Kehs 111
Kehs 111
Kehs 111
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China and Japan present a marked physical contrast. China is a vast
continental country that spans many climatic zones; the core is
dominated by three major river systems: the Yellow River (Huang He),
the Yangtse River (Chang Jiang – the third longest river in the world)
and the Pearl River. A large part of the country is mountainous.
The dominant ethnic group are the Han and the major language is
Chinese (Putonghua) but there are many other nationalities, such as
the Uighur, Hui, Manchu and Tibetan, and aside from dialects, such as
Cantonese (Yue) and Shanghainese (Wu), there are other minority
languages spoken as well.
Chinese food reflects this regional diversity with at least four distinct
types. The best known is southern or Cantonese cuisine – as most
overseas Chinese come from the Canton area – which includes dim
sum (literally touch your heart), an assortment of pastries and
dumplings. In the north, wheat is the staple food, while in Szechuan
spices brought by Buddhist monks in the ancient period, along the
silk route, and chillies by Portuguese traders in the fifteenth century,
have created a fiery cuisine. In eastern China, both rice and wheat
are eaten.
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An emperor had ruled Japan from Kyoto but by the twelfth century the
imperial court lost power to shoguns, who in theory ruled in the name of
the emperor. From 1603 to 1867, members of the Tokugawa family held
the position of shogun. The country was divided into over 250 domains
under the rule of lords called daimyo. The shogun exercised power over the
domainal lords, ordering them to stay at the capital Edo (modern Tokyo)
for long periods so that they would not pose a threat. He also controlled the
major cities and mines. The samurai (the warrior class) were the ruling elite
and served the shoguns and daimyo.
In the late sixteenth century, three changes laid the pattern for future
development. One, the peasantry was disarmed and only the samurai could
carry swords. This ensured peace and order, ending the frequent wars of
the previous century. Two, the daimyo were ordered to live in the capitals of
their domains, each with a large degree of autonomy. Third, land surveys
identified owners and taxpayers and graded land productivity to ensure a
stable revenue base.
The daimyo’s capitals became bigger, so that by the mid-seventeenth
century, Japan not only had the most populated city in the world – Edo
– but also two other large cities – Osaka and Kyoto, and at least half a
dozen castle-towns with populations of over 50,000. (By contrast, most
European countries of the time had only one large city.) This led to the
growth of a commercial economy, and created financial and credit
systems. A person’s merit began to be more valued than his status. A
vibrant culture blossomed in the towns, where the fast-growing class of
* Printing was done merchants patronised theatre and the arts. As people enjoyed reading,
with wood blocks. it became possible for gifted writers to earn a living solely by writing. In
The Japanese did
not like the
Edo, people could ‘rent’ a book for the price of a bowl of noodles. This
regularity of shows how popular reading had become and gives a glimpse into the
European printing. scale of printing*.
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Perry’s ship:
a Japanese woodblock
print.
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A new school system began to be built from the 1870s. Schooling was
compulsory for boys and girls and by 1910 almost universal. Tuition fees
were minimal. The curriculum had been based on Western models but by
the 1870s, while emphasising modern ideas, stress was placed on loyalty
and the study of Japanese history. The ministry of education exercised
control over the curriculum and in the selection of textbooks, as well as in
teachers’ training. What was called ‘moral culture‘ had to be taught, and
texts urged children to revere their parents, be loyal to the nation, and
become good citizens.
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Another important part of the Meiji reforms was the modernising of the
economy. Funds were raised by levying an agricultural tax. Japan’s first
railway line, between Tokyo and the port of Yokohama, was built in 1870-
72. Textile machinery was imported from Europe, and foreign technicians
were employed to train workers, as well as to teach in universities and
schools, and Japanese students were sent abroad. In 1872, modern
banking institutions were launched. Companies like Mitsubishi and
Sumitomo were helped through subsidies and tax benefits to become
major shipbuilders so that Japanese trade was from now on carried in
Japanese ships. Zaibatsu (large business organisations controlled
by individual families) dominated the economy till after the Second
World War.
The population, 35 million in 1872, increased to 55 million in 1920. To
reduce population pressure the government actively encouraged migration,
first to the northern island of Hokkaido, which had been a largely
autonomous area where the indigenous people called the Ainu lived, and
then to Hawaii and Brazil, as well as to the growing colonial empire of
Japan. Within Japan there was a shift to towns as industry developed. By
1925, 21 per cent of the population lived in cities; by 1935, this figure had
gone up to 32 per cent (22.5 million).
The number of people in manufacturing increased from 700,000 in
1870 to 4 million in 1913. Most of them worked in units employing less
Workers in a textile than five people and using neither machinery nor electric power. Over
factory. half of those employed in
modern factories were
women. And it was women
who organised the first
modern strike in 1886. After
1900, the number of men
began to increase but only
in the 1930s did male
workers begin to outnumber
women.
The size of factories
also began to increase.
Factories employing more
than a hundred workers, just
over 1,000 in 1909, jumped
to over 2,000 by 1920 and
4,000 by the 1930s; yet
even in 1940, there were
over 550,000 workshops
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that employed less than five employees. This sustained the family-
centred ideology, just as nationalism was sustained by a strong
patriarchal system under an emperor who was like a family patriarch.
The rapid and unregulated growth of industry and the demand for natural
resources such as timber led to environmental destruction. Tanaka Shozo,
elected to the first House of Representatives, launched the first agitation
against industrial pollution in 1897 with 800 villagers in a mass protest
forcing the government to take action.
The Meiji constitution was based on a restricted franchise and created a
Diet (the Japanese used the German word for parliament because of the
influence of German legal ideas) with limited powers. The leaders who
brought about the imperial restoration continued to exercise power and
even established political parties. Between 1918 and 1931, popularly elected
prime ministers formed cabinets. Thereafter, they lost power to national
unity cabinets formed across party lines. The emperor was the commander
of the forces and from 1890 this was interpreted to mean that the army
and the navy had independent control. In 1899, the prime minister ordered
that only serving generals and admirals could become ministers. This
strengthening of the military, together with the expansion of Japan’s colonial
empire, was connected with the fear that Japan was at the mercy of the
Western powers. This fear was used to silence opposition to military
expansion and to higher taxes to fund the armed forces.
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Successive generations of Japanese intellectuals had different views
on Japan’s relations with other countries. To some, the USA and
western European countries were at the highest point of civilisation,
to which Japan aspired. Fukuzawa Yukichi, a leading Meiji
intellectual, expressed this by saying that Japan must ‘expel Asia’.
He meant that Japan must shed its ‘Asian’ characteristics and
become part of the West.
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Japan’s transformation into a modern society can be seen also in the
changes in everyday life. The patriarchal household system comprised many
generations living together under the control of the head of the house, but
as more people became affluent, new ideas of the family spread. The new
home (homu as the Japanese say, using the English word) was that of the
nuclear family, where husband and wife lived as breadwinner and
homemaker. This new concept of domesticity in The novelty of electric
turn generated demands for new types of goods: a rice-cooker,
domestic goods, new types of family an American grill, a
entertainments, and new forms of toaster.
housing. In the 1920s,
construction companies
made cheap housing
available for a down payment of 200 yen and a monthly
instalment of 12 yen for ten years – this at a time when the
salary of a bank employee (a person with higher education)
was 40 yen per month.
Women’s car-pool.
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State-centred nationalism found full expression in the 1930s and 1940s
as Japan launched wars to extend its empire in China and other parts of
Asia, a war that merged into the Second World War after Japan attacked
the USA at Pearl Harbor. This period saw greater controls on society, the
repression and imprisonment of dissidents, as well as the formation
of patriotic societies, many of them women’s organisations, to support
the war.
An influential symposium on ‘Overcoming Modernity’ in 1943 debated
the dilemma facing Japan – of how to combat the West while being modern.
A musician, Moroi Saburo, posed the question of how to rescue music from
the art of sensory stimulation and restore it to an art of the spirit. He was
not rejecting Western music but trying to find a way that went beyond
merely rewriting or playing Japanese music on Western instruments. The
ACTIVITY 2 philosopher Nishitani Keiji defined ‘modern’ as the unity of three streams
of Western thought: the Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation, and the
Would you agree
rise of natural sciences. He argued that Japan’s ‘moral energy’ (a term
with Nishitani’s
definition of taken from the German philosopher Ranke) had helped it to escape
‘modern’? colonisation and it was its duty to establish a new world order, a Greater
East Asia. For this a new vision that would integrate science and religion
was necessary.
Japan’s attempt to carve out a colonial empire ended with its defeat by the
Allied forces. It has been argued that nuclear bombs were dropped on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki to shorten the war. But others think the immense
destruction and suffering it caused were unnecessary. Under the US-led
Occupation (1945-47) Japan was demilitarised and a new constitution
introduced. This had Article 9, the so-called ‘no war clause’ that renounces
the use of war as an instrument of state policy. Agrarian reforms, the re-
establishment of trade unions and an attempt to dismantle the zaibatsu or
large monopoly houses that dominated the Japanese economy were also
carried out. Political parties were revived and the first post-war elections
held in 1946 where women voted for the first time.
The rapid rebuilding of the Japanese economy after its shattering defeat
was called a post-war ‘miracle’. But it was more than that – it was firmly
rooted in its long history. The constitution was democratised only now, but
the Japanese had a historic tradition of popular struggles and intellectual
engagement with how to broaden political participation. The social cohesion
of the pre-war years was strengthened, allowing for a close working of
the government, bureaucracy and industry. US support, as well as the
demand created by the Korean and the Vietnamese wars also helped the
Japanese economy.
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The modern history of China has revolved around the question of how to
regain sovereignty, end the humiliation of foreign occupation and bring
about equality and development. Chinese debates were marked by the
views of three groups. The early reformers such as Kang Youwei (1858-
1927) or Liang Qichao (1873-1929) tried to use traditional ideas in new
and different ways to meet the challenges posed by the West. Second,
republican revolutionaries such as Sun Yat-sen, the first president of the
republic, were inspired by ideas from Japan and the West. The third, the
Communist Party of China (CCP) wanted to end age-old inequalities and
drive out the foreigners.
The beginning of modern China can be traced to its first encounter with
the West in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when Jesuit
missionaries introduced Western sciences such as astronomy and
mathematics. Limited though its immediate impact was, it set in motion
events that gathered momentum in the nineteenth century when Britain
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244THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY
used force to expand its lucrative trade in opium leading to the first
Opium War (1839-42). This undermined the ruling Qing dynasty and
strengthened demands for reform and change.
ACTIVITY 3
Does this painting
give you a clear
sense of the
significance of the
Opium War?
Qing reformers such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao realised the
need to strengthen the system and initiated policies to build a modern
administrative system, a new army and an educational system, and set up
local assemblies to establish constitutional government. They saw the need
to protect China from colonisation.
The negative example of colonised countries worked powerfully
on Chinese thinkers. The partition of Poland in the eighteenth century
was a much-discussed example. So much so that by the late 1890s
it came to be used as a verb: ‘to Poland us’ (bolan wo). India was another
such example. In 1903, the thinker Liang Qichao, who believed
that only by making people aware that China was a nation would
they be able to resist the West, wrote that India was ‘a country that
was destroyed by a non-country that is the East India Company’.
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The Manchu empire was overthrown and a republic established in
1911 under Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925) who is unanimously regarded as
the founder of modern China. He came from a poor family and studied
in missionary schools where he was introduced to democracy and
Christianity. He studied medicine but was greatly concerned about the
fate of China. His programme was called the Three Principles (San
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When the Japanese invaded China in 1937, the Guomindang
retreated. The long and exhausting war weakened China. Prices
rose 30 per cent per month between 1945 and 1949, and utterly
destroyed the lives of ordinary people. Rural China faced two crises:
one ecological, with soil exhaustion, deforestation and floods,
and the second, a socio-economic one caused by exploitative
land-tenure systems, indebtedness, primitive technology and
poor communications.
The CCP had been founded in 1921, soon after the Russian
Revolution. The Russian success exercised a powerful influence around
the world and leaders such as Lenin and Trotsky went on to establish
the Comintern or the Third International in March 1918 to help bring
about a world government that would end exploitation. The Comintern
and the Soviet Union supported communist parties around the world
but they worked within the traditional Marxist understanding that
revolution would be brought about by the working class in cities. Its
initial appeal across national boundaries was immense but it soon
became a tool for Soviet interests and was dissolved in 1943. Mao Zedong
(1893-1976), who emerged as a major CCP leader, took a different
path by basing his revolutionary programme on the peasantry.
His success made the CCP a powerful political force that ultimately won
against the Guomindang.
Mao Zedong’s radical approach can be seen in Jiangxi, in the
mountains, where they camped from 1928 to 1934, secure from
Guomindang attacks. A strong peasants’ council (soviet) was organised,
united through confiscation and redistribution of land. Mao, unlike other
leaders, stressed the need for an independent government and army. He
had become aware of women’s problems and supported the emergence of
rural women’s associations, promulgated a new marriage law that forbade
arranged marriages, stopped purchase or sale of marriage contracts and
simplified divorce.
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Photograph of soldiers
on the Long March
reclaiming wasteland,
1941.
The Peoples Republic of China government was established in 1949. It
*This term was used was based on the principles of the ‘New Democracy’, an alliance of all
by Karl Marx to social classes, unlike the ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’* that the Soviet
stress that the
Union said it had established. Critical areas of the economy were put
working class would
replace the under government control, and private enterprise and private ownership of
repressive land were gradually ended. This programme lasted till 1953 when the
government of the government declared that it would launch a programme of socialist
propertied class with transformation. The Great Leap Forward movement launched in 1958
a revolutionary
government and not was a policy to galvanise the country to industrialise rapidly. People were
a dictatorship in the encouraged to set up steel furnaces in their backyards. In the rural
current sense. areas, people’s communes (where land would be collectively owned
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PATHS TO MODERNISATION 251
The conflict between the Maoists wanting to create a ‘Socialist Man’
and those who objected to his emphasis on ideology rather than
expertise, culminated in Mao launching the Great Proletarian
Cultural Revolution in 1965 to counter his critics. The Red Guards,
mainly students and the army, was used for a campaign against old
culture, old customs and old habits. Students and professionals
were sent to the countryside to learn from the masses. Ideology (being
Communist) was more important than having professional
knowledge. Denunciations and slogans replaced rational debate.
The Cultural Revolution began a period of turmoil, weakened the
Party and severely disrupted the economy and educational system.
From the late 1960s, the tide began to turn. In 1975, the Party once
again laid emphasis on greater social discipline and the need to
build an industrial economy so that China could become a power
before the end of the century.
The Cultural Revolution was followed by a process of political manoeuvring.
Deng Xiaoping kept party control strong while introducing a socialist market
economy. In 1978, the Party declared its goal as the Four Modernisations
(to develop science, industry, agriculture, defence). Debate was allowed as
long as the Party was not questioned.
In this new and liberating climate, as at the time of the May Fourth
movement 60 years earlier, there was an exciting explosion of new ideas.
On 5 December 1978, a wall-poster, ‘The Fifth Modernisation’ proclaimed
that without Democracy the other modernisations would come to
nothing. It went on to criticise the CCP for not solving the problem of poverty
or ending sexual exploitation, even citing cases of such abuse from within
the Party.
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During the late nineteenth century, Korea’s
Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910) faced internal
political and social strife and increasing
foreign pressure from China, Japan and the
West. Amidst this, Korea implemented
modernisation reforms in its governmental
structures, diplomatic relations, infrastructure
and society. After decades of political
interference, the imperial Japan annexed
Korea as its colony in 1910, bringing the
over 500-year long Joseon Dynasty to its end.
However, the Korean people were angry about
Japan’s suppression of their culture and forced
assimilation. Desiring independence, Koreans
around the country demonstrated against the
Koreans celebrate
colonial rule, set up a provisional government their independence
and sent delegations to appeal to foreign from Japan in 1945.
leaders at international meetings, such as the
Cairo, Yalta and Potsdam conferences.
The Japanese colonial rule ended after 35 years in August
1945 with Japan’s defeat in the World War II. However, it was the
continued efforts of independence activists both inside and outside
Korea that ensured Korea’s independence after Japan’s defeat.
Following liberation, the Korean Peninsula was temporarily
divided along the 38 th parallel with the Soviets managing the
North and the U.N. managing the South even as the nations
worked to disband the Japanese forces in the region. However,
this division became permanent as separate governments were
established in both the North and the South in 1948.
In June 1950, the Korean War broke out. With South Korea
receiving support from the US-led United Nations forces and North
Korea receiving support from communist China, it developed into
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a vintage proxy war of the Cold War era. In July 1953, after three
years, the war ended in an armistice agreement. Korea remained
divided. The Korean War had caused not only massive losses of
life and property, but also a delay in free-market economic
development and democratisation. Prices suddenly rose due to
inflation caused by increased national expenses and currency issued
during the war. Furthermore, industrial facilities constructed during
the colonial period had been destroyed entirely. As a result, South
Korea was forced to rely on the economic assistance being provided
by the USA.
Though South Korea’s first president Syngman Rhee had been
elected in 1948 through democratic process after the Korean War,
he extended his administration, twice through illegal
constitutional amendments. In April 1960, citizens protested
against a rigged election in what is known as the April Revolution
and Rhee was forced to resign.
With the revolution as an impetus, the spirit of the people,
which had been suppressed during the Rhee administration,
erupted in the form of demonstrations and demands. However,
the Democratic Party administration, which took power after
Rhee’s resignation could not properly respond to citizens’ demands
due to internal divisions and conflict. Rather, reformist political
powers emerged and the students’ movement grew into a
unification movement. This was not looked upon favourably by
the military authorities. In May 1961, the Democratic Party
government was overthrown in a military coup staged by General
Park Chung-hee and other military authorities.
In October 1963, an election was held and military coup leader
Park Chung-hee was elected the president. The Park
administration adopted a state-led, export-oriented policy to
achieve economic growth. The five-year economic plans of the
government favoured large corporate firms, placed emphasis on
expanding employment and increased Korea’s competitiveness.
Korea’s unprecedented rate of economic growth began in the
early 1960s when the state policy shifted from import substitution
industrialisation (ISI) towards a focus on exports. Under the
export-oriented policy, the government supported labour-intensive
light industrial products, such as textiles and garments in which
Korea had a comparative advantage. During the late 1960s and
1970s, the focus again shifted from light industries to value-
added heavy and chemical industries. Steel, non-ferrous metals
machinery, shipbuilding, electronics and chemical production
were selected as the most important industries in the race for
economic growth.
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The desire for democratisation grew upon the death of Park Chung-
hee, but in December 1979, another military coup, this time led
by Chun Doo-hwan, was staged. In May 1980, various protests in
key cities around the nation were held by students and citizens
demanding democracy in the face of Chun’s military faction. The
military faction suppressed the democracy movement by
implementing martial law across the country. In the city of
Gwangju, in particular, students and citizens did not back down
and demanded that martial law be ended. This is known as the
Gwangju Democratisation Movement. However, Chun’s military
faction suppressed the protests for democratisation. Later that
year, Chun became the president through an indirect election
under the Yusin Constitution.
The Chun administration strengthened the suppression of
democratisation influences in order to stabilise the regime. Due
in part to the international economic boom, the Chun
administration was able to raise economic growth from 1.7 per
cent in 1980 to 13.2 per cent by 1983, while also significantly
lowering inflation. Economic development had led to urbanisation,
improved education levels and media advancements. As a result,
citizens’ self-awareness about political rights grew, leading to
demands for a constitutional amendment to allow direct election
of the president.
In May 1987, the Chun administration’s minimisation of
inquiries into the death-by-torture of a university student was
made known, making citizens begin participate in a large-scale
struggle for democratisation. The June Democracy Movement that
followed had participation not only by students, but the middle
class as well. Owing to these efforts, the Chun administration
was forced to make a revision to the constitution,
allowing direct elections. A new chapter of Korean
democracy thus began.
As per the new constitution, the first direct
election since 1971 was held in December 1987.
But due to the opposition parties’ failure to unite,
a fellow military leader of Chun’s military faction,
Roh T ae-woo, was elected. However, Korea
continued along the path of democracy. In 1990,
Demonstrators during the June
Democracy Movement of 1987.
long-time opposition leader Kim Young-sam
compromised with Roh’s party to create a large
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258THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY
Industrial societies far from becoming like each other have found
their own paths to becoming modern. The histories of Japan and
China, along with the stories of Taiwan and Korea, show how different
historical conditions led them on widely divergent paths to building
independent and modern nations.
Japan was successful in retaining its independence and using
traditional skills and practices in new ways. However, its elite-
driven modernisation generated an aggressive nationalism, helped
to sustain a repressive regime that stifled dissent and demands
for democracy, and established a colonial empire that left a legacy
of hatred in the region, as well as, distorted internal developments.
Japan’s programme of modernisation was carried out in an
environment dominated by Western imperial powers. While it imitated
them, it also attempted to find its own solutions. Japanese nationalism
was marked by these different compulsions — while many Japanese
hoped to liberate Asia from Western domination, for others these ideas
justified building an empire.
It is important to note that the transformation of social and political
institutions and daily life was not just a question of reviving traditions,
or tenaciously preserving them, but rather of creatively using them in
new and different ways. For instance, the Meiji school system, modelled
on European and American practices, introduced new subjects but the
curriculum’s main objective was to make loyal citizens. A course on
morals that stressed loyalty to the emperor was compulsory. Similarly,
changes in the family or in daily life show how foreign and indigenous
ideas were brought together to create something new.
The Chinese path to modernisation was very different. Foreign
imperialism, both Western and Japanese, combined with a hesitant
and unsure Qing dynasty to weaken government control and set the
stage for a breakdown of political and social order leading to immense
misery for most of the people. Warlordism, banditry and civil war exacted
a heavy toll on human lives, as did the savagery of the Japanese invasion.
Natural disasters added to this burden.
The nineteenth and twentieth centuries saw a rejection of traditions
and a search for ways to build national unity and strength. The CCP
and its supporters fought to put an end to tradition, which they saw
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260THEMES IN WORLD H ISTORY
HIS book on Themes of World History has taken you across
vast stretches of time – ancient, medieval, modern. It has
focused on some of the more prominent themes of human
evolution and development. Each section has covered the
following, increasingly foreshortened, periods:
I c.6 MYA – 400 BCE
II BCE 400 – 1300 CE
III 800 – 1700 CE
IV 1700 – 2000 CE
Although historians tend to specialise in ancient, medieval and
modern periods, the historian’s craft displays certain common
features and predicaments. We have attempted to nuance the
distinction between ancient, medieval and modern in order to convey
a holistic idea of how history is written and discussed as also to
equip you with an overall understanding of human history that goes
well beyond our modern roots.
The book would have allowed you a glimpse into the history of
Africa, West and Central Asia, East Asia, Australia, North and South
America and Europe including the United Kingdom. It would have
familiarised you with what may be called the ‘case study’ method.
Instead of burdening you with enormous detail about the history of
all these places, we felt it would be better to examine key illustrations
of certain phenomena in detail.
World history can be written in many ways. One of these, perhaps
the oldest, is to focus on contact between peoples to stress the
interconnectedness of cultures and civilisations and to explore the
multifarious dimensions of world historical change. An alternative is
to identify relatively self-contained – though expanding – regions of
economic exchange that sustained certain forms of culture and power.
A third method specifies differences in the historical experience of
nations and regions to highlight their distinctive characteristics. You
would have found traces of each of these approaches in the book.
But differences between societies (and individuals) go hand in
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263
SUGGESTED READING
Theme One
Conroy, Glenn C. 1997. Reconstructing Human Origin: A Modern Synthesis.
Norton. New York.
Howells, W. W. 1993. Getting Here: The Story of Human Evolution. Compass
Press. Washington, DC.
Lewin, Roger, 1992. Human Evolution: An Illustrated Introduction.
Freeman. New York.
Wolpoff, Milford. 1996. Human Evolution. McGraw-Hill. New York.
Theme Two
Postgate, J.N. 1994. Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn
of History. Routledge. London.
Mieroop, Marc van de. 1999.The Ancient Mesopotamian City. Oxford
University Press. London.
Scientific American Vol. 5. No. 1 1994 (New York). Special issue on Ancient Cities.
Pollock, Susan. 1999. Ancient Mesopotamia, Cambridge University Press.
Cambridge.
Theme Three
Millar, Fergus. 1981. The Roman Empire and Its Neighbours, London.
Duckworth.
Colin, M. Wells. 1995. The Roman Empire, Harvard: University Press. Harvard.
Wacher, John S. 1987. The Roman Empire. London.
Brown, Peter. 1997. The World of Late Antiquity A.D. 150-750. Thames and
Hudson. London.
Theme Four
Kennedy, Hugh. 2004. The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates. Pearson.
Longman. England.
Tyerman, Christopher. 2004. The Crusades: A Very Short Introduction,
Oxford University Press. Oxford.
Lapidus, Ira. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge University
Press. Cambridge.
Robinson, Francis. (ed) 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of the
Islamic World, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Theme Five
Arthur, Waley. 1963. The Secret History of the Mongols and Other Pieces.
Barnes and Noble. New York.
Latham, R.E. (trans.). 1958. The Travels of Marco Polo, Penguin Classics.
London.
Boyle, J.A. (trans.). 1958. Juvaini’s History of the World Conqueror.
Vol. 1, pp. 23-34. Manchester University Press, Manchester.
Weatherford, Jack. 2004. Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern
World. Three Rivers Press. New York.
Theme Six
Frankforter, Daniel A. 2003. The Medieval Millennium: An Introduction.
Prentice Hall.
Duby, Georges. 1998. Rural Economy and Country Life in the Medieval
West. Philadelphia.
Postan, M.M. 1975. The Medieval Economy and Society. Penguin.
Cipolla, Carlo M. 1973. The Fontana Economic History of Europe. Vol.1:
The Middle Ages.
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Theme Seven
Burke, Peter. 1987. The Renaissance. Macmillan. London.
Johnson, Paul. 2001. The Renaissance, London
Plumb, John. 2000. The Penguin Book of the Renaissance. London and
New York.
Nauert, C.G. Jr. 1995. Humanism and the Culture of Renaissance Europe,
Cambridge
Henry, J. 1997. The Scientific Revolution and the Origins of Modern Science,
New York.
Theme Eight
Parry, J.H. 1974. The Discovery of the Sea.
The Cambridge History of Latin America Vol. I. 1997.
Rouse, Irving. The Tainos.
Prescott, William Hickling. History of the Conquest of Peru.
Theme Nine
Hobsbawm, E. J. Industry and Empire. Volume 3: From 1750 to the Present.
Penguin Books. Harmondsworth.
-do- Age of Revolution.
Daunton, M.J. 1995. Progress and Poverty: An Economic and Social History
of Britain 1700-1850. Oxford University Press. Oxford.
Hudson, Pat.1992. The Industrial Revolution. Edward Arnold. London
Theme Ten
Trigger, Bruce G. and Wilcomb E.Washburn (eds). 1996. The Cambridge
History of the Native Peoples of the Americas Vol. 1. North America (in two
parts). Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
Attwood, Bain. 2005. Telling the Truth about Aboriginal History. Allen and
Unwin. Australia.
Reynolds, Henry. 1999. Why Weren’t we told? Penguin. Australia.
Theme Eleven
McClain, James L. 2002. A Modern History of Japan, New York: W.W.Norton
& Co.
Daikichi, Irokawa. 1995. The Age of Hirohito: In Search of Modern Japan.
Trans Mikiso Hane and John K. Urda. Free Press, New York.
Hsu, Immanuel. 1983. The Rise of Modern China. Oxford University Press,
London
Spence, Jonathan. 1990. In Search of Modern China. Hutchinson, London.
• Kim, In-Geol, 1998. Lectures on Modern Korean History:1945–1990,
Dolbegae, Seoul.
• Han, Yeong-Wo. 2010. A Review of Korean History, Vol.3. Kyongsaewon,
Seoul.
• The Association of Korean History Teachers. 2010. A Korean History
for International Readers. Humanist, Seoul.
• Yoon,Sung-Yi. 2016. Democracy in South Korea. National Museum of
Korean Contemporary History, Seoul
• Korea University Center for Korean History. 2017. Korean History.
Saemoonsa, Seoul.
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