter’s
successor. The hierarchy also includes the cardinals, archbishops, bishops, priests,
and deacons. Each member of the hierarchy has his own function for the efficiency of
the church.
The Pope serves as the head of the Catholic Church, the inheritor of Peter. He
has his headquarters in the Vatican, an independent state in Rome. He is responsible
for the general supervision of the church. He is the head of the Catholic Church and
the head of the Vatican. He also has the authority to appoint administrative and
religious officials in the Vatican.
Next to the Pope are the cardinals, who are also appointed by the Pope. The
cardinals represent the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church in different parts of the
world. They serve as advisers to the Pope and elect a new pope as the need arises,
thus they have the power to choose the successor of the outgoing pope. The body
comprising the cardinals is called the College of Cardinals.
The bishops also form part of the hierarchy. Bishops are teachers of the
doctrine, priests of sacred worship, and ministers of church government. They provide
pastoral supervision for a diocese and serve as representatives of the Church. The
Pope himself is a bishop. A bishop is ordained to his station, just like priests.
Next to the hierarchy are the priests, who are ordained ministers responsible
for the administering of the sacraments, such as the Eucharist, Marriage, Baptism, and
Confirmation. They may belong to particular religious order, such as Jesuits,
Dominicans, Augustinians, among others, or they may be committed to serve a certain
congregation.
At the bottom of the hierarchy are the deacons, who are classified into two
types: the transitional deacon is a seminarian who is studying for the priesthood and
the other one is a permanent deacon, who can get married and serve as a priest’s
assistant in administering some of the sacraments.

Deity/God
Christians believe in one God, therefore Christianity is a monotheistic religion.
God is seen as the creator and maintainer of the universe, and is believed to be
omnipotent (all-powerful), omniscient (all-knowing), omnipresent (all-present), and
omnibenevolent (all-good). God is also sacred, moral, unchangeable, compassionate,
graceful, and timeless

Holy Trinity
Christians believe in the Holy Trinity, which means that God is composed of
three persons: God the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit. This
doctrine of the Holy Trinity was affirmed at the Council of Nicea in 25 C.E. where it
was agreed upon that the Son has the same substance with the Father, therefore they
are both eternal. The doctrine of the Holy Trinity was Christianity’s way to end the
controversy generated by Arianism, a teaching by Arius which claimed that Jesus
Christ was not actually a God.
The concept of the Holy Trinity was never mentioned in the Old Testament. The
New Testament, although it never implicitly mentioned the term, gives some
references to it. In Matthew 28:19, it is stated that:
“Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of
the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.”
In 2 Corinthians 13:1:
“The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ and the love of God and the fellowship of
the Holy Spirit be with you all.” For some Christians, the concept of the Holy Trinity is
not easy to understand. Although it is central to most Christian denominations, some
Christian churches rejected it, such as The Church of the Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, Jehova’s Witnesses, Christian Scientists, Unitarians, the Unification Church,
the Christadelphians, and Oneness Pentecostals, among others.

SACRED SCRIPTURES
The Bible is considered the sacred scripture of Christianity. It is a collection of
songs, stories, poetry, letters, history, as well as literature. It is composed of two books,
the Old Testament and the New Testament. The Old Testament is considered the
original Hebrew Bible, written between 1200 and 165 B.C.E. The New Testament was
written by Christians around 100 C.E.

✓ The Old Testament

The Old Testament, also called the Hebrew Bible, is composed of 39 books
which are arranged in three parts: The first five books (Genesis to Deuteronomy) are
considered “The Law” or Torah which may refer to guidance or instruction. They are
called as such because they serve as guidelines on how people should live their
everyday lives, as well as other legal necessities. Later these books were called the
Pentateauch, which were attributed to Moses. Meanwhile, the second part of the Old
Testament is called “The Prophets” which is divided into two parts, the earlier prophets
and the latter prophets. The book of former prophets is considered historical while the
book of latter prophets contain sayings and stories of the prophets. The third part is
called “The Writings,” which include Psalms (songs, prayers, and worship liturgies),
Proverbs (wise sayings), Job (a drama that explores the nature of suffering), and the
five scrolls (Megiloth) which were grouped together for their associations with a
particular religious festival.

✓ The New Testament

The New Testament is composed of 27 books written around 50 to 100 C.E.
and is composed of two sections: The Gospels which tell the story of Jesus (Matthew,
Mark, Luke, and John); and the Letters (or Epistles), written by various Christian
leaders to serve as guide to the early Christian communities. They were written to tell
the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of Apostles and Luke tell how Christianity
developed from a small group of Jewish believers to becoming one of the world’s major
religions. Revelation is the last book of the New Testament, traditionally attributed to
the apostle John, which is considered an epistle and an apocalypse.

BELIEFS/DOCTRINES
Christianity has certain beliefs and doctrines that serve as moral guidelines for
its followers. As much as possible, Christians should follow these teachings strictly if
they want to redeem God’s promise of eternal life. These teachings are essential to
their belief system as Christians and not following them would lessen their chances of
being called true Christians and reduces their chances of salvation in the afterlife.

✓ Ten Commandments
Also called the Decalogue, the Ten Commandments are a set of laws given by
God to the people of Israel at Mt.Sinai through Moses. In Exodus, God gave Moses
the tablets containing the Ten Commandments, which Moses smashed into pieces
because of extreme anger when he saw the golden calf idol created and worshipped
by the Hebrews. God gave Moses another set to replace the broken one. The Ten
Commandments are said to appear twice in the Bible, in Exodux 20:1-17, and at
Deuteronomy 5:-21. They are meant to guide Christians on how to behave within the
family, society, and most especially with respect to God.
 ✓ Seven Sacraments
The Catholic Church has seven sacraments which are considered signs of inner
kindness given by God for Christians to live a genuine human life. The seven
sacraments include Baptism, Confirmation, Holy Communion, Confession,
Matrimony, Holy Orders, and the Anointing of the Sick. The first three sacraments
are Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Communion, which are considered the
sacraments of initiation. Baptism is meant to remove the guilt and effects of Original
Sin and welcome the baptized to the Church. Confirmation, which should be
administered right after Baptism, is meant to complete Baptism and bring the baptized
the graces of the Holy Spirit that were given the Apostles on Pentecost Sunday. Holy
Communion entails the reception of Christ’s body and blood which helps Christians
grow in the likeness of Jesus Christ. Confession is considered the fourth sacrament,
which is meant to reconcile Christians with God by confessing their sins. The
Sacrament of Marriage comes next, with the union of a man and a woman for the
purpose of procreation and mutual support. It also reflects the union of Jesus Christ
with His Church. The Sacrament of Holy Orders is considered the continuation of
Christ’s priesthood which He passed on to His apostles. And the last sacrament is the
Anointing of the Sick, also known as Extreme Unction or Last Rites, which is
administered to those who are on the verge of death or are seriously ill, or about to
undergo a serious operation, for physical and moral strength.
Eight Beatitudes
The Beatitudes comprise what is known as the “Sermon on the Mount” recorded
in Matthew 5-7. The Beatitudes refer to the eight sayings of Jesus at the beginning of
the “Sermon on the Mount.” Here are the Eight Beatitudes mentioned in Matthew 5-7:
Apostles’ Creed
The Apostles’ Creed is believed to have developed in the 100 or 200 C.E. and
was influenced later by the Nicene Creed. A letter written by the Council of Milan in
390 C.E. is the earliest historical evidence of the existence of the Apostles’ Creed. It
is not written by the apostles themselves but it serves as a summary of their basic
teachings.

Story of Creation and Big Bang Theory

The Story of Creation, which narrates how God created the universe in six days,
is found in Genesis 1 of the Old Testament. It narrates how God created light and
darkness on the first day; the sky and the ocean on the second day; the earth and
plants on the third day; the sun, moon, and the stars on the fourth day; sea creatures,
land animals, and birds on the fifth day; and finally the first man and woman on the
sixth day, after which He rested on the seventh day. This story has often been
attributed as the one which explains the origin of the universe from a Christian point
of view. Other religions would offer their own explanations on the origin of the universe.
Science also has its own theories on how the universe began. The most accepted
among scientists is the Big Bang Theory, which states that the universe began as an
incredibly hot, very dense point in space about 14 billion years ago. It then underwent
rapid expansion in no time and, as it cooled, led to the creation of stars, galaxies and
planets.

WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES

Christians have certain religious observances in which they commemorate
particular events in the history of Christianity. Some of the most important Christian
observances are Advent, Lent, and Pentecost.

✓ Advent
Advent refers to the season of waiting for the birth of the Messiah, hence its
celebration lasts for four weeks, beginning four Sundays before Christmas and ending
on Christmas eve. It is meant as an opportunity to reflect on the significance of the
birth of Jesus who was sent by God the Father to restore humanity’s relationship with
God. During Advent, it is not only the birth of Christ which is anticipated but the Second
Coming of the Savior as well. The word “Advent” comes from the Latin word adventus,
which means “coming” or “visit.” Advent also features certain colors, such as
purple/dark blue, which symbolizes seriousness, repentance, and royalty; and pink,
which signifies joy.

✓ Lent
Lent refers to the season observed by Christians in preparation for Easter, a
celebration of the resurrection of Christ. Ash Wednesday signals the start of the
season of Lent, which begins 40 days before Easter. It is a time for Christians to
prepare for Easter by following certain rituals, such as fasting, repentance,
moderation, and self-discipline. This is a time to reflect on the suffering, sacrifice, life,
death, burial, and resurrection of the Savior Jesus Christ. It is a time for prayer,
penance, sacrifice, and good works as a way of remembering the life, death, and
resurrection of Jesus. The word Lent comes from the Anglo-Saxon words lencten,
meaning “Spring”, and lenctenid, which means “Springtide” and also the word for
“March,” the month when Easter is usually celebrated.

✓ Pentecost
Pentecost is celebrated as a holiday to commemorate the coming of the Holy
Spirit to the early Christians. Thus, Pentecost is also celebrated as the birthday of the
Church. The word Pentecost comes from the Greek word pentekostos, which means
“fifty,” pertaining to the Jewish holiday celebrated every fifty days from the end of
Passover to the beginning of the next holiday (also known as Shavuot).The event was
recorded in the New Testament, in The Acts of the Apostles, Chapter 2, which narrates
how the first Christians came together in one place when suddenly they heard a sound
coming from heaven and tongues of fire rested on their heads. They were said to be
filled with the Holy Spirit which enabled them to speak other languages, after which
Peter stood up and delivered his first sermon.

SUBDIVISIONS

Prior to the reign of Emperor Constantine who declared himself a Christian in

312 C.E., Christians were persecuted under Roman emperors. Christianity was only
legalized in 313 C.E. upon Constantine’s declaration of the Edict of Milan, which
declared equality among all religions. After defeating his opponents and becoming the
sole leader of the Roman Empire in 324 C.E., Emperor Constantine made Christianity
the official religion of the empire and sought to end all doctrinal arguments on
Christianity. In 325 C.E., he convened the First Ecumenical Council at Nicea in Asia
Minor, which was attended by bishops from the eastern and western regions of the
empire. Then, in 330 C.E., he transferred the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome
to Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul) and renamed it Constantinople.
 As time went by, conflicts arose between the Roman Empire and the Byzantium
Empire, resulting in the inevitable split between the Roman Catholic Church and the
Greek Orthodox Church. The conflict was further heightened when Pope Leo III
crowned Charlemagne, King of the Franks, the Holy Roman Emperor in 800 without
consulting the Byzantine Empire. The official split happened in 105 with the “Great
Schism” which divided the Western Latin Roman Christianity from the Eastern Greek
Byzantine Christianity.
Abuses and corruption in the church led another sect to be formed
around the 16th century. Martin Luther, a teacher and a monk, posted his list of
ninetyfive propositions to the door of the church at Wittenberg in Saxony in
1517, which signalled the beginnings of another Christian sect called
Protestantism. The Protestant Reformation is considered the second greatest split in
Christianity. Luther’s timing was perfect, for the printing press was just recently
invented thus he was able to reprint numerous copies of his theses, which led to a
wider dissemination of his ideas. One of the things he opposed was the selling of
indulgences (indulgence refers to the pardon granted by the Pope to purgatorial
punishment to Christians who pay a certain amount for the absolution of their sins) of
the Catholic Church, which was meant to save the soul in the afterlife. His ideas spread
to England, with King Henry VIII severing his ties from Rome, creating the Church of
England and Lutheranism in 1555. As a result, the Catholic Church initiated its own
reformation to address the issues raised by Luther.

SELECTED ISSUES
We have discussed how the Christian Church was subdivided into different
sects. In order to address the issue of disunity among Christians, the concept of
ecumenism was adopted by the Roman Catholic Church. Thus, ecumenism is one
important issue in Christianity. Still, there are some issues which are in conflict with
Christian teachings, concerning sexuality (especially issues of contraception, abortion,
and homosexuality); divorce; capital punishment and euthanasia.

✓ Ecumenism
Ecumenism refers to the effort of the Catholic Church to sponsor activities and
initiatives to promote mutual understanding and unity among all Christians.
Ecumenism can also be described as the promotion of worldwide Christian unity
(Brodd 2003). It is based on Vatican II’s Decree on Ecumenism which states that:
“The restoration of unity among all Christians is one of the principal concerns
of the Second Vatican Council. Christ the Lord founded one Church and one Church
only. However, many Christian communions present themselves to men as the true
inheritors of Jesus Christ; all indeed profess to be followers of the Lord but differ in
mind and go their different ways, as if Christ Himself were divided. Such division
openly contradicts the will of Christ, scandalizes the world, and damages the only
cause of preaching the Gospel to every creature.”
 Ecumenism is based on three principles, which states that: 1) Christ established
the Church on the Apostles and their successors, whose head became Peter and his
successor the Bishop of Rome; 2) since the first century there have been divisions in
Christianity, but many persons now separated from visible unity with the successors
of the Apostles under Peter are nevertheless Christians who possess more or less the
fullness of grace available in the Roman Catholic Church; and 3) Catholics are to do
everything possible to foster the ecumenical movement, which comprehends all “the
initiatives and activities, planned and undertaken to promote Christian unity, according
to the Church’s various needs and opportunities” (Decree on Ecumenism, I,4).
Ecumenism was emphasized and intensely propagated by the Catholic Church
through a series of addresses, homilies, and regular audiences with the goal of
achieving unity among all Christians and non-Christians.

✓ Sexuality
The issue of sexuality has always been controversial for the Catholic Church.
Due to its conservative view of human sexuality, it has often found itself in conflict with
progressive and liberal ideas with regard to certain issues connected to sexuality such
as artificial contraception, abortion, and homosexuality. In general, sexuality refers to
sexual orientation, sexual activity, and sexual feelings.
Christianity advocates that the goal of sexual union between men and women
is procreation, thus anything that might hinder this is considered immoral. Having
sexual pleasure from such union is not necessary, thus when people use artificial
contraceptives, such as condoms, birth control pills, IUDs (intrauterine contraceptive
devices), and the like, they are committing a sin because they are engaging in sexual
acts without procreation in mind. Instead, Christianity advocates natural family
planning methods such as the rhythm method, wherein couples will engage in sexual
acts only during days when the woman is not fertile and cannot conceive a baby. In
this light, abortion is also considered as immoral by the Catholic Church since it entails
the killing of life. For the Catholic Church, life begins at fertilization, when the sperm
and ovum meet to form a single cell, hence abortion is already considered as taking
away the life of a person.
Another issue with regard to sexuality is that of homosexuality. It refers to
attraction to members of the same sex. Males who are attracted to males are called
gays, while females attracted to females are called lesbians. The Catholic Church
states that homosexual orientation itself is not a sin, it is nevertheless a tendency
towards the "moral evil" of homosexual sexual activity. It also states that when God
created humans He created male and female only, and that their union is meant for
procreation. Thus, in the Christian line of thinking, homosexuality should not be
practiced since it is not in accordance with God’s plan. The Church does not allow
same-sex marriage and is vocal in opposing homosexual relationships. Nevertheless,
while the Church condemns homosexual acts (sexual activity), being homosexual
(orientation) is not wrong or sinful in itself. It also states that homosexual persons must
be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity.
 ✓ Family and Divorce
The Christian view on marriage is based on Matthew 19:6, “He who made man
from the beginning, made them male and female. And he said: For this cause shall a
man leave father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife, and they two shall be in one
flesh. Therefore now they are not two, but one flesh. What therefore God hath joined
together, let no man put asunder.” Thus, divorce is not allowed in the Catholic Church,
since it believes in the sanctity of marriage, which should be a lifetime bond between
a man and a woman, and is considered a legal bond on earth and a spiritual bond in
heaven.
If couples wish to separate, they could seek an annulment, also known as
Decree of Nullity, in which it is declared that the marriage was never valid in the first
place. But unlike divorce, annulment entails a long, tedious, and expensive process,
in which a partner has to prove that his/her partner is psychologically incapacitated to
understand the commitment marriage entails, or one of the partners has deliberately
hid some information, such as previous marriage, impotence, or infertility.
As of today, every country in the world has a divorce law except the Philippines.
Although some lawmakers have been pushing for the divorce bill, the strong opposition
of the Catholic Church as well as the devout Catholics in the Congress and the Senate
have made it difficult for the divorce bill to be passed.

✓ Capital Punishment and Euthanasia

Capital punishment or death penalty wherein a person is punished by death for
his or her capital crime goes against the Christian belief that life is given by God and
should not be taken away by any person. It is illegal in most Christian countries such
as the Philippines, but some push for capital punishment as a way of deterring crime.
Since Christianity advocates the belief that life is given by God, euthanasia or
mercy killing is also considered immoral since it entails taking away what has been
given by God, and that human beings should not interfere with the natural process of
death. Even if a person is extremely suffering from his/ her illness, he/she has no right
to take away what God has given him/her. Also, human beings are made in the image
of God so people have a unique capacity to become rational which enables them to
see what is good and to want what is good, that is why they have no right to end this
gift from God. Another reason why the Church is against euthanasia is the belief that
people have no right to interrupt the natural process of dying, and that the period just
before death is a reflective spiritual moment. In Christianity, all human lives are equally
valuable and no one, even the person himself/herself who wants to end his/her life,
has the right to assume that his or her life is no longer valuable.
Group 3: Islam
Learning Objectives: At the end of the lesson, learners are expected to:
1. examine the history of Islam;
2. identify the core teaching, beliefs, and practices of Islam;
3. analyze other related issues of Islam.

Did you know that there are numerous celebrities in Hollywood that are
practicing the Islamic faith? Can you identify some of these popular stars that
you know?

Mike Tyson Shaquille O’neal Janet Jackson Dave Chapelle Jemima Khan

Established around seventh century C.E., Islam is the youngest among the
world’s major religions. With more than 1.5 billion adherents comprising almost one-
fourth of the entire world population, Islam is the second largest group and one of the
fasting growing religions in the world. Majority of Muslims, the followers of Islam, live
in Asia and Africa. There are 49 countries in the world that are Muslim-majority or
comprise 50% of the population. The 1.2 billion Muslims in these countries equivalent
to 74% of the entire Muslim population worldwide. More than 60% of the world’s
Muslims can be found in Asia, including Indonesia, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh,
Turkey, and Iran. Indonesia is the world’s most populous Muslim majority country with
almost 87% of the population practicing the Islam religion. In Africa, sizeable Muslim
communities are found in Egypt and Nigeria.

SYMBOLS
The star and crescent has become the acknowledged representation of the
Islamic faith. The symbol can be seen in the national flags of states that came about
following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in the 20th century. Around the 1970s, it
was adopted by movements that advocated Arab nationalism. Traditionally, the
crescent moon or the hilal has early connections with royalty. It is also closely linked
to the lunar calendar that orders the religious life of the Muslims (Bowker 1997).
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Islam began with the Arabian desert people around early seventh century C.E.
These people had developed their own set of beliefs prior to the formal establishment
of Islam and had been influenced by other religions for a long period of time, including
Byzantine Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism.
Judea, the home of Christianity, was not too far away from Arabia, and the great
cities of Damascus, Antioch, and Alexandria were neighbors to Mecca and Medina
(Hopfe 1983). Byzantine rulers, however, antagonized Arab Christians that provided
an impetus for their acceptance of a new Arab religion that started with the
establishment of Islam. On the other hand, the Arabian people were also familiar with
Judaism. For one, several desert tribes were Jewish in origin. When the Muslim forces
entered Medina in 622 C.E., many citizens of the city were Jewish (Hopfe 1983).
Lastly, the Muslims may have been in contact with the Persian Zoroastrians though its
influence may be not as strong compared to Christianity and Judaism.
Perhaps the single most important factor that accelerated the development of
a new religion in the Arabian interior was the native religion practiced by the Arabs.
Pre-Islamic people worshipped a variety of gods. While they recognize the existence
of one supreme god, local and tribal gods were mostly venerated by the people.
Carved images were done to represent these gods that were often revered and given
blood sacrifices (Hopfe 1983).
Apart from the presence of these gods, there were also angels, fairies, demonic
creatures, and evil spirits in pre-Islam religion. Apart from worshipping a pantheon of
gods, pre-Islamic religion was also animistic in character. Spirits found in rocks, trees,
and wells had to be revered at their sanctuaries and placated for assistance. In time,
the city of Mecca became a sacred shrine because of these animistic associations
(Hopfe 1983). A meteoric stone that had fallen in Mecca centuries before became an
object of veneration to the animistic people. Pilgrims then built an enclosure around
the stone and called it Kaaba. Various images and relics gradually filled the Kaaba,
including a painting of Jesus and Mary. Pilgrims travelled to Mecca to worship at the
shrine. The “Black Stone,” which according to Muslim tradition dates back to the time
of Adam and Eve, eventually became a very important object for the Meccans at the
time when various clans struggled to control the Kaaba. Mecca, situated on the central
western coast of Arabia is positioned on the major north-south caravan route (Hopfe
1983).

The Life of Muhammad

Around the year 570 C.E., Muhammad ibn Abdullah was born in the oasis town
of Mecca just off the western coast of the Arabian Peninsula (Karabell 2007).
Muhammad’s father died before he was born while his mother died before he was six
years old. He belonged to the clan of Hashim of the Quraysh tribe that controlled the
Kaaba and the camel trade that passed through Mecca. Following the tradition, he
was sent to be reared among the Bedouins. When his mother died, Muhammad was
raised by his grandfather Abd al-Muttalib (Renard 1992).
 Later on, Muhammad was taken into custody by his paternal uncle, Abu Talib,
who was chief of the Quraysh tribe. Life must have been very difficult for the young
Muhammad. With no formal schooling, Muhammad worked as a caravan worker
travelling across the Arabian Peninsula as a camel driver. From his travels in the
Arabian Peninsula to the different Byzantine cities, he may have met and conversed
with Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians alike. Muhammad soon learned the various
ways and means of their belief system that may have led him to question the faith of
his own people, especially with regard their animistic practices and reverence given to
numerous gods and idols (Hopfe 1983). He used to retreat to Mount Hira near Mecca
in search of truth about God.
Muhammad later married an older wealthy widow named Khadija, fifteen years
his senior. Muhammad was twenty-five years old when he married Khadija who was
about forty years old at the time. Khadija managed her own caravan and Muhammad
was working for her. He was married only to Khadija as long as she lived even though
it was acceptable for men to have multiple wives then. Khadija became his staunch
supporter and one of his first converts to the new religion he founded.
Around the year 610 C.E., Muhammad began hearing the voice of God in a
cave on the summit of Mount Hira, just outside Mecca in the Arabian Hijaz. God was
speaking to Muhammad in the Arabic language (Armstrong 2000; Karabell 2007).
Mostly auditory but occasionally in visual form, he began to experience divine
revelations delivered by the angel Gabriel (Renard 1992). Muhammad first disclosed
these revelations only to his wife since revealing these messages to his tribe could
disturb the social order that was primarily anchored on clan and kinship. He was
preaching a new order built upon God’s will and human submission to this belief.
The term “Islam” originated from an Arabic word meaning “submit.” In other
words, Islam means to “surrender or submit oneself for obedience to God” or to “enter
into a condition of peace and security with God through allegiance and surrender to
him” (Armstrong 2000; Bowker 1997). On the other hand, the word “Muslim” is the
Arabic word for a person who submits. A Muslim, therefore, is a “person who
surrenders or submits himself to obey God” (Brown 1975). In Arabic, the word “Allah”
is a compound of al (the definite article, the) and ilah (god or deity). Joined together,
the words signify “god” (Renard 1993). Henceforth, he is called Allah or “the one who
is God.” Muhammad was preaching that there can only be one God.
Beginning 613 C.E., Muhammad began to impart these sacred messages to
his closest relatives and friends. However, the polytheistic people of Mecca gave him
a tepid response. As the revelations became known to members of his clan, the
Qurasyh tribe began to consider Muhammad and his radical view of submission to one
god as one major threat to the long established tradition and absoluteness of tribal
authority. While god and deities (known as jinn) were revered, tribes and clan reigned
supreme on all societal issues (Karabell 2007). Quite evidently, Muhammad was
challenging the supremacy of the Qurasyh system.
The Muslims consider Muhammad as a messenger and the last prophet sent
by God to humankind who was visited by the angel Gabriel. While he gained the loyalty
of several followers who were convinced by his religious ideals, the Meccan tribes
eventually grew hostile to Muhammad’s emerging faction. The radical teachings of
Muhammad angered local tribes so they began persecuting him and his loyal
followers.
In 622 C.E., Muhammad and his group moved to Medina (then known as
Yathrib, 200 miles north of Mecca) to escape persecution from the Meccans. The flight
of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina is known as hijra which marked the beginning
of the Islamic calendar. Mired in frequent gridlock, Medinian tribes wanted Muhammad
to become their leader (Karabell 2007). The Muslims who follow Muhammad in his
journey are known as Muhajirun (“those who made the hijra”) while those who
supported him in Medina are known as Ansar (“the helpers”). Their descendants are
honored in the Islam religion (Bowker 1997). With local tribes involved in frequent
internal strife, Muhammad restored peace and order in Medina. Shortly after his arrival
in 622 C.E, he united the Medinian tribes under one constitution.
Muhammad and his followers waged a constant battle against Meccan tribes
until 630 C.E. Finally, after almost eight years of struggle, Muhammad and his troops
of around ten thousand converts marched to Mecca and took over the city almost
unopposed. In Kaaba, he tore down the three hundred sixty pagan idols displayed at
the holy shrine.
In 632 C.E., Muhammad died at the age of 62 but his newly founded religion
had spread across the entire Arabian Peninsula and the Muslims had been united as
one religious community. He was a classic example of a just, compassionate, honest,
and brave human being far removed from all evil deeds. Muhammad’s actions were
solely for the sake of Allah as he is ever mindful and fearful of his one true god (Ibrahim
1997). God has made all revelations to Muhammad, the last of the prophets and the
seal of the prophecy.

SACRED SCRIPTURES

✓ The Q'uran
The sacred writing of the Muslims is called Quran (or Koran in English) that
literally means “recitation” or “reading.” The Quran is the revelation from God of his
speech (kalam) and is the foundation of the Islam religion (Bowker 1997). It is the
supreme authority in all matters of faith, theology, and law (Parrinder 1971).
In 610 C.E., when Muhammad received the first revelations, he was
commanded by angel Gabriel to “iqra” or “recite.” All Muslims believe that the Quran
is a copy of the eternal scripture written in heaven but made known to Muhammad
chapter by chapter (Hopfe 1983). As such, the Quran is the word of God that is binding,
continuous, and supreme. The same message became known to earlier prophets like
Moses and Jesus but people gradually altered the revelation entrusted to them by God
(Bowker 1997). Any translation of the Quran, either in English or in any other language,
is neither a Quran nor a version of the Quran; rather, it is only a translation of the
meaning of the Quran (Ibrahim 1997). The Quran in Arabic, the only language in which
it was revealed, is considered the perfect word of God.
 For about twenty-three years, God revealed these messages through
Muhammad who initially memorized these lines because he was illiterate. The
revelation spanned from about 609 to 632 C.E., the year of the prophet’s death.
Muhammad relayed these messages to his companion and secretary Zayd ibn Thabit
(c.610-c.660 C.E.) who wrote them on leather scraps, stone pieces, ribs of palm
leaves, shoulder blades of animals, and parchments (Parrinder 1971; Hopfe 1983). At
that time, the art of papermaking was still unknown to the Arab people. Zayd became
one of the first converts of Muhammad to the Islam fold. Twenty years after the death
of Muhammad, the Quran had officially come to the form that was disseminated
throughout the centers of the Islamic world.
The Quran has remained virtually unaltered since the time of Muhammad. To
the Meccan townspeople, Muhammad preached the messages which were short and
quite easy to remember as these lines rhymed with one another (Brown 1975). The
Muslims recite and memorize the Quran reflecting the profound influence of the
scripture on the daily lives of all followers. Muhammad wanted the Muslims to recite
their scripture aloud similar to the manner done by the Jews and Christians. As time
went on, the messages increased as Muhammad kept on receiving new revelations.
The Quran guides all Muslims in every stage of their lives.
In comparison, the Quran has almost the same length as the New Testament,
the Christian biblical canon (Parrinder 1971). The chapters that compose the Quran
are called surahs while the verses are called ayahs which mean “evidence” or “sign.”
There are 114 chapters in the Quran, 86 of which are classified as Meccan while 28
are Medinian. The hijra or the journey of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina serves as
a pivot point in the division of the Quranic verses that belong before or after the said
emigration in 622 C.E. (Cragg 2004). The Meccan verses generally pertain to religious
ideals while the Medinian verses deal with the organization of the Muslim community.
While the chapters are of varying lengths, the Quran is also divided into thirty almost
equal parts (with each part known as juz) so as to enable a reader to complete the
reading of the scripture in one month (Aziz 1993).
Neither thematic nor chronological, the Quran is arranged based on the length
of the surah in descending order. The longest surah has about 286 ayahs, the Al-
Baqarah (“The Heifer”). The shortest surah has only three ayahs, the Al-Kawthar
(“Abundance”). The first of all the surah is called Fatihah (“The Opening”) that is in the
form of a prayer to God for guidance. The Fatihah, written below, is the most frequently
recited segment of the Koran.

“In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful

Praise be to Allah, the Cherisher and Sustainer of the Worlds;
Most Gracious, Most Merciful;
Master of the Day of Judgement.
You do we worship and Your aid we seek.
Show us the straight way,
The way of those on whom You have bestowed Your Grace, those whose (portion)
is not wrath, and who go not astray.”
Source: The Quran, translated by Abdullah Yusuf Ali, p. 1
 A person who is able to memorize the Quran in its entirety is called hafiz
(“guardian”). The female counterpart is called hafiza. Whatever denomination Muslims
may belong to, they always have the same Quran written in Arabic similar to the early
days of Islam’s founding. No two copies of the Quran anywhere in the world differ in
any way (Aziz 1993).

✓ The Hadith
The hadith is the collection of the deeds and sayings of Muhammad and his
followers (“traditional reports or sayings”) and is the second source of shari’a law
(Horrie & Chippindale 2003). Unlike the Quran that was officially compiled under the
auspices of a central authority (as initiated by the first caliph Abu Bakr), the hadiths
were collected generations after the death of Muhammad. The hadiths are recognized
today as second in authority after the Koran (Parrinder 1971).
Around the ninth century C.E., Muslim scholars undertook a number of great
systematic collections of hadiths that are known as Kutub al-Sittah or the Six Sahih
(“Authentic”) Books. The collections of Persian scholars Muhammad al-Bukhari (810-
870) and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj (c.815-875) are the most respected and most often cited
among the said collections (Parrinder 1971). Imam Bukhari authored the Sahih al-
Bukhari while Imam Muslim compiled the Sahih Muslim. From the six books, these
hadith records are the two most authentic collections.
The word sahih in these titles indicates that the authors of these books sifted
the authentic reports about Muhammad from other unsubstantiated narratives (Aziz
1993). The various rituals and obligations embedded in the so-called “Five Pillars of
Islam” as well as majority of criminal laws originate from the hadiths (Horrie &
Chippindale 2003).

BELIEFS/DOCTRINES
Islam began as a way of life (din) for its followers which God intended for his
creation from the very beginning (Bowker 1997). In time, God had to send several
prophets, including Musa (Moses) and ‘Isa (Jesus), to summon people back to the din
as a result of human rebellion and transgression. Ultimately, all prophets were
rejected, persecuted, or killed except for Muhammad.
While some religions may have room for subjective or personal discernment
regarding matters of conduct, Islamic beliefs are more dominantly social in character.
Islamic religious laws cover the daily life of all Muslims—from education, dress,
marriage, sexual relations, justice, punishments, economics, diet, and even rules of
hospitality. While Islam’s approach to life and death, origins of the universe, and the
nature of mankind is simple, it is also rigid and uncompromising (Horrie & Chippindale
2003).
For all Muslims, there is only one compassionate, everlasting, and omnipotent
God, being the lord of everything in existence, including humans. Around eight
thousand years ago, God created the universe and may terminate it when he wills it
so. A “Day of Judgment” shall ensue wherein all humankind will be resurrected and
individually accounted for. Everyone will be fully awakened and raised to a higher
spiritual life (Aziz 1193). Based on their own deeds and fully aware of the effects of
these deeds in this life, everyone will then be sent to either paradise or hell for
perpetuity (Aziz 1993; Horrie & Chippindale 2003). All these knowledge had been
revealed by God to Muhammad and written down in the Quran.
Since all people originate from God and return to him after death, there can
never be contending religions that may divide people from one another. As such, Islam
advocates for the establishment of one single community or ummah (Armstrong 2000;
Bowker 1997). During Muhammad’s time, the ummah was a community bigger than
the tribe, demanding a loyalty which came before loyalty to kinsfolk (Fletcher 2003).
In the end, a Muslim must not fight a fellow Muslim.

FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM

The basic obligations of Muslims are called the Five Pillars of Islam or arkan al-
din. While differences may occur in the interpretation of Islamic law, all Muslims
believe and accept the entirety of these obligations that must be strictly observed to
avoid being sent to hell on the “Day of Judgment.” The Five Pillars give structure and
unity to all believers of Islam.
Foremost among all Muslims’ obligations is the declaration of their statement
of belief called shahada (“witness”) that is recited during prayers and rituals. Apart
from shahada, the four other duties that must be performed by all Muslims are
collectively called as ibadah (“state of submission”). The ibadah aims to discipline the
adherents and eliminate impostors to the Islamic faith. The ibadah is composed of
praying five times a day, fasting during the time of Ramadan, giving of annual charity,
and undertaking a pilgrimage to Mecca once in a Muslim’s lifetime.

✓ The Creed (Shahada)

The basic creed of Islam that “there is no God but Allah; Muhammad is the
messenger of Allah” is known as shahada. In Arabic, the shahada is recited as “La
ilaha illa Allah; Muhammadon rasul Allah.” These are the very first words uttered into
an infant’s ear and perhaps the last words given to a dying Muslim. The shahada
asserts that Allah is the only divinity and that he has relayed his will through
Muhammad (Bowker 1997).
To be accepted into the Islam fold, one must recite the kalima or phrase with
two witnesses. The first half of the kalima is known as tawheed (“the unity”) which is
the most important statement of Muslim faith. The second half is called risallah
(“acceptance of prophethood”) which implies acceptance of prophets as messengers
of god (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). For a Muslim to deny any part of the shahada is
tantamount to the crime of reversion to Islam that is punishable under Quranic law.
 ✓ Obligatory Prayer (Salat)
Just as the body requires food for its daily sustenance, prayers are done for
spiritual development so that a Muslim’s character and conduct remain sound and
healthy (Aziz 1993). Facing in the direction of Mecca or qiblah, Muslims must offer
prayers or salat five times each and every day—before sunrise (as-subh), noon (az-
zuhr), mid-afternoon (al-asr), immediately after sunset (al-maghreb), and before
midnight (al-isha) (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). In a mosque or masjid (“place of
prostration”) where Muslims offer prayers in congregation, men and women pray
separately. A structure of masjid can range from a simple desert prayer ground
(musalla) or just any space whereby rules of ritual purity are properly observed.
Each prayer session begins when the strong-voiced muezzin or caller recites
the call to prayer (adhan) from the tallest point of a mosque, often a minaret. A minaret
is a tall structure or thin tower that is used to call the people to prayer. The adhan,
composed of rhythmic Arabic phrases devised by Muhammad himself, is often
recorded and broadcast through speakers (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). Quite
regrettably, muezzins have been slowly replaced by amplified voices and tape
recordings (Jomier 1999).
Before any prayer commences, an elaborate ritual washing (wudu) must be
performed to remove any impurities and unclean substances from the body or clothes
of the faithful. Most mosques are frequently equipped with facilities for washing hands,
feet, and face before prayer (Hopfe 12983). Clean and potable water must be given to
any person who comes to a mosque (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). Muslim men often
pray in mosques while women pray at their homes.
To pray, a Muslim stands on clean ground without shoes or wearing clean ones
(Jomier 1999). A special carpet may be provided to provide the person a clean surface.
Nevertheless, aside from salat, a Muslim can address a prayer to Allah at any given
time in any circumstance using any words one chooses (Aziz 1993).

✓ Poor Tax (Zakat)

Muslims who live above the subsistence level must pay zakat or the poor tax to
aid the underprivileged Muslims. Affluent Muslims must share their wealth to the
unfortunate ones. Originally, almsgiving was for the benefit of the poor, widows, and
orphans through an act of charity. Later on, it became mandatory amounting to a
certain percentage of a Muslim’s total resources. Islam has never viewed begging as
dishonorable (Hopfe 1983).
Zakat is not charity but an annual wealth tax that serves as just and lawful claim
of the poor against the affluent ones. The zakat is payable the moment a Muslim has
accumulated sufficient resources starting with a basic rate which is fortieth (2.5
percent) of a person’s entire asset, including savings, jewels, and land (Horrie &
Chippindale 2003). A kind of tithe intended to support the needy, zakat has been a
contributory factor of solidarity and unity for the Muslim people (Jomier 1999). It is a
religious duty done out of obedience to Allah and compassion to poor Muslims. The
spirit of self-sacrifice is developed by paying zakat that somehow curtails the feeling
of greed (Aziz 1993).
The Quran states that all worldly wealth is unclean unless utilized in the service
of Allah and Islam. A horrible fortune awaits those people who became wealthy as a
result of usurious activities and those who neglect the welfare of poor Muslims. By
fulfilling to pay zakat, well-off Muslims cleanse their material possessions and can
liberally enjoy their fortunes with Allah’s approval (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). Hence,
zakat is viewed as purification of one’s resources (Frager 2002).

✓ Fasting (Sawm)
Fasting or sawm during the entire 30 days of Ramadan, the ninth month of the
Islamic calendar, must be performed by all Muslims every year. The Ramadan is
believed to be the month when Muhammad received the first surah of the Quran. The
sawm is done by all Muslims to express obedience to Allah and the readiness to
relinquish pleasures in their lives. By undertaking sawm, Muslims observe discipline
and experience the deprivations of the poor (Bowker 1997). During this time, a Muslim
must refrain from eating, drinking, smoking, and engaging in any sexual intimacy from
dusk until dawn. By resisting the demands of the body during sawm, the Muslims
strengthen their will. Muslims are reminded that they have the capacity to ignore the
longing of the body or material gratification (Frager 2002).
The sawm culminates with the “Feast of Breaking the Fast” (‘Id al-Fitr) wherein
Muslims may celebrate and partake in festivities. They hold congregational prayers
and exchange presents. Unlike the Jews or Catholics who fast for a brief period of time
in observance of holy days, the Muslims are obligated to fast the longest and strictest
of all.
Any Muslim who has reached puberty and is healthy must undertake sawm.
Muslims who are exempted from performing sawm include small children, those who
are on a journey, sick persons, and mothers nursing infants. For those who are
temporarily unable to observe sawm, they must perform the missed fast after
Ramadan. For those who are permanently unable to fast, such as the very old or
persons those with long-term illness, they can give charity to poor Muslims instead
(Aziz 1993).
✓ Pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj)
All Muslims must attempt to undertake a pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca or
hajj (“visitation of Holy Places”) at least once in their lifetime during the twelfth Islamic
month. The “Grand Mosque” (Al-Masjid al-Haram) in Mecca houses the most sacred
site of Islam, the Kaaba (“House of Allah”). The Kaaba is a cube-shaped ancient stone
building that dates back to the time of Adam and Eve according to Muslim tradition.
Muslims believe that the Kaaba was originally built for the worship of God by Abraham
and his son Ishmael (Belt 2001). The Kaaba represents the end of a journey because
it is the symbolic point of origin of all creation wherein all things turn around it and from
it all things radiate (Renard 1992).
 Inside the Kaaba is the “Black Stone,” twelve inches in diameter, located on the
eastern cornerstone of the building that was set intact into the wall by Muhammad
himself in 605 C.E. A fragmented dark rock often described as meteorite, the “Black
Stone” has been polished smooth by the pilgrims through time. Broken into a number
of fragments, it is now cemented into a silver frame on the eastern corner of the Kaaba.
Some poets consider Muhammad himself as the Kaaba of prophetic revelation while
the Kaaba is the “seal of his prophethood” (Renard 1992).
For Muslim men to participate in hajj, they must be sound, physically able, and
able to provide for their dependents while they are on pilgrimage to Mecca. On the
other hand, Muslim women may also take part in hajj subject to a number of
restrictions. For example, women must be accompanied by a male chaperon
(mahram) who must be a man they are legally unable to marry, such as their father or
brother (Horrie & Chippindale 2003).
Before travelling to Mecca, pilgrims (hajji) pray incessantly and perform
extended washing rituals. Pilgrims also shave and cut their hair and nails. For men,
they wear a special ihram outfit that consists of two large pieces of white, unhemmed
clothes. One piece wraps around the waist and the other goes over the right shoulder.
For women, they wear simple white dresses (Frager 2002). They also wear additional
garments to completely cover their face and legs (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). Men
and women pilgrims wear sandals instead of shoes.
Clad in simple pilgrim’s garment with no head covering, one cannot distinguish
a rich Muslim from a poor one simply by looking at their apparel (Hopfe 1983). Once
pilgrims are wearing their ihram, they are prohibited from removing this ritual dress,
even when sleeping. They are also forbidden from clipping their nails, hunting, arguing,
or engaging in any sexual activity (Belt 2001). In ihram, Muslims cannot shave, wash
themselves, shampoo their hair, scratch themselves, kill anything (even a fly or
mosquito), walk on grass, or injure any living thing (Frager 2002).
Central to the pilgrimage is a full day spent in the desert on the Arafat plain
considered sacred by the Muslims. The mountain of Arafat was the site of
Muhammad’s last sermon (Frager 2002). For many people located in regions distant
from the Arabian Peninsula, the hajj serves as the pinnacle of years of yearning to be
with God (Parrinder 1971).

WORSHIP AND OBSERVANCES

The Islamic calendar is composed of 12 lunar months of between 29 and 30
days. A year in the Islamic calendar constitutes a total of 354 days. The difference
between the solar and lunar calendar is adjusted by adding one day to the last month
of the year 11 times each 30 years. Nonetheless, 103 Islamic years are the equivalent
of 100 solar years despite the periodic modifications done on the calendar (Hopfe
1983).
The Most Important Festivals Celebrated by Muslims Worldwide.
 Month Festivities/Significance
Month 1: Muharram (“The Sacred Month”) • The Islamic year starts in the day of
the hijra, Muhammad’s journey from
Mecca to Medina in 622 C.E.
• Ashura: The assassination of the
Imam Husayn at Karbala’ in 680 C.E.
is commemorated on the 10th by
Shi’ite Muslims
Month 3: Rabi al-Awai (“The Spring”) • Birth of the Prophet: Muhammad’s
birthday is celebrated on the 12th.
Month 9: Ramadan (“The Month of Great • Muslims do not eat or drink during
Heat”) daylight hours throughout the month.
• Laylat al-Qadr: The commemoration
of the first revelation to the prophet is
often celebrated on the 27th.
Month 10: Shawwal (“The Month of • ‘Id al-Fitr: The Festival of Breaking
Hunting”) the Fast at the beginning of
Shawwal concludes the fasting
season.
Month 12: Dhu al-Hijja (“The Month of Hajj”) • Month of pilgrimage (Hajj) to Mecca.
• Yawn Arafat: On the 9th, fasting
pilgrims perform the wuquf, standing
before God on Mount Arafat.
• ‘Id al-Adha: The Festival of Sacrifice
on the 10th recalls the sacrificial ram
God gave to Abraham in place of his
son, and coincides with the end of
Hajj.

Ramadan is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar wherein Muslims are
expected to observe sawm. Muslims may not eat, drink, or have sex during daylight
hours. The last 10 days of the month may be spent by continuous prayers of the most
devoted Muslims. Finally, the sawm ends with ‘Id al-Fitr or the Festival of Breaking the
Fast marked by popular rejoicing and festal prayer (Jomier 1999).
Dhu al-Hijja is the twelfth month of the Islamic calendar wherein able-bodied
Muslims perform the hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca. Poor Muslims sometimes use their
entire savings just to fulfill this obligation. The sick and the elderly may begin their
pilgrimage without the certainty of accomplishing this sacred duty.
Upon entering the Grand Mosque, the hajji performs the tawaf which involves
circling the Kaaba seven times in a counter-clockwise direction. Most pilgrims attempt
to touch or kiss the sacred Black Stone. However, the sheer number of pilgrims inside
the mosque prevents them from touching the relic. They may instead raise their arm
and point in its direction. These rites are known as umrah. Once the tawaf is
completed, most pilgrims drink from the well of Zamzam that was established by Hagar
and Ishmael. With its rich mineral water, Ishmael and Muhammad quenched their thirst
here as the tradition goes (Belt 2001). The stream flows through the basement of the
Grand Mosque (Horrie & Chippindale 2003).
‘Id al-Adha or the Feast of Sacrifice is the most important festival in the Muslim
calendar marking the end of the pilgrimage season. On the tenth day of the hajj,
Muslims are required to slaughter a live animal (a sheep or goat) to commemorate
Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son Ishmael and his obedience to God. In the
process, a ram was substituted in place of Ishmael, thus, allowing him and his offspring
to live, including his descendant Muhammad (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). After their
arduous journey in Mecca, pilgrims may now visit other holy cities, such as Medina or
Jerusalem. Returning home, the title hajj can now be affixed to their names to indicate
completion of this religious responsibility (Hopfe 1983).
Friday is the special day of worship for the Muslims as commanded by
Muhammad. In mosques, Muslims are required to pray with his fellows and prayers
are led by an imam. An imam is a member of the community selected to lead the
congregation due to the devoutness and religiosity he manifests to the people (Hopfe
1983).

Islamic Law
The concept of law and justice in Islam, or the shari’a (“the road to the watering
place”), is based upon the Quranic verses as revealed by God to Muhammad. The
universal laws passed down by God govern both the affairs of human and laws of
nature (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). Apart from the Quran, the teachings of
Muhammad or the hadiths form the basis of Islamic legal system.
The shari’a is a path of conduct that must be followed by all Muslims. It concerns
almost the totality of a Muslim’s life – from home life, business interests, marital
relations, inheritance, and various duties to the state and community (Brown 1975).

Islamic Jurisprudence
Islamic jurisprudence or the science of Islamic law is called fiqh. All aspects of
Muslim way of life and actions are covered through fiqh. Human behavior may be
classified into five categories: forbidden (haram), discouraged (makruh), neutral
(mubah), recommended (mandub), and obligatory (fard).
Forbidden actions are both sinful and criminal under pain of punishment.
Accordingly, it is forbidden for all Muslims to eat animals that have died from natural
causes or those animals that were not ritually slaughtered. Pork is considered as the
most unclean of all meats and must not be eaten no matter how the pig meat was
produced. Other haram behaviors include drinking blood, eating dried blood, and
taking liquors.
The Five Pillars is an example of an obligatory category. These practices, such
as almsgiving, daily prayers, and ritual fasting, are compulsory to all Muslims. Failure
to observe these obligations is sinful and punishable as crime.
 The three other categories (makruh, mandub, and mubah) concern chiefly on
things, such as etiquette, donations, personal habits, and social life (Horrie &
Chippindale 2003). Reprehended actions but not subject to punishments belong to
makruh. Meritorious or recommended deeds fall under mandub. Permitted behaviors
that are neither good nor bad but neutral are classified as mubah. The hadith
collections can be consulted to resolve these matters.

SUBDIVISIONS
Similar to most major religions, Islam also has sects, which vary primarily as to
how these sects interpret some aspects of the Islamic faith and of the Quran. Inasmuch
as Muslims agree on the fundamental tenets of the Islam religion, variations do occur
in many of their beliefs and practices (Hopfe 1983).

Sunni Muslims (The Sunnis)

Majority of Muslims, around 87% to 90% of the entirety of Islam believers,
belong to the Sunni denomination. The Sunnis (“Followers of the Smooth Path”) are
traditionalists and are considered the orthodox of Islam as they endeavor to follow the
original religion established by Muhammad and guided by the first four righteous
caliphs (Hopfe 1983). These Muslims follow the sunnah (“customary practice”) of
Muhammad from which their name originated. Sunnah pertains to the orally
transmitted record of wisdom, conduct, and sayings attributed to Muhammad and his
earliest companions as recorded in hadith.
The Sunnis believe that any Muslim can be a ruler and he does not need to
prove his lineage to Muhammad as long as he gets the approval and confidence of
the ummah or community. He can be an elected ruler or a hereditary monarch that
should enjoy the support of the ummah. All Sunnis shall abide by his actions
unquestioningly regardless of whether he is a fair or cruel ruler (Horrie & Chippindale
2003).
Within the Sunni sect of Islam are groups of Muslims that also differ in views
and exercise of their faith. Religious factions are often the result of national or social
differences (Brown1975). Every Muslim country has a Sunni majority except Iran, Iraq,
Azerbaijan, Yemen, and some of the Gulf States (Horrie & Chippindale 2003).

Shi’a (The Shi’ites)

The Shi’ite Muslims are the largest faction within the Islam religion that
separated from the rest of the community (Brown 1975). Historically speaking, three
close associates of Muhammad became successive leaders or caliphs of Islam with
the death of the founder in 632 C.E. The caliphate acted as a central unifying agency
in Islamic history. Initially, caliphs were friends of Muhammad that acted as virtuous
leaders of the believers. They may be chosen by election or general consent. Later
on, the position became hereditary resembling that of a king (Hopfe 1983).
 Some Muslims believed that Muhammad should have been immediately
succeeded by his direct relative, Ali ibn Abi Talib, who was his cousin. Ali was also
Muhammad’s son-in-law who married his daughter Fatima. In 656 C.E., Ali became
the fourth caliph but steadily lost control of the Muslim world that culminated in the
takeover of the caliphate by the Umayyad Dynasty at the time of Ali’s assassination in
a mosque at Kufa and his eventual death in 661 C.E. (Hopfe 1983; Nakash 1994).
Known as rashiduns (“rightly-guided caliphs”), the Sunnis accepted the
legitimacy of the first four successors of Muhammad: Abu Bakr (632-634 C.E.), Umar
ibn al-Khattab (634-644 C.E.), Uthman ibn Affan (644-656 C.E.), and Ali ibn Abi Talib
(656-661 C.E.). Other Muslims, however, believed that Ali’s descendants should
become head of the religious community. These Muslims were called “Alids” that
became known as “Shia Ali” or “the party of Ali.” In time, they came to be called
“Shi’ites” (Hopfe 1983). For the Shi’ites, Ali was the first imam and the rightful spiritual
and political successor of Muhammad. Ali’s youngest son, Husayn, challenged the
Umayyad caliph Yazid I but was later killed and beheaded at the battle of Karbala in
680 C.E. This event, called Ashura or the tenth day of Muharram, is commemorated
each year as a day of mourning for all Shi’ites.
The main Shi’ite sects are the Seveners, Twelvers¸and ‘Ibadis. The Seveners
believe that there were seven imams. They are mostly found in India, Yemen, and
parts of Africa. Meanwhile, the Twelvers claim that there are twelve imams with most
believers located in Iran. Finally, the ‘Ibadis believe that the community may elect any
appropriate Muslim as imam. They are mostly found in Oman (Brown 1975).

Sufi
Muslims whose concern mainly dwell for a mystical union with God are
collectively called Sufis. Their name originate from the word suf that means “woolen”
since they wore coarse wool garments or robes to symbolize poverty and denunciation
of worldly pleasures (Hopfe 1983). A Sufi can be a Sunni or Shi’ite Muslim. The Sufi
movement may have started around the ninth century C.E. at the time when there
came a clarion call to live a simpler and austere life far from the splendor and grandeur
that characterized the Abbasid Dynasty.
Around the twelfth century, monastic orders were established within the Sufi
movement that focused around a saint. A convert who joins the order were called fakir
(“a poor man”) or dervish (“one who comes to the door”). The new recruits studied
under their master to develop their heightened sense of spirituality. Most Sufi
practitioners practice discipline, poverty, abstinence, and celibacy in some instances.
They insist that it is possible to have union with God through mystical experience
(Hopfe 1983).
SELECTED ISSUES
Islam has gone through two principal periods of growth in its relatively young
history: first, at the onset of its founding, and second, during the twentieth century. As
one of the fastest growing religions in the world, Islam has affected every facet of
human society.

Islam and Women

The role of women in Muslim societies is a complicated subject since their rights
vary greatly throughout Islamic nations. While they may experience harsh restrictions
in terms of legal rights and employment opportunities, women rulers have emerged in
the twentieth century to lead Asian countries such as Bangladesh, Pakistan, and
Turkey (Frager 2002).
Women in Islam must accept that their roles in society vary greatly when
compared to men. Foremost, they must remain obedient to their fathers and husband.
A surah in the Quran depicts a woman’s father or husband as master and portrays the
superiority of men on women.
All Muslims are required to observe the Five Pillars of Islam. However,
congregational prayers tend to be dominated by men while this activity remains
optional for women. It is prohibited for any woman to lead prayers. When a woman is
having her usual menstrual period, she must not enter any mosque. In some countries,
Muslim women are required to cover their face and bodies when in company with men
other than their immediate kin.
Meanwhile, with so many restrictions imposed by society upon Muslim women,
the Quran assures women the right to own, dispose, and inherit properties and
earnings, to participate in political exercise, and to sue for divorce. In other words, a
complete, legal identity is guaranteed by the Quran to Muslim women (Horrie &
Chippindale 2003). Husbands are also encouraged to treat their wives well. Mothers
must be treated in the best way possible as stated in Quranic teachings.
While the West has labeled Islam as anti-woman, the opposite may be true
because of the religion’s pro-equality stance on many issues. For example, traditional
Islamic law holds that women cannot be denied of education, cannot be forced into
marriage, can divorce their husbands, and can vote and hold office. Unfortunately,
there are Muslim societies that do not always measure up to Islamic standards (Frager
2002).
The Quran views women as spiritually equal to men. As both shall be assessed
during the “Day of Judgment,” they must both perform good deeds. Nevertheless,
despite the elevation in the status of women in Muslim society, they remain seemingly
inferior to men. The Quran mentions the following with regard to the position of women:
“Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has given the one
more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from their means.
Therefore, the righteous women are devoutly obedient, and guard in (the husband’s)
absence what Allah would have them guard. As to those women on whose part you
 fear disloyalty and ill-conduct, admonish them (first), (next), refuse to share their beds,
(and last) chastise them (lightly); but if they return to obedience, seek not against them
means (of annoyance): for Allah is Most High, Great (above you all) (Quran 4:34).”
Source: The Quran, translated by Abdullah Yusuf Ali, p. 53

The Holy War (Jihad)

One controversial requirement placed upon Muslims by their faith concerns holy
war or jihad. A frequently mistranslated term, jihad means “effort” or “struggle” to
convince unbelievers to pursue the Muslim way of life (Fletcher 2003). Strictly
speaking, it could mean a Muslim going to war to wipe out the infidels in the name of
Allah (Hopfe 1983). However, the method of a jihadist can be a peaceful one, such as
living a pious life or observing the required obligations to his faith, or through violent
means, especially if the infidels are obstinate (Fletcher 2003). Presently, jihad has
remained a vague issue especially now that Arab nations have been less than
apprehensive to commit to war as unified Muslims versus non-Muslims (Hopfe 1983).
Likewise, Islamic law opposes all violent means except in cases of war or legally
sanctioned punishment of criminals (Frager 2002). The Quran contains the following
verse in reference to Islam’s opposition to violence:
“Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for Allah
loves not transgressors. (Quran 2:190)”
Source: The Quran, translated by Abdullah Yusuf Ali, p. 18.

Militancy and Terrorism

Islam is a religion of mercy that prohibits terrorism. During Muhammad’s time,
he proscribed his soldiers to kill women and children, and even listed murder as the
second of the major sins (Ibrahim 1997). Punishment through the use of fire was also
forbidden by Muhammad.
Since Islam is a religion of peace and mercy, terrorism in all its forms are
abhorred by Muslims. Destruction of human lives, buildings, infrastructures, shrines,
and other properties are despicable in the light of various Islamic texts (Ibrahim 1997).
Muslims who promote terrorism and mass slaughter of innocent and helpless civilians
do not embody Islamic ideals. Their blatant disregard of Quranic teachings distorts the
very essence of Islam as a peaceful religion. The presence of violence in Islamic
society cannot be attributed to the teachings of Islam but to the failings of human
adherents of the religion (Frager 2002). A person committing an act of terrorism is
guilty of violating Islamic laws for that matter.

Migration
The late nineteenth century saw a significant migration of Muslims from Syria,
Lebanon, and Jordan to the US. After the Second World War, European countries
encouraged emigration from former colonies to augment manpower shortages. United
Kingdom today is home to more than two million Muslims; France between four to five
million Muslims; and Germany four million Muslims (Frager 2002). In 2010, there were
about 44 million Muslims in Europe, excluding Turkey.
The Muslim population in the US and Europe continues to rise in the present
century. Islam has now become an American religion with around six million Muslims
in population. Muslim immigrants and their American-born children number about four
million in total. Meanwhile, almost two million are American converts that are mainly
African American (Frager 2002).