ACTA IMEKO

ISSN: 2221-870X
March 2019, Volume 8, Number 1, 25 – 32

A new method for the calibration of strain cylinders using

laser interferometry
Junning Cui1, Rolf Kumme2, Holger Kahmann2
1 Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, PR China
2 Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, Braunschweig, Germany

ABSTRACT
This research investigates the possibility of calibrating strain cylinders using laser interferometry, thus providing a new type of transducer
that can provide both force and deformation indications. This new method for the calibration of strain cylinders is based on the
application of a dual channel laser interferometer in a force standard machine. Using the proposed new method, the relationship
between force, deformation, and strain can be calibrated in parallel when calibration forces are applied according to the procedure
outlined in ISO 376. Experimental results show that the deformation of a strain cylinder has a definite and stable relationship with the
force applied and can be calibrated and directly traced to the wavelength of the laser. Therefore, a new standard that can be used for
both alignment verification and indication verification of compression testing machines and other uniaxial testing machines is proven.
The research also illustrates the possibility of providing a new deformation-type force transducer using a non-gauged steel cylinder
together with a multi-channel laser interferometer.

Section: RESEARCH PAPER

Keywords: strain cylinder; laser interferometry; calibration; deformation; compression testing machine.
Citation: Junning Cui, Rolf Kumme, Holger Kahmann, A new method for the calibration of strain cylinders using laser interferometry, Acta IMEKO, vol. 8,
no. 1, article 5, March 2019, identifier: IMEKO-ACTA-08 (2019)-01-05
Editor: Petri Koponen, MIKES Metrology, Finland
Received August 23, 2018; In final form January 31, 2019; Published March 2019
Copyright: © 2019 IMEKO. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License, which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Corresponding author: Rolf Kumme, e-mail: [email protected]

1. INTRODUCTION
like force and strain are of interest during the calibration and
A strain cylinder, also referred to as a strain gauged column, application of strain cylinders, while deformation is not given
is a type of force transducer with four channel outputs. It is often special attention. However, since the platens of the testing
used for the alignment verification of compression testing machines are sufficiently large and strong, we can ignore integral
machines. Specifications of strain cylinders and the proof deformation, and the compression deformation of strain
procedure for the verification of compression testing machines cylinders and local deformation distribution in the surface of
are specified in international and national standards [1]-[2]. The platens is mostly decided according to material characteristics.
calibration of strain cylinders can be done in a force standard Therefore, in many applications, the deformation is highly
machine according to ISO standard 376 (ISO 376)[3]. significant, and it is often hoped that deformation indication is
Strain cylinders are used in two main ways. First, since the provided.
difference between the signals of the four bridges represent the Methods and tools in precision engineering have frequently
distribution of the force applied on the strain cylinders, they are been introduced into the field of force metrology over recent
used as standards for the alignment verification of compression years. For example, laser interferometry has been used in the
testing machines, including the self-alignment of upper machine measurement of the deformation or displacement of key parts
platens, the alignment of component parts of machines, and so [4]-[6], dynamic calibration [7]-[9], and so on. The coordinate
on. Second, they can also be used as normal force transducers measuring technique has been used in on-machine or off-
for force measurement, taking the average signals of the four machine measurements of key dimensional parameters [10], [11].
bridges. Therefore, during the indication calibration of the These methods and tools show great capability and advantages
compression testing machines, strain cylinders can also be used in solving certain problems.
as force transfer standards. Normally, only mechanical qualities

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 machine and obtain deformation information when calibration
forces are applied. It is also hoped that the method will allow for
the calibration of the relationship between force, deformation,
and strain in parallel. In this way, a new standard that can provide
both force and deformation indication is provided, and its use
for both the alignment verification and indication verification of
compression testing machines is proven. Furthermore, this
research illustrates the possibility of providing a new
deformation-type force transducer using a non-gauged steel
cylinder together with a multi-channel laser interferometer. This
new force transducer is much simpler in structure and usage, and
it does not require the same complicated manufacturing and
assembly processes as strain gauges.
This idea is applicable on the condition that the deformation
Figure 1. Structure of a strain cylinder and its strain bridges [1]. of a strain cylinder has a definite and stable relationship with the
force applied and can be calibrated using a laser interferometer
In this paper, a new method for the calibration of strain in a force standard machine with good repeatability and
cylinders using laser interferometry is proposed and investigated. reproducibility. This will be proven through experiments and the
The new method is based on the application of a dual channel assessment of this new type of transducer in the following
laser interferometer in a force standard machine and shows key sections.
benefits and provides important information.
3. PERIMENTAL SETUP AND CALIBRATION PROCEDURE
2. BASIC CONCEPT
3.1. Experimental setup
The structures of a strain cylinder and its strain bridges are
The experimental setup is shown in Figure 3. The
shown in Figure 1. A strain cylinder consists of a steel cylinder,
experiments were carried out in a 5 MN force standard machine.
16 strain gauges, and other accessories. It has profound demands
The maximum force applied on the cylinder is 2 MN. The strain
in terms of its materials, manufacture, assembly, and calibration.
cylinder, laser heads, and reflectors of the laser interferometer are
The steel cylinder should be precisely manufactured and
assembled between the upper and lower platens of the machine,
assembled with 16 matched and temperature-compensated
and the strain cylinder is centrally assembled on the lower platen.
electrical resistance strain gauges. Each four strain gauges are
wired in the form of a full bridge, electrically and thermally
balanced, and assembled at one of the ends of a pair of
orthogonal diameters halfway up the cylinder. Furthermore, the
strain cylinder needs to be precisely calibrated on a force
standard machine together with the dedicated strain measuring
equipment. This calibration qualifies the strain cylinder to be
used as a standard for both the alignment verification and
indication verification of testing machines.
The conversions of physical quantities during the calibration
and application of the strain cylinders are shown in Figure 2. It
can be seen that several conversions of physical quantities are
involved, during which process the deformation and strain serve
as the most important intermediate quantities. At present, strain
cylinders are calibrated and used focusing only on the strain
rather than the deformation. However, in many applications, the
deformation is important and represents key information about
alignment, force distribution, and so on. This is the reason why a)
it is often hoped that deformation indication is also provided by
strain cylinders. Normally, the platens of compressing testing
machines are designed in such a way that they are sufficiently
large and strong so as to avoid integral deformation. In turn, the
local deformation in the surface of the platens and strain
cylinders is only related to their material characteristics.
Therefore, important information can be derived from data on
deformation.
The aim of the new method for the calibration of strain
cylinders is to introduce laser interferometer to a force standard

b)

Figure 3. Experimental setup in the 5 MN force standard machine. a)

Experimental setup. b) Top view of the strain cylinder with four bridges and
Figure 2. Conversions of the physical quantities of strain cylinders. the four corresponding measurement points.

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 The strain cylinder is 100 mm in diameter and 200 mm in
height. It conforms to the requirements for material and
dimensional tolerances in [1]. Four full bridges of strain gauges,
labelled Channels 1 to 4, are assembled at fours ends of a pair of
orthogonal diameters halfway up the cylinder. Each bridge
consists of two elements measuring the axial strain and two
elements measuring the circumferential strain. The outputs of
the four bridges are recorded by the dedicated strain measuring
equipment DMP41.
A MI-5000 dual channel laser interferometer from SIOS Figure 4. The procedure for calibrating a strain cylinder using a dual channel
laser interferometer.
Meßtechnik GmbH is used. Its relative length measurement
accuracy is up to 110-6; therefore, the length measurement error
introduced during the experiments is negligible, showing the calibration forces are set from 2000 kN down to 0 kN, with a
great advantage of this precision engineering tool. For each 200 kN decrement. In total, 11 calibration forces (including zero
channel, interferometric optics, excluding the measuring force), uniformly distributed over the calibration range, are
reflector, are assembled together as a laser head. The laser is applied. There is a wait of ~15 s after a calibration force is
transmitted to each of the two laser heads through a length of applied, waiting for the force to become stable. Then, the
optical fibre. Corresponding to the orientations of the four calibration force is maintained, unchanged, for ~45 s before it is
bridges on the strain cylinder, there are four measurement points changed to the next successive value.
for the laser heads on the lower platen, which are at four ends of The data recorded by DMP41 is designated as Xchi, j and Xchi, j
a pair of corresponding orthogonal diameters of a circle and in the following sections, where i is the channel number of strain
designated as A, B, C, and D in Figure 3 b). In such a way, the bridges (i = 1, 2, 3, or 4), j is the rotation position of the strain
strain cylinder together with the laser heads work as a new type cylinder (j = 0, 90, 180, or 240), Xchi, j corresponds to the
of transducer with four ‘deformation sensing elements’. The four increasing calibration forces, and Xchi, j corresponds to the
‘deformation sensing elements’ are uniformly distributed over decreasing calibration forces. Similarly, the data recorded by the
360 and labelled as Channels 1 to 4 respectively. laser interferometer is designated as Ychi, j and Ychi, j, where i is the
The distance between the measurement points and the channel number of ‘deformation sensing elements’.
sidewall of the strain cylinder should be kept as small as possible. 3.3. Data sampling setting
In this study, it is 60 mm. The influence of this distance and the
resultant deformation distribution in the surface of the platens It is a good idea to use a high data sampling rate based on the
can be taken into consideration in two ways: 1) when the strain strategy of ‘more data, more information’. However, a high
cylinder is used in a compression testing machine, the same sampling rate results in a high demand for hardware and
parameter should be maintained. Usually, the platens of the software, making the data processing difficult. On the other
compression testing machine and the force standard machine are hand, according to general knowledge concerning the force
made of material similar to Young’s elastic modulus. The error standard machine, the natural frequency of the micro-vibration
introduced should be corrected if there is an obvious difference; of the lower platen is ~0.27 Hz, so the period of vibration is ~3.7
2) the deformation to the central position of the platens for both s. Therefore, the data sampling rates of the laser interferometer
the force standard machine and the compression testing machine and DMP41 are both set at 10 Hz. Therefore, the sampling can
should be corrected. be regarded as ‘dynamic’ compared to the period of platen
vibration, thereby including any important information.
3.2. Calibration procedure
The procedure for calibrating a strain cylinder using a dual 4. DATA PROCESSING AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
channel laser interferometer is proposed with reference to ISO
4.1. Data pre-processing
376. The cylinder is rotated around its axis to four uniformly
distributed positions over 360, as shown in Figure 4. The abundance of data continuously sampled, at a sampling
Deformation and strain data at the four rotation positions are rate of 10Hz, are pre-processed first so as to obtain the values of
averaged to eliminate the influence of the non-uniform force deformation and strain corresponding to the 11 calibration
distribution characteristics of the force standard machine. A forces during each incremental force loading and decremental
series of increasing calibration forces and then a series of force loading.
decreasing calibration forces are applied at each rotation For the data on the laser interferometer during each
position. Because strain cylinders are only used for compression calibration, first, the corner points corresponding to the
testing, the data corresponding to the decreasing calibration moments when a calibration force begins to increase or decrease
forces are not used for interpolation, but are only used for the to the next successive value are determined with a slope-judging
assessment of the relative reversibility error in Section 4.3. The algorithm, marked with a green * in Figure 5. Then, the average
two laser heads are first assembled at Point A and Point B, and values of the 25 s data before each corner point are calculated,
the strain cylinder is calibrated at the four rotation positions. marked with green lines in Figure 5. This averaging operation
Then, the two laser heads are reassembled to Point C and Point works as a low-pass filter (LPF) with a cut-off frequency of ~
D, and the strain cylinder is calibrated at another four rotation 0.04 Hz, thus eliminating the influence of the resultant noise
positions. In such a way, the outputs of the four channel from the mechanical vibration and other factors. The
‘deformation sensing elements’ of the new type of transducer can deformation values corresponding to 10 calibration forces during
be obtained at each rotation position. each incremental force loading and decremental force loading are
The series of increasing calibration forces are set from 0 to obtained.
2000 kN, with a 200 kN increment, and the series of decreasing

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Figure 5. Pre-processing of the data on the laser interferometer (0 rotation Figure 7. Curves showing the relationship between force and deformation.
position).

Theoretically, the indication of the laser interferometer should 4.2.1. The polynomial fitting results of force vs. deformation
be reset to zero at the moment at which the upper platen comes The equations for calculating the deformation as a function
into contact with the strain cylinder i.e. the moment at which the of strain are as follows:
calibration force begins to increase from zero. It is a good
solution to send a trigger signal to the laser interferometer either
automatically or manually, or to use one of the following two (1)
methods: (1) during data pre-processing, the data corresponding
to zero force should be recognised and all successive data should
be subtracted by the corresponding zero data, which is the case
in this research; (2) the values of deformation corresponding to (2)
10 calibration forces from 200 kN to 2000 kN should be used
for interpolation, and the deformation value from 0 to 200 kN where F is the calibration force in kN; Ychi is the deformation
through extrapolation should be calculated. All deformation of Channel i in µm; i = 1, 2, 3, or 4; and Y is the average
values from 0 to 2000 kN should be subtracted by the value deformation of the four channels.
corresponding to zero force. The curves showing the four third-degree equations are
The data on DMP41 is similarly pre-processed, as shown in shown in Figure 7. It can be seen that the four channels of the
Figure 6. The only exception is that the strain value strain cylinder have very good consistency.
corresponding to zero force can be directly calculated by It can be concluded that the deformation of a strain cylinder
averaging the 25 s data before the corresponding corner point. has a definite and stable relationship with the force applied by
In total, 11 strain values corresponding to the 11 calibration the force standard machine. Equation (1) and Equation (2) also
forces (including zero force) are used for interpolation. illustrate the possibility of providing a new deformation-type
force transducer using a non-gauged steel cylinder together with
4.2. Data processing results
a multi-channel laser interferometer, using either average or non-
By means of data pre-processing, the four channels’ values of averaged values of the deformation of the four channels. The
deformation and strain corresponding to the 11 calibration average value represents the amplitude of the force applied on
forces at each rotation position, either increasing or decreasing, the strain cylinder, while the non-averaged values of the four
are obtained. The interpolation curves are determined using the channels illustrate the force distribution.
average values of deformation and strain at the four rotation
positions. As mentioned above, data corresponding to the 4.2.2. The polynomial fitting results of deformation vs. strain and
decreasing calibration forces is not used for interpolation. Three- force vs. strain
degree polynomial fitting is carried out to obtain third-degree The equations for calculating the deformation as a function
equations about the relationship between force, deformation, of strain are as follows:
and strain.

(3)

(4)
where Xchi is the strain indication of Channel i in mV/V; i = 1,
2, 3, or 4; and X is the average strain of the four channels.

Figure 6. Pre-processing of the data on the four channels of DMP41

(0 rotation position).

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 The curves showing the four third-degree equations are
shown in Figure 8. Since the four strain bridges are well matched
as well as thermally and electrically balanced, so too do these four
curves have good consistency.
Equations giving the calibration force as a function of strain
can be similarly calculated, as follows:

(5)

Figure 9. Relative reproducibility errors in %.

(6)
The relative reproducibility errors are shown in Figure 9. The
During real applications, either the average signal or the non-
maximum relative reproducibility error bmax results when the
averaged signals of the four channel strain bridges can be used. calibration force is 200 kN and bmax = 6.4 %. We found that the
The average signal represents the amplitude of the force applied
reproducibility error mostly results due to the non-uniform force
on the strain cylinder, while the non-averaged values of the four
distribution characteristics of the force standard machine. The
channels illustrates the force distribution applied on the strain
indication variation of deformation at different rotation
cylinder. positions and the relative reproducibility error can be
Using Equation (3), Equation (4), Equation (5), and Equation
significantly reduced if the force distribution is more uniform.
(6), a new type of transducer that provides both force indication
and deformation indications is provided. This new type of 4.3.2. Relative interpolation error
transducer can be used as a standard for both the alignment The relative interpolation error is calculated for each channel
verification and indication verification of compression testing using the following equation:
machines.
4.3. Assessment of the deformation calibration results (8)
The calibration results of deformation Y are assessed with
reference to ISO 376. The relative length measurement accuracy where Yachi is the value of deformation of Channel i computed
of the MI-5000 laser interferometer is up to 1  10-6, and the by means of inverse functions of Equation (1). These functions
uncertainty of the calibration forces applied by the 5 MN force give the deformation as a function of the calibration force.
standard machine is up to 1  10-4 (k = 2); therefore, this The relative interpolation errors of Channels 1 to 4 are shown
assessment can be used to verify the proposed new method. Data in Figure 10. The maximum relative interpolation error |fc|max
corresponding to decremental force loading is used during the results in Channel 4 when the calibration force is 200 kN, |fc|max
assessment of relative reversibility error. = 0.84 %. The relative interpolation error can be averaged if the
average deformation of the four channels is used.
4.3.1. Relative reproducibility error
The relative reproducibility error of deformation value Y 4.3.3. Relative zero error
assesses the variation of the deformation indication at different The relative zero error of Channel i at j degree rotation
rotation positions. The average deformation of the four channels position is calculated using the following equation:
is used for assessment. The error is calculated using the following
equations in accordance with ISO 376: (9)

where Yochi is the deformation taken before the calibration force

(7) is applied, and Yfchi,j is the deformation taken after the calibration

Figure 8. Curves showing the relationship between deformation and strain. Figure 10. Relative interpolation errors of the four channels.

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Figure 11. Relative zero errors of the four channels.
Figure 13. Experimental results of the relative creep error test.

force is completely removed. YNchi,j is the deformation

corresponding to the 2000 kN maximum calibration force. where Y20chi and Y200chi are deformation indications obtained
The relative zero errors of Channels 1 to 4 are shown in 20 s and 200 s after the maximum calibration force is applied;
Figure 11. The maximum relative zero error fomax results in and YNchi is the maximum deformation corresponding to the
Channel 3 when the cylinder is set at a 270 rotation position and 2000 kN maximum calibration force. Remark: According to ISO
fomax = -3.5 %. 376, the creep should be measured within 300 s, but in this
experiment, the creep was measured within 200 s in order to
4.3.4. Relative reversibility error reduce the measurement time.
The relative reversibility error of Channel i at j degree rotation The calculation of the average of the 25 s data that works as
position vchi,j and the relative reversibility error of Channel i vchi are a 0.04 Hz LPF is used. The experimental results of the relative
calculated using the following equations respectively: creep error test are shown in Figure 13. The maximum relative
creep error cmax = 0.091 %.
4.4. Analysis of influential factors
(10) Several main influential factors concerning the experimental
results can be analysed. This analysis should reveal the value of
the influence of the force cylinder tolerance and how the
influence of the non-ideal characteristics of the force standard
The relative reversibility errors of Channels 1 to 4 are shown
machine [12]-[15] is greatly reduced by means of the calibration
in Figure 12. The maximum relative reversibility error vmax results
procedure design proposed in ISO 376.
in Channel 4 when the calibration force is 200 kN and vmax =
13 %. The reversibility error mostly results from the hysteresis 4.4.1. Influence of the rotation of the strain cylinder
between the incremental loading and the decremental force According to the experimental procedure design, the
loading. Since strain cylinders are only used for compression influence of the rotation of the strain cylinder can be evaluated
testing, this is unproblematic. by means of the reproducibility of a single laser head assembled
4.3.5. Relative creep error at a fixed position, while the strain cylinder is calibrated at four
rotation positions.
The relative creep error of Channel i is calculated using the
As shown in Figure 14, the measurement results of the laser
following equation:
head fixed at Point C have very good reproducibility when
incremental forces are applied on the strain cylinder at the four
(11) rotation positions. This proves that the rotation of a force
cylinder, which conforms to the requirements of material and
dimensional tolerance, has nearly no influence on the
measurement results. We can ignore the non-parallelism of its
upper and lower surfaces and other dimensional tolerance, unlike
the dimensional tolerance of the force standard machines.
4.4.2. Averaging the different rotation positions
The method of averaging measurement results at multiple
rotation positions is proposed in ISO 376. Theoretically, the
influence of non-uniform force distribution, contact effect, and
so on can be significantly reduced using this method. In this
study, the difference between the characteristics of the different
channel strain bridges in the strain cylinder is less than 0.1 %.
Therefore, the influence of the averaging of the different rotation
positions can be evaluated by means of a comparison between
the different channel calibration results.
Figure 12. Relative reversibility errors of the four channels.

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 taken before the force is applied or after the force has been
completely removed. However, readings of the laser
interferometer corresponding to zero force should be taken at
the moment at which the upper platen comes into contact or
loose contact with the cylinder. The indication of the laser
interferometer can be reset to zero at this moment, using the
methods recommended in Section 4.1; and
(4) If a non-gauged steel cylinder is calibrated using the
proposed method and used together with a multi-channel laser
interferometer, a ‘deformation-type’ force transducer is
provided. The distance between measurement laser beams and
the sidewall of the cylinder should be kept as small as possible,
and the error introduced can be considered using the methods
Figure 14. Deformation at Point C when incremental force is applied at the recommended in Section 3.1. If the deformation of platens is
four rotation positions. negligible because the calibration force is too small or the platens
are sufficiently strong, this does not prove problematic.
The calibration results of the four-channel relationship
between strain and force are shown in Figure 15. The maximum 5. CONCLUSION
deviation of strain when 200 kN force is applied is 0.007 mV/V. A new method for the calibration of strain cylinders using
The maximum strain when the 2000 kN maximum force is laser interferometry was proposed and investigated in this study.
applied is 1.6445 mV/V; therefore, the relative difference is This new method was illustrated by means of calibrating a strain
((0.007 mV/V) / (1.6445 mV/V))  100 % = 0.4 %. It is proven cylinder with a SIOS dual channel laser interferometer in a 5 MN
that the error introduced by non-uniform force distribution force standard machine at PTB. The calibration procedure, data
characteristics, contact effect, and so on are effectively reduced processing method, and assessment of calibration results were
by averaging the different rotation positions. designed with reference to ISO 376. Experimental results show
that the deformation of a strain cylinder has a definite and stable
4.5. Proposals relationship with the force applied and can be calibrated and
directly traced to the wavelength of laser.
In this research, the calibration procedure, data processing
Therefore, a new type of transducer that can provide both
method, and assessment of the transducer calibration are
force and deformation indications has been proven herein, and
designed with reference to ISO 376. However, some suggestions
it can be used for both the alignment verification and indication
and proposals should be noted:
verification of compression testing machines and other uniaxial
(1) The cylinder should be rotated symmetrically around its
testing machines. This method can also be applied to non-gauged
axis to at least three uniformly distributed positions over 360, standard cylinders, thus providing a new deformation-type force
thus eliminating the influence of the non-uniform force transducer using a non-gauged steel cylinder together with a
distribution characteristics of the force standard machine; multi-channel laser interferometer.
(2) In this research, the incremental and decremental force
loading are both applied on the strain cylinder. Since strain
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
cylinders are only used for compression testing, the data
corresponding to decremental force loading is only used for The authors gratefully acknowledge the valuable help of
assessment rather than interpolation. In order to get as much Heiko Wunderlich of PTB on the experimental operation, and a
information as possible, ‘dynamic’ data sampling is advisable, but constructive technical discussion with Michael Wagner of PTB.
not mandatory;
(3) During data pre-processing, the calculation of REFERENCES
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