A

REPORT
ON
“LOW COST SANITATION WORKS”
FOR
RURAL AREAS

DONE BY:

SILAR SHARFUDDIN (129X1A01A4)

S V SINDHU REDDY (129X1A01A3)
CIVIL ENGINEERING (IV YEAR)
G PULLA REDDY ENGINEERING COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)
KURNOOL-518007

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to our beloved principal Dr. Srinavasa Reddy M.E,

Ph.D, for his kind co-operation in course of project work.

Our Special thanks to Prof. M Basha Mohiddin M.E (Hydraulics &

Water Resources Engineering) Head of Civil Engineering Department
for his encouragement during the project.

We would like to acknowledge our deep gratitude to Asst.Prof

E. Sanjeeva Rayudu for his valuable guidance.

Finally we thank all the unmentioned names and invisible hands who
helped us in bringing this report to this present form.

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 INDEX
S.No Contents Page
No.
1 Summary 4-5
2 Introduction 6
3 Significance & Objective 7-9
4 History and Development 10-11
5 Sanitation System 12
 Sustainable sanitation
 Ecological Sanitation
6 Requirements 12
7 Type of Sanitation Practices 13-15
 Flush and Discharge
 Drop and store
8 Sanitary works suitable for rural areas 16

9 Twin pit – Pour flush latrine 16-20

10 Bio-gas linked toilets 21-24
11 Ventilated improved pit latrine 24-28
12 School sanitary complex – Model(for rural schools) 29-31
13 Septic tank and aqua privy 31-33
14 Conclusion 34

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 SUMMARY

"Sanitation is more important than Independence."

- Mahatma Gandhi

The above line elevates the significance and necessity of sanitation

for everyone. It doesn‘t matter the economical status of community
whether they are rich or poor, everyone needs sanitary works for
disposal of human waste and domestic waste.
It is hard to imagine life without toilets for us but it is a reality for
approximately 2.6 billion people in the world. An estimated 40 per
cent of world's population still do not have access to adequate
sanitation facilities.
Within 10 years from now, it is expected that an additional two billion
People will live in towns and cities, mainly in developing countries,
demanding safe sanitation. Furthermore, many of the rapidly
expanding towns and cities are located in arid and semiarid areas
where water scarcity is severely reducing the volume of water
available.

In a situation of food insecurity, decreasing soil fertility and

escalating prices for fertilizers in world markets, there is a need to
utilise the nutrients, especially in human urine, rich in nitrogen and
phosphates, for agricultural purposes, thereby increasing productivity
and reducing the needs for fertilisers.

It is obvious that this enormous challenge leads to a need to rethink, a

need to raise the status of sanitation and a need for new approaches,
techniques and methods.

This report puts forward an alternative to conventional sanitation

called ecological sanitation. It is based on an ecosystem approach and
treats human urine and faeces as a valuable resource to be recycled. It
further shows that ecological sanitation is by no means untried there
are hundreds of thousands of dehydrating and composting toilets in
use around the world today, mostly in rural areas and small
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communities. What we need now is to develop large-scale
applications of the ecological sanitation concept in rural and urban
areas both in developed and developing countries.

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INTRODUCTION
Sanitation literally denotes measures significant for improving and
protecting health and well-being of the people. It is a system that
promotes appropriate disposal of human wastes, proper use of toilets
and discourages open space defecation.
A large section of Indian population lives in villages and is mainly
engaged in agriculture. They belong to weaker section of the society.
There is a definite trend of rural population migrating to the urban
areas due to lack of employment opportunities, low earnings,
insufficient means of transport and insanitary living conditions. The
latter is mainly responsible to repel the educated youth from working
in rural areas. One source of insanitary condition in rural areas is the
drainage of waste water from bathing and cooking areas of dwellings
over the kutcha roads and lanes having inadequate slopes. The
situation is further aggravated due to the movements of carts and
animals which result in the creation of pot holes and ditches that gets
filled up with dirty stagnant water. The mosquitoes and flies find
good breeding centres in these places and spread diseases.
Some of the village roads are brick paved with drains for waste water
disposal. But these have not served the required purpose due to
improper slopes, insufficient maintenance and unpredictable flow of
water. Rural dwellings having their own source of water supply like
hand pumps discharge more water on the streets. Furthermore, the
agricultural waste and domestic refuse collect in drains obstructing
the flow of water and ultimately, all these things appear on the streets.

It has been often seen that lack of sanitation facilities are main cause
of some of the life-threatening diseases. Hence, sanitation facilities
are often related to one of the key elements in sustaining human lives.

The two most commonly used sanitation technologies today are the
pit toilet and the flush toilet. Conventional waterborne sewage
systems have proven to be inappropriate to solve sanitation needs in
developing countries. The systems are too costly to be provided to all,
and only wealthier upper and middle class areas are normally
provided with those services. Approximately 90% of the sewage in

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cities in developing countries is today discharged untreated, polluting
rivers, lakes and coastal areas. Pit toilets also have limitations,
especially in densely populated areas, with severe risks of
contaminating groundwater.
In India a large number of people have no latrines or have bucket or
dry latrines, especially in rural areas condition is worse in comparison
to these national average and majority of people resort to open air
defecation. Statistics reveal that 120 million people in the world are
without adequate water supply and 1350 million without sanitary
facilities in rural areas is 15 per cent.
Technically, what sanitation means?
"Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and
services for the safe disposal of human urine and feaccs. The word
'sanitation' also refers to the maintenance of hygienic conditions,
through services such as garbage collection and wastewater disposal."

Sanitation includes solid waste disposal (including medical wastes),

wastewater disposal, wastewater reuse, human excreta disposal, and
drainage of surface (rain) water.

SIGNIFICANCE & OBJECTIVE:

Poor health in developing countries is largely due to diseases like
cholera, dysentery, gastroenteritis and worm infections carried by
contaminated food water and ground. ―Effective sanitation‖ is an
important way of reducing the incidence of such diseases but modern
water borne sanitation system is not possible in many parts of the
world, due to its high cost and shortage of water. High cost of
providing sewers for rural as well as urban areas having low density
makes them non-acceptable due to financial constraints. Therefore, it
is important to search for appropriate alternatives
In many cities, towns and rural areas of the world today people live
and raise their children in highly polluted environments. Urban and
peri-urban areas in developing countries are among the worst polluted
and disease ridden habitats of the world. Much of this pollution,
which leads to high rates of disease, malnutrition and death, is caused
by a lack of toilets and inadequate sanitation services.

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The lack of sufficient or adequate services is a result of many factors,
including: inadequate financial resources, insufficient water, and lack
of space, difficult soil conditions and limited institutional capabilities.
As cities expand and populations increase, the situation will grow
worse and the need for safe, sustainable and affordable sanitation
systems will be even more critical.

Safe and appropriate disposal of human wastes is a basic requirement

for sanitation and public health protection. For proper sanitation,
effective treatment methods to ensure complete destruction of
pathogens in excreta prior to disposal and reuse are a must.
Conventional wastewater collection system, as found in modern
cities, is often not feasible to be operated in small and rural
communities, because of its prohibitively high cost.

In developing countries, where poor water supply conditions exist,

conventional system is technically not feasible. Typically, the cost of
a conventional sanitation system requires about one-fourth of the
average annual income of these low-income communities. On-site
sanitation technologies, with lower costs of installation, and low water
supply requirements offer the advantages that are critical under such
circumstances.
Design of an effective on-site waste disposal system also needs,
among other things, an adequate understanding of the relationship
between excreta and health. The type and level of advancements in

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on-site technologies greatly vary among developed and developing
countries. The variation depends mainly on affordability, local social
customs and practices, and regulatory requirements for disposal.
The main objectives for providing a sanitary work are:

 Completely eliminating the traditional habit of open defecation

and making this a relic of the past.
 Operationalizing systems for the safe management of solid and
liquid waste at scale.
 Promoting the adoption of improved hygiene behaviours.
 Addressing inequalities in access with special attention to
vulnerable groups such as women, children, aged and disabled.

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HISTORY& DEVELOPMENT OF SANITATION
Proper sanitation has been a concern for human beings since their
early efforts to organize as communities. Ever since, sanitation has
been a major focus of all development. Historic evidences indicate
that systems existed around 2000 BC in ancient India and on the
Island of Crete that drained water away from buildings. Open sewers
were used as early as 6 century BC in Rome that carried city wastes to
the nearby River Tiber.

Public toilets in ancient Rome city.

With the industrial revolution during the mid-18 century came
urbanization and with expanding urban populations came sanitation
problems. The first flush toilet developed by Sir John Harrington in
1596 for Queen Elizabeth I's Richmond Palace has never become
commercial. Alexander Cumming developed a water-flushed toilet in
1775 and it was Joseph Bramah, a cabinetmaker in England who
patented the first practical toilet in 1778. But these systems did not
have devices to prevent water from continually flowing into the toilet.
In 1872, Thomas Crapper and Co. first manufactured water-efficient
flush toilets for commercial availability.

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The relationship between human wastes and diseases was first
established by a pioneering epidemiological study by John Snow, a
physician, who traced the recurrence of cholera epidemic in London,
to a public tap that was being contaminated by the close-by cesspools.
It was then theorized that the rotting human wastes result in the
emergence of noxious vapours that cause diseases (`filth theory' or
`miasmatic theory' of diseases).

Drainage system at Indus valley civilization, Ancient India

Public health concerns due to the accumulation of human wastes close
to the dwelling area resulted in the conveyance of all wastes towards
watercourses. Water in huge quantity began to be used to move the
wastes from households and the resulting sewage was transported
through open sewers. These open sewers were eventually directed to
the storm water collection drains, leading the authorities to adopt a
"combined water carriage sewer system" and later a "separate or
sanitary sewer system" that excludes storm water. These conventional
sewer systems, with steep gradients that use water as the flushing
agent were then installed to swiftly remove human excreta before it
started to purify.
With the invention of the microscope in 1872, the "filth theory of
diseases" gave way to the "pathogenic theory" that identified distinct
groups of microorganisms as the ones causing diseases.
Unfortunately, the conventional sanitary sewer systems retain much
of their old engineering design criteria and hence high costs.
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SANITATION SYSTEM
DEFINITION:
A full sanitation system is composed of the users of the system, the
collection, transport, treatment and end management of human
excreta, greywater, stormwater, industrial wastewater and solid
waste.
SUSTAINABLE SANITATION:
Sustainable sanitation systems protect and promote human health,
minimise environmental degradation and depletion of the resource
base, are technically and institutionally appropriate, socially
acceptable and economically viable in the long term.
ECOLOGICAL SANITATION:
Ecological sanitation systems safely recycle plant nutrients in human
excreta to crop production in such a way that the use of non-
renewable resources is minimised

Use of human excreta to crop production

REQUIREMENTS:

The following requirements have to be considered while proposing

any excreta disposal system for developing countries:
• Daily operation should require minimum education and guidance to
users of all ages.
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• Cost of the system should be within the reach of users.
• Construction of the system should be based mainly on the use of
local materials and its maintenances should be possible with semi-
skilled labour, available in the areas.
• Requirement of water for transport and treatment should be
minimum.
• The system should include the possibility of improvement in future
when economic condition of the users improves.

TYPES OF SANITATION PRACTICES:

The sanitation practices that are promoted today are of two broad
types:
 Flush-and-discharge.
 Drop-and-store.

Over the past hundred years flush-and-discharge has been regarded as

the ideal technology, particularly for urban areas. Many
municipalities in developing countries often with the help of
international financing try to copy this model. For those without
access to flush-and-discharge the conventional alternative is a drop-
and-store device, usually a pit toilet, based on containment and
indefinite storage of human excreta. Drop-and-store is often regarded
as an inferior, temporary solution compared with flush-and-discharge.

Most urban growth is taking place in informal settlements where

municipal governments are unwilling or unable to provide services
such as piped water, sewerage, drainage and collection of garbage.
Effective sewage treatment is so expensive that it is rarely achieved in
practice, particularly in the fast-growing urban centres of developing
countries. In consequence, low-income households rely on some kind
of drop-and-store sanitation technology to deal with their needs.

Bore-hole latrines with precast slabs had been tried in India but these
suffered from the nuisance of odour and fly breeding. The pits get
filled up soon necessitating a change of site. The design was

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improved with addition of concrete pan and water seal trap to cut
odour and flies.
A number of efforts have been made since 1930, to further improve
the design, as a result of which more than a dozen designs of sanitary
latrines have been developed varying from the simplest design of
bore-hole type to the complex design of Electrolux Vacuum System.
Their applicability and acceptance depend on the preferences based
on availability of space, local soil conditions and finance. Each of
them has potentiality of its adoption under different circumstances.

However, a design for wider application should be simple,

inexpensive in construction and should provide freedom from odour,
unsightly conditions, handling of fresh excreta and its contacts with
flies and animals. It should eliminate chances of contamination of
surface soil, and ground water that may enter springs or wells.

Although drop-and-store technologies can prevent pollution in some

places, in urban areas they are often not feasible because of lack of
space for digging deep pits, difficult soil and groundwater conditions,
destabilization of foundations of nearby houses, and odours.

Contamination of Ground Water

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The approach to sanitation that we are exploring in this report is based
on three fundamental aspects:

 Rendering human excreta safe,

 preventing pollution rather than attempting to control it after we

 Using the safe products of sanitized human excreta for

pollute, and

agricultural purposes.
This approach can be characterized as ―sanitize-and-recycle‖

Recycling Process
This approach, we call it ―ecological sanitation‖ or ―eco-san‖ for
short, is a cycle a sustainable, closed-loop system (see Figure). It
treats human excreta as a resource. Human excreta are processed on
site and then, if necessary, further processed off site until they are
completely free of disease organisms. The nutrients contained in the
excreta are then recycled by using them in agriculture. It is essential
to sanitize human excreta before its recovery and reuse. Usually urine
is sterile, and most of the fertilizer value of human excreta is in urine.

From the past, till now there are many methods and techniques
evolved but there are some techniques which basically suits the rural
areas are explained in detailed below.

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THE FOLLOWING TYPES OF SANITARY WORKS ARE VERY SUITABLE
FOR RURAL AREAS:
1) Twin pit – Pour flush latrine
2) Bio-gas linked toilets
3) Ventilated improved pit latrine
4) School sanitary complex – Model(for rural schools)
5) Septic tank and aqua privy

1) TWIN PIT-POUR FLUSH LATRINE:

Twin pit -pour flush compost toilet is eco-friendly, technically

appropriate, socio-culturally acceptable and economically affordable.
It is an indigenous technology and the toilet can easily be constructed
by local labour and materials. It provides health benefits by safe
disposal of human excreta on-site. It consists of a pan with a steep
slope of 25°-28° and an especially designed trap with 20 mm water
seal requiring only 1 to 1.5 litres of water for flushing, thus helping
conserve water. It does not need scavengers to clean the pits. There
are two pits of varying size and capacity depending on the number of
users. The capacity of each pit is normally designed for 3 years‘
usage. Both pits are used alternately. When one pit is full, the
incoming excreta are diverted into the second pit.

Twin pit type sanitary work

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In about two years, the sludge gets digested and is almost dry and
pathogen free, thus safe for handling as manure. Digested sludge is
odourless and is a good manure and soil-conditioner. It can be dug out
easily and used for agricultural purposes. The cost of emptying the pit
can be met partially from the cost of manure made available. Twin pit
toilet can also be constructed on the upper floors of buildings. It has a
high potential for up gradation, and can later be easily connected to
sewers when introduced in the area. Twin pit has so far constructed
over a million individual household toilets in different parts of the
country.

Operation and Maintenance:

1) Operation and maintenance of a twin pit flush compost toilet is

very easy and simple:
2) Before use, wet the pan by pouring only a little quantity of
water.
3) After defecation, pour 1.5 to 2 litres of water in the pan for
flushing.
4) Pour about half litre of water in the pan after urination.
5) The pan should be cleaned once a day with a brush or a broom
and with soap powder periodically.
6) One of the pits is to be used at a time by plugging the drain for
the other pit.
7) Kitchen, bathroom waste water or rain water should not be
allowed to enter the pits.
8) Other solid wastes like kitchen waste, rags, cotton, sweepings
etc. should not be thrown in the pan, this could block the toilet.

Salient features:

1. When the first pit gets filled up, the flow of excreta has to be
diverted to the second pit

2. Two leach pits are connected to one single pour-flush toilet

3. Twin-pit toilets have a high convenience

4. When emptying one pit, people use the another pit

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Prevention of Pollution:

To check pollution of drinking water sources, the pits in fine soils

(effective size 0.2mm or less) should be located at a minimum
distance of 3 metres from open wells and shallow hand pumps
provided ground water table throughout the year is 2 metre or more
below the bottom of the pit; if water table is higher, the distance
should be increased to 10 metres. In coarser soils (effective size more
than 0.2mm), the same safe distances can be maintained by providing
500mm thick sand envelope of 0.2mm sand all-round the pit and
sealing the pit bottom by some impervious material like puddled clay,
polythene sheet, lean cement concrete or cement stabilised soil.

Normally bacteria do not move beyond 3 metres horizontally in

homogeneous soil and vertically they do not permeate more than 1
metre, however there can be marginal deviations depending upon the
types and compaction of the soil. It may be noted that chances of
ground water occur due to higher hydraulic load. Since in this system
hydraulic load is only 1.5 to 2 litres per use, there is no such chance of
ground water pollution.

Manure from Human Excreta:

One of the major difficulties for the use of human excreta as manure
is the presence of bacterial and other pathogens. Human excreta
contain a full spectrum of pathogens causing various infections. It
should be free from pathogens before being used as manure. Another
problem is psychological/chamber (250mm x 500mm internal size)
should be constructed at the place from where the pipe is bifurcated to
connect the two pits. The pipes of drains should have a minimum
gradient of 1:15.

Cost of Twin Pit-Pour Flush Latrine:

The cost of this type flush composting toilet varies widely to suit
people of every economic stratum. The cost ranges from US$ 10 to
US$ 1000 per unit. It depends upon materials of construction of pits
and seat as well as of the superstructure. The pits can be constructed
with bricks or any locally available materials like stones, wood logs,
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burnt clay rings, concrete rings or even used coal tar drums. Similarly
the quality of superstructure ranges from simple gunny bag sheets, or
thatches to well finish tiles with R.C.C. roof, doors, wash basin, etc.
Cost varies also due to size and capacity of the pits, varying from 2
years to 20 years capacity for each pit. Keeping the basic design
unchanged, twin pit has a number of such toilet models for
demonstration.

PLAN:

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COST ESTIMATE:

SL.No Details No. of Cost of one Total Cost

Units unit
(Rupees) (Rupees)
needed
1 Toilet pan with p- 1 350 350
trap(ceramic rural
pan with deep slope)

2 PVC pipe-10 feet( 4 10-feet 26 260

inches diameter)
3 Country 500 5 2500
Bricks(locally
made)
4 Cement 2.5 bags 300 750
5 Masonry charges 4 masons 350 1400
6 Sand 1 bullock 400 400
cart
7 Door 1 700 700
8 Soiling Stones 1 bullock 600 600
cart
9 Cover slab for pit 2 400 800
10 Transport Charges 600 600
Total 8360/-

---The above estimate is only for one sanitary unit only.

---Rates as per local market**

**Market—Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh.

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2) BIO-GAS LINKED TOILETS

Recycling and reuse of human excreta for biogas generation is an

important way to get rid of health hazards from human excreta.
Sulabh is the pioneering organization in the field of biogas generation
from public toilet complexes. After a series of experiments, the
organization developed a more efficient design of biogas plant that
has been approved by the Ministry of Non-conventional.
Human excreta contain a full spectrum of pathogens. Most of these
pathogens are eliminated due to anaerobic condition inside the
digester. Besides using biogas for different purposes, biogas plant
effluent can also be used as manure or discharged safely into any river
or water body without causing pollution. Thus biogas technology
from human wastes has multiple benefits – sanitation, bioenergy and
manure.

General outlook of bio-gas plant

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Based on the ‗Sulabh Model‘ design, 200 biogas plants of 35 to 60
cum capacity have been constructed by Sulabh in different states of
the country so far. Human excreta based biogas technology remained
unnoticed for long due to the fact that the available technology was
not socially acceptable, as it required manual handling of human
excreta, which contains a full spectrum of pathogens. The design
developed by Sulabh does not require manual handling of human
excreta and there is complete recycling and resource recovery from
the wastes.
The Digester is built underground into which excreta from public
toilets flows under gravity. Inside the digester biogas is produced due
to anaerobic fermentation by the help of methanogen bacteria. The
biogas, thus produced, is stored in inbuilt liquid displacement
chamber. One cubic foot biogas is produced from the human excreta
of per person per day. Human excreta based biogases contain 65-66%
methane, 32-34% carbon dioxide and, rest the hydrogen sulphide and
other gases in traces.
Biogas consumption by engine is 15cft/BHP/hour. A public
convenience used by about 2000 persons per day would produce
approximately 60 cum of biogas which can run a 10 KVA genet for 8
hours a day, producing 65 units of power. Sulabh has developed a
novel technology to run dual fuel genet on biogas alone i.e. without
any diesel. Under the system ignition of compressed biogas is done
through battery operated spark system. It is a new method to make
biogas based electricity generation sustainable.
Human excreta based biogas system has multiple advantages;
improves sanitation, makes availability energy, bio fertilizer and
reduces green-house effect.
Salient features:
1. Bio-gas is a promising non-conventional energy that converts waste
matter
2. Eco-friendly
3. Cost effective
4. Provides a fuel for electricity, heat and light.
5. Bio-manure increases productivity and soil conservation.
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PLAN:

COST ESTIMATE:

SL Details Number of Cost per Total

No. units unit(Rupees) Amount(Rupees)
1 Bricks 1500 5 7500
2 PVC pipe/rubber 1 100 100
pipe ½ inch
3 GI pipe 3/4inch 1.5 feet 50 75
4 PVC pipe 4 inch 10 feet 26 260
5 Cement 15 300 4500
6 Masonry charges 2000
7 Sand 1 bullock 400 400
cart
8 Door 1 600 600
9 Roof-slab 4 x 2 2 slab 400 800
10 Gas stove 1 1200
11 PVC pipe L bend 1 70 70
4 inch

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12 Gate Volve1/2 1 80 80
inch
13 PVC reducers3/4 1 15 15
x½
14 Cover Slab 3 x 3 2 400 800
15 Hollow Bricks 100 15 1500
16 Toilet Pan 1 350 350
17 Foundation 1200
Works
Total 21450/-

---The above estimate is only for one sanitary unit only .

---Rates as per local market.

3) VENTILATED IMPROVED PIT LATRINE:

Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) latrines are designed to reduce two

problems frequently encountered with traditional latrine systems: bad
odours and insect proliferation. A VIP latrine differs from a
traditional latrine by having a vent pipe that is covered with a fly
screen. Wind blowing across the top of the vent pipe creates a flow of
air which draws out odours from the pit.

As a result, fresh air is drawn into the pit through the drop hole and
the superstructure is kept free of smells. The vent pipe also has an
important role to play in fly control. Flies are attracted by light and if
the latrine is suitably dark inside, they will fly up the vent pipe
towards the outside light, where they are trapped by the fly screen and
die of dehydration. Female flies, searching for an egg-laying site, are
attracted by the odours from the vent pipe, but are prevented from
flying down the pipe by the fly screen at its top. VIP latrines can also
be constructed with a double pit.

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 Ventilated improved pit latrine (VIP)

The latrine has two shallow pits, each with its own vent pipe, but only
one superstructure. The cover slab has two drop holes, one over each
pit, but only one pit is used at a time. When one becomes full, the
drop hole is covered and the second pit is used. After about two years,
the contents of the first pit can be removed safely and used as soil
conditioner. The first pit can be used again when the second pit has
filled up. This alternating cycle can be repeated indefinitely.

Main O&M activities

Operation of pit latrines is quite simple and consists of regularly

cleaning the slab with water and disinfectant, to remove any excreta
and urine. The door must always be closed so that the superstructure
remains dark inside. The drop hole should never be covered as this
would impede the airflow. Appropriate anal cleaning materials should
be available for the latrine users. Non-biodegradable materials, such
as stones, glass, plastic, rags, etc. should not be thrown into the pit, as
they reduce the effective volume of the pit and hinder mechanical

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emptying. Every month, the floor slab should be checked for cracks,
and the vent pipe and fly screen inspected for corrosion or damage,
and repaired if necessary. The superstructure may also need to be
repaired (especially light leaks).

Rainwater should drain away from the latrine. When the contents of
the pit are 0.5 m below the slab, a new pit should be dug and the old
one covered with soil. Alternatively, the pit could be emptied
mechanically. Where latrines are used by a single household, O&M
tasks are implemented by the household, or by hired labour. If several
households use the latrine, arrangements have to be made to rotate the
cleaning tasks, to avoid social conflicts. If pits are not emptied
mechanically, they can be emptied manually, but only after their
contents have been left to decompose for about two years. Otherwise,
new pits must be dug when a pit is full. If double-pit latrines are used,
the users need to understand the concept of the system fully to operate
it properly.

User education has to cover topics such as the reasons for using only
one pit until the time for switch-over; the use of excreta as manure;
and the need to leave the full pit for about two years before emptying.
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The users must also know how to switch pits and how to empty them,
even if they do not do these tasks themselves. If these tasks are
carried out by the private (informal) sector, the workers have to be
educated about the system and its operational requirements.

Potential problems

1) The quality of the floor slab is poor because inappropriate materials

were used in its construction, or because the concrete was not
properly cured;
2) Inferior quality fly screens are easily damaged by the effects of
solar radiation and foul gases;
3) badly-sited latrines can get flooded or undermined;
4) Children may be afraid to use the latrine because of the dark, or out
of fear of falling into the pit;
5) If the superstructure allows too much light to come in, flies will be
attracted to the light coming through the squat hole and may fly out
into the superstructure, which can jeopardize the whole VIP concept;
6) In latrines that rely on solar radiation for the air flow in the vent
pipe, rather than on wind, odour problems may occur during the night
and early morning hours;
7) Leakage between pits occurs because the dividing wall is not
impermeable or the soil is too permeable;
8) In hard soils it may be impossible to dig a proper pit;
9) Pits should preferably not reach the groundwater level and must be
15–30 m from ground and surface water sources;
10) VIP latrines do not prevent mosquitoes from breeding in the pits;
11) VIP latrines cost more to construct than simple pit latrines and the
community may not be able to bear the higher costs;
12) Cultural resistance against handling human waste may prevent
households from emptying their own pit latrines, but usually local
labour can be hired to do the job.

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 COST ESTIMATE:

SL.No Details No. of Cost of one Total Cost

Units unit
(Rupees) (Rupees)
needed
1 Toilet pan with p- 1 350 350
trap(ceramic rural
pan with deep slope)

2 PVC pipe-10 feet( 4 10-feet 26 260

inches diameter)
3 Country 300 5 1500
Bricks(locally made)

4 Cement 2.5 bags 300 750

5 Masonry charges 4 masons 350 1400
6 Sand 1 bullock 400 400
cart
7 Door 1 700 700
8 Soiling Stones 1 bullock 600 600
cart
9 Cover slab for pit 1 400 400
10 Transport Charges 600 600
Total 6960/-

---The above estimate is only for one sanitary unit only

---Rates as per local market**

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4) SCHOOL SANITARY COMPLEX MODEL:
Salient features:
1. School Sanitation is a tool for promoting better sanitation and water
Management for children.
2. To improve the school environment .
3. Privacy for school children .
4. Following hygiene behaviours from the childhood.
5. Operation and maintenance by school children .

School Sanitation Practice in Rural areas

6. Separate facilities for children for urination and defecation.

7. School toilets should construct within the school campus .
8. Incinerator should be installed in girls toilet for menstrual hygiene
management .
9. One toilet is enough for primary school children
10. Water facilities and hand washing facilities should be inside of the
toilet.

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PLAN:

COST ESTIMATE:

SL.No Details No of Cost of Total Cost

Units one unit
(Rupees)
needed (Rupees)
1 Cement 25bag 300 7500
2 Sand 2 units 2600 5200
3 3Ceramic pan Water 1No. 350 350
Closet18‖ size with P
trap and footrest
4 Stoneware pipes –4―or 6No.s 26 156
PVC pipes– 4 inches
5 Earthwork excavation LS 2200
charges
6 R.R. foundation work 1 cart load 800
with soling stone
7 Basement work withRR LS 1700
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8 White washing and LS 3200
painting
9 Ceramic tiles and fitting Tiles 600 4800
charges 8‖x8‖—8
boxes
10 Water Tap connection LS 1600
to toilets and urinals
11 Pre-cast cement slab – 4No.s 400 1600
4‘x 2‘ size , 2‖
thickness – reinforced
slab for toilet roof
12 Door with iron frame 3No.s 1000 3000
and tin sheet 5‘ x 2‘ size
13 Country Bricks – 9‖ 3000 5 15000
size
14 Masonry charges 10 days 450 4500
15 Unskilled labour 20 days 200 4000
charges
16 Transport charges 1800
Total 57406/-

---The above estimate is only for one unit only.

---Rates as per local market.

5) SEPTIC TANK and AQUA PRIVY

Septic tanks and aqua privies have a water-tight settling tank
with one or two compartments. Waste is flushed into the tank by
water from a pipe that is connected to the toilet. If the septic tank is
under the latrine, the excreta drop directly into the tank through a pipe
submerged in the liquid layer (aqua privy). If the tank is away from
the latrine (septic tank), the toilet usually has a U-trap. Neither system
disposes of wastes: they only help to separate the solid matter from
the liquid. Some of the solids float on the surface, where they are
known as scum, while others sink to the bottom where they are
broken down by bacteria to form a deposit called sludge.

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 Layout of septic tank

The liquid effluent flowing out of the tank is as dangerous to health as

raw sewage and should be disposed of, normally by soaking it into the
ground through a soak away, or by connecting the tank to sewer
systems. The accumulated sludge in the tank must be removed
regularly, usually once every 1–5 years, depending on the size of the
tank, number of users, and kind of use. If sullage is also collected in
the tank, the capacity of both the tank and the liquid effluent disposal
system will need to be larger. If the soil has a low permeability, or if
the water table is high, it may be necessary to connect the tank to a
sewer system, if available.

Every tank must have a ventilation system to allow methane and

malodorous gases to escape. The gases are generated by bacteria
during sewage decomposition, and methane in particular is highly
flammable and potentially explosive if confined in the tank. Septic
tanks are more expensive than other on-site sanitation systems and
require higher amounts of water. Aqua privies are slightly less
expensive and need less water for flushing.

Initial cost: US$ 90–375 (including labour and materials).

Area of use: In rural or periurban areas where water is available.

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Water needed per flush: 2–5 litres, if a pour-flush pan or aqua privy
is used.

Main O&M activities

Regular cleaning of the toilet with normal amounts of soap is
unlikely to be harmful, but large amounts of detergents or chemicals
may disturb the biochemical processes in the tank. In aqua privies the
amount of liquid in the tank should be kept high enough to keep the
bottom of the drop pipe at least 75 mm below the liquid level. A
bucket of water should be poured down the drop pipe daily to
maintain the water seal, and to clear scum from the bottom of the drop
pipe, in which flies may breed. Adding some sludge to a new tank
will ensure the presence of microorganisms and enhance the
anaerobic digestion of the excreta. Routine inspection is necessary to
check whether desludging is needed and to ensure that there are no
blockages at the inlet or outlet.

The tank should be emptied when solids occupy between one-half and
two-thirds of the total depth between the water level and the bottom
of the tank. Organizational aspects involve providing reliable services
for emptying the tanks, ensuring that skilled contractors are available
for construction and repairs, and controlling sludge disposal.

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 CONCLUSION
 ―Every nation has a dream of clean and healthy nation that
thrives and contributes to the welfare of people. To visualize a
nation in which the traditional habit of open defecation is
entirely eliminated, the worth of every human being is
respected, and quality of life is improved.‖
 In developing countries like India, most of people in rural areas
don‘t have even sanitary facilities, which are basic need of every
human being. Due to lack of sanitary facilities and awareness
about importance of proper sanitation many epidemic diseases
are evolving which majorly affecting every human. So use of
sanitary works which are explained in this report may be
adopted which help in achieving an efficient and economical
sanitation.
 Use of twin –pit and VIP type in rural areas is more economical
because of its low economical cost and operational cost is also
low and rare. Use of biogas linked toilets is preferred next to
twin pit and VIP type because its initial cost is high but it has its
own advantages which were explained earlier.
 In most of rural areas school do not have proper sanitation, if
there is no proper sanitation in school it may leads to evolving
of diseases and easy transfer of diseases from child to child.
So use of earlier explained sanitary work for rural schools is
recommended.

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