1.2.

2 Ferrous Metals and Alloysob goe ot gau

Ferrous metals refer to those metals whose primary constituent is iron, including pig ig
wrought iron, cast iron, steel and their various alloys. The principal raw material used i
the production of ferrous metals is pig iron. Ferrous materials are known for their strengh
and hardness, making them suitable for a wide range of everyday products. One notabk
characteristic of ferrous materials is their ability to have their properties altered through bed
treatment processes or by the addition of small quantities of alloying elements. The physI
properties of ferrous metals can vary depending on their carbon content.
IRON AND STEEL: Ferrous metals encompass a broad category of iron-based matenadik
which includes various forms of iron and steel. Among engineering materials, ferrous materik
which are iron alloys, are the most common. The term "ferrous" essentially means "iron." n
is used to describe both pure ferrite (Fe) and fused mixtures of ferrite with a significant ani
of carbon (up to approximately 1.8%). These mixtures are commonly referred to as plg
cast iron. Pig iron is primarily produced from iron ore in blast furnaces and serves as he
to produce cast iron, wrought iron and steel.
th
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBON C STEELS: Plain carbon steel is a type of steel whereat
primary alloying element is carbon. While iron and carbon are the main constituents, there
typically four other alloying elements present in small quantities, namely sulphu, phosphosgeneral)
silicon and manganese. These additional elements, although present in lamounts, es
do not significantly affect the physical small may

in the form of iron sulphide or manganese

properties of the steel. Sulphur, for instance,have:s o '
sulphide within the steel and while iitcan
detrimental effects on properties, its overall percentage in the steel is
minimal.
 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering 1.11
Manufacturing Processes: Carbon steel with
variouss manufacturing varying percentages of carbon finds application
in prOceSses. Lower carbon content steel can be used for manufacturing
items like forging dies, as well as for producing cold chisels, punches and dies. Steels with
ohtly higher carbon content are suitable for making springs, broaches, reamers and
nnls. As the carbon percentage increases further, it becomes suitable for producing more similar
robust
tnols and components such as milling cutters, anvils, taps, drills, files, razors and various
metal
puting tools used in lathes, shapers, plannerS and drawing dies.
Type of Carbon Steel Carbon Composition
Low Carbon/Mild Steel 0.05-0.25%
Medium Carbon Steel 0.26-0.60%
High Carbon steel 0.61-1.50%

LOW CARBON STEEL

Low-carbon steel, also commonly referred to as mild steel, posseses relatively low strength
when compared to steel with higher carbon content. It is noteworthy for its high ductility,
making it easily machinable.
MEDIUM CARBON STEEL
Medium-carbon steel strikes a balance between low and high-carbon steel. It offers greater
strength and hardness than low-carbon steel while retaining more ductility than high-carbon
which
steel. Typically, medium carbon steel contains other alloying elements like manganese,
contribute to its properties.
HIGH CARBON STEEL
High-carbon steel boasts the highest levels of strength and hardnesscarbonamong mild, medium
than lower steels, making it
and high-carbon steel varieties. However, it is less ductile
can be further enhanced through heat
more challenging to machine or shape. High carbon steel which is advantageous in applications
Teatment, increasing its hardness and wear resistance, tools.
chiselling
exposed to significant stress, such as cutting and
VERY HIGH CARBON STEEL
of withstanding exceptionally high forces,
Ih certain applications demanding materials capable
carbon steel, is employed. Due to its remarkable
Very high carbon steel, the strongest type of
impossible to weld, machine or shape and thus, it is
uength, very high carbon steel is nearly
less Common compared to other types of carbon steel.

WROUGHT IRON sufficient ductility to permit hot and/or

of metal possessing
Wrought iron refers is characterized by its high purity, with only trace amounts of carbon,
to a type
COld deformation. It present. During production, impurities
manganese, silicon, sulphur and slagiron with molten slag. The final material
phosphorus,
eliminated from the iron, leaving almost pure by thin layers of slag,
is rolling, resulting in pure iron separated
obtained by pressing and
fibrous structure. This slag is beneficial for blacksmithing and
which imparts Wrought iron's
resistance and fatigue resistance against shocks and
and enhances corrosion
forging operations
 1.12 BasicWrought
vibrations. ironMechanical
Civil and Engineering
is known for itstoughness, malleability and ductility. with an ulimate
tempered like stcel and is
cannot be hardened or Used to create
tensile strength of 3500 N/mm². It chains and more.
various products like bars, plates, forgings,
CAST IRONA
carbon, with carbon content ranging from1.5 toCasg4
per
Cast cent. It also
iron is contains
primarily an small of iron andof silicon, manganese, sulphur and phosphorus.
alloy amounts
or combined carbon as
isironnotexhibits eitherduefree
malleable highincarbon
to itscarbon
graphite cementite.
the content. Cast iron is recognized for having alowerIt
form of

free graphite, is the most common form. It

melting point than steel. Grey cast iron, containing it
properties are significantly influenced by the widely presence of free carbon, makingto its valuable for
engineering due
Various engineering applications. Cast iron
unique characteristics:
is used in
fol owing
" Excellent casting properties
Cost-effective
High compressive strength
Impressive wear resistance
Exceptional machinability
The primary drawback of this metal lies in its brittleness and relatively low tensile strengt,
making it unsuitable for components exposed to mechanical shocks. Common types of cast
iron include:
" Grey cast iron
" White cast iron
" Malleable cast iron
" Nodular cast iron
" Chilled cast iron
" Alloy cast iron

Grey Cast Iron:

Grey cast iron is the most used type of iron in foundry work.
fractured section exhibits a greyish colour, hence the name When machined or broken, 15
is a result of carbon being present in the form of grey".cast iron. The grey o
free graphite, A notable characteristi
grey cast iron is that the free graphite in its structure acts as a lubricant, making it suitable
for components where sliding action is desired, Other
high compressive strength, low tensile properties include good machinabiliy,
preferred in applications where ductilitystrength
and highand strength
no ductility.
are notDueessential. is
Grey castitiron
to its affordability,
castings find wide use in machine tool
bodies, automobile flywheels and mort
cylinder blocks,
White Cast Iron:
White cast iron earns its name due to the whitish colour seen in its fracture. It contains carbon
exclusively in the form of iron carbide
perspective, white cast iron has (Fe3C), also known as engineering
weak mechanical properties. It is limited applications
due to cementite. From andrelatively
poor
an
used for inferior machinability
castings and in situations where hard
coating
 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering 1.13
isrequired,such as the outer surface of car whecls. Only crushing rolls arc typically made of
iron.
whitecast However, it serves as raw material for
producing malleable cast iron.
Malleable Cast Iron:
Malleable cast iron is derived from white cast iron,
ironis unsuitable which is
forthin, lightweight articles subject to inherently brittle and hard.
White
cast
used in various machine components. Malleable cast iron shock, vibrations
is produced from or white
smallcast
castings
iron
enngh appropriate heat treatment, such as annealing, This process
carbon of white cast iron into nodules of free graphite. Malleable castseparates the combinea
iron is ductile and can
bebent without rupture. It generally has a higher tensile strength than grey cast iron and boasts
vcellent machining qualities. Malleable cast iron components are primarily used in place o
forged steel or in situations where the intricate shape of these parts poses forging challenges.
This material is commonly employed in rail, road automotive and pipe
fittings.
Nodular Cast Iron:
Also known as "spheroidal graphite iron," "ductile iron," or "high strength cast iron," nodular
cast iron is obtained by adding magnesium to molten cast iron. Magnesium converts the graphite
in cast iron from a fake to a spheroidal or nodular form, resulting in considerably improved
mechanical properties. This type of cast iron exhibits increased strength, improved yield points and
reduced brittleness. In some cases, nodular cast iron castings can even replace steel components.
Notable characteristics of nodular cast iron include high fluidity, allowing for intricate castings.
It is widely used in castings where density and pressure tightness are highly desirable qualities.
Applications include hydraulic cylinders, valves, pipes and cylinder heads for compressors and
diesel engines, among others.
Chilled Cast Iron:
Chilled iron is produced when the outer surface of castings rapidly cools during the pouring
and solidification of molten metal, meeting cool sand in the mould. Sometimes, casting is
intentionally chilled, while accidental chilling to a small depth may also occur. Chills are
applied to the faces of castings where hardness is required to withstand wear and friction.
Chilled castings are commonly used in the production of stamping dies, crushing rolls,railway
wheels, cam followers and more.

Alloy Cast Iron:

Alloying elements are introduced to cast iron to overcome inherent. deficiencies in ordinary
Cast iron and provide specific characteristics for special purposes. Alloy cast iron is extremely
tough, wear-resistant and non-magnetie. To achieve these properties, alloying elements like
CTomium, nickel, molybdenum, titanium, vanadium and copper are added. These elements
part special capabilities such as improved mechanical properties, enhanced resistance to
Wear, corrosion, heat or fracture, as well as improved castability and machinability. Alloy cast
Lons are extensively used in the production of automotive parts like cylinders, crankcases,
wheels, pulleys, brake drums and more.
Crankshafts, sprockets,
Alloy Steels:
Alloy steel can be described as a type of carbon steel that has been enriched with one or more
additional elements to confer advantageous effects. Commonly incorporated elements include
1.14\Basic Civil and Mechanical Engineering
molybdenum, vanadium, cobalt, manganese, copper and silicon
chromium, nickel, tungsten, several improvements in the
among others. The addition of these elements imparts physical
and applications of alloy steels when compared to plain carbon steels.
propertics
Properties:
() Alloy steels exhibit enhanced toughness, hardness and
strength.
is possible ee
() In alloy steels, the achievement of higher strength and hardnesS values
carbon steels.
in significantly larger cross-sections compared to plain
() The heightened hardenability of alloy steels is of great significance in heat treatmen
processes.

(iv) Alloy steels demonstrate a superior level of temperability, allowing them to maintain
their hardness and strength at elevated temperatures (creep strength) when comparcd o
plain carbon steels.
(V) Due to the presence of alloy carbides, alloy steels exhibit high hardness (red hardness) a
temperatures up to 600°C.
(vi) Alloy steels possess elevated resistance to oxidation and corrosion.
 Austeniticstainless steels
Introduction Mechanical Engineering
to 1.15
typically
carboncontent below 0.2%. The most
consist of 12 to 21%
includes 18% well-known chromium,
alloy
8to 15% nickel and
in this group is the 18:8 stainless steel,
nhich chromium,
manganeseand silicon.
8% nickel and trace
amounts of other elements like carbon,
ToolSteels: Tool steels are a specialized category of
strength, impact toughness and wear resistance, both steels engineered to deliver exceptional
(emperatures. They find at room and elevated
extensive use in metal forming and temperatureprocesses. Key
rquirementsfor tool steels the ability to achieve high machining
include hardness and maintain it under
theelevated temperatures typically generated during material cutting, a property referred to as
"red hardness." Additionally, tool steels should exhibit toughness to prevent brittleness during
operation.
h.Speed Steel (H.S.S.): High-speed steel, often abbreviated as H.S.S.,
mmon type of tool steel. Its name stems from its ability to cut represents the most
npeds. These steels feature high alloy content, exceptional through steel at high cutting
bordness at elevated temperatures around 650°C, resistance hardenability, the capacity to retain
to wear and significant amounts of
tungsten or molybdenum, along with elements like chromium, cobalt or vanadium. High-speed
steels are used to manufacture cutting tools employed in various machining operations such
as turming, drilling and milling. Atypical composition of H.S.S. includes approximately 18%
ungsten, 4% chromium, 1% vanadium, 0.75 to 0.9% carbon, with the remainder being iron.
Molybdenum High-Speed Steel: Molybdenum high-speed steel is characterized by its
composition, which consists of 6% tungsten, 6% molybdenum, 4% chromium and 2% vanadium,
resulting in excellent toughness and cutting capabilities. These steels are preferred due to their
superior performance and cost-effectivenes compared to other steel types. Molybdenum high
speed steel is particularly well-suited for drilling and tapping operations.
1.2.3 Non-Ferrous Metals and Alloys
Non-Ferrous Metals:
Non-ferrous metals are those that do not primarily consist of iron as a base metal or contain
only a minimal quantity of iron. These metals exhibit lower strength at high temperatures, tend
to be susceptible to hot shortness and display greater shrinkage compared to ferrous metals.
They are widely employed in various industries due to several key advantages:
1. High Corrosion Resistance: Non-ferrous metals are highly resistant to corrOsion,
making them suitable for applications where exposure to harsh environments or moisture
1S Common.

Lo Ease of Fabrication: These metals are relatively easy to work with, allowing for various
fabrication processes such as machining, casting, welding, forging and rolling.
3, Excellent Thermal and Electrical Conductivity: Non-ferrOUs metals possess
exceptional thermal and electrical conductivity, making them valuable in applications
requiring efficient heat transfer or electrical conduction.
3 Attractive Appearance and Low Density: Non-ferrous metals often exhibit appealing
colours and have lower densities compared to ferrous metals, making them suitable for
applications where aesthetics and weight considerations are important.
 1.16 Basic Civil and Mechanical Engineering
Common non-ferrous metals used in various industries include copper, aluminium tin,
zinc, nickel and their respective alloys. lead,
processes,
Copper: Copper is initially obtained from its ores through a series of68%. Through resulting
ina
crude form known
of clectrolytic as Blister
refining, highlycopper
with a purity of approximately the procesandS
pure copper (99.9%) is produced, which is then remelted
metal with an appealing reids
cast into suitable shapes, Copper is a corrosion-resistant
brown colour.
Properties and Applications:
Thermal Conductivity: Copper's exceptional thermal conductivity makes :
() High heating vessels and various heatin
valuable in applications such as heat exchangers,
appliances.
Conductivity: Copper is widely used as an electrical conductor i
(i) High Electrical multitude of electrical applications.
various shapes and forms for a
Copper's corrosion resistance is harnessed in applications
(iii) Good Corrosion Resistance: protective coating on steel surfaces before nickel and
where it is used to provide a
chromium plating processes.
exhibits high ductility, allowing it to be easily cold workat
Copper require annealing after cold wort
(iv) High Ductility:
desired shapes. However, it may
folded and.spun into
to maintain its ductility./
1.2.4 Ceramics
Ceramic materials are inorganic materials which consist of metallic and non-metallic
chemically bonded together. AAceramic material is an inorganic, non-metallic, often
elements
crystaline
oxide, nitride or carbide nmaterial. Some elements, such as carbon or silicon, may be considerl
ceramics. Most ceramic materials have high hardness and high, temperature strength but ten
to have mechanically brittleness.
Most traditional and engineering ceramics products are manufactured by sintering proces
Mixing different metallic or non-metallic compounds with correct proportions and compactinp
powders or particles into shapes that are subsequently heated to a high enough temperature o
bond the particles together.
The advantages of ceramic materials are that they are lightweight, have high strength and
hardness, good heat and wear resistance, reduced friction and insulative properties, The
insulative properties along with the high heat and wear resistance of many ceramics make then
useful for furnace lining for high temperature of liquid metals such as steel.
Classification of ceramics
" Traditional ceramics - clay based material (product like clay brick, glasses and tile,
portland cement etc).
" Advanced ceramics - typically consist of pure or nearly pure compounds such
as
aluminium oxide, silicon carbide, silicon nitride and zirconium oxide etc.
 Properties of ceramics Introduction toMechanical Engineering 1.23
" Hardand wear resistant
" Resistant to high tcmperatures
" Goodecorrosion resistance
. Low thermal conductivity
. Low electrical
conductivity
" Brittle (Resistant to plastic deformation)
. Chemically inert
"Nonmagnetic
" Lowtensile and fracture strength
Advantages of Ceramics
.Most of them have high hardness hence they are used as abrasive powder and
tools. cutting
.They have high melting
points which makes them excellent
.They are good thermal
insulators this is
refractory materials.
material. another reason to use them as a refractory
They have high electric resistivity which
. They have low mass
makes them suitable to be used an insulator.
density which results in
" They are generally chemically inert which lightweight components.
makes them durable.
Disadvantages of Ceramics
" They are brittle in nature.
" They have almost zero ductility.
They have poor tensile strength.
They show a wide range in the variation of strength, even for
identical specimens.
" They are difficult to shape and machine.
Applications:
" Aerospace: space shuttBe tiles, thermal barriers, high-temperature glass windows, fuel
cells.
" Used as a cutting tool.
" Used in the military - ceramic armour, structural components for ground, air and
naval vehicles, missiles and sensors.
Automotive: catalytic converters, ceramic filters, airbag sensors, spark plugs, pressure
Sensors,vibration sensors, oxygen sensors, safety glass windshields, piston rings.
Computers: insulators, resistors, superconductors, capacitors, ferroelectric components,
microelectronic packaging.
Consumer Uses: glassware, windows, pottery, magnets, dinnerware, ceramic tiles,
Ienses, home electronics, microwave transducers.
1.24\Basic Civil and Mechanical Engineering
1.2.5 Composite Materials.
substance composed of two or more distinct
that are combined at a
Acomposite material is structural
macroscopic
a level and do not dissolve into one another
Componentg
Wihin thi
composite, one component is referred to as the "reinforcing phase," while the material tha
Surrounds and incorporates it is termed the "matrix." The reinforcing phase may take the forn
of fibres, particles or flakes, whereas the matrix phase materials are typically continuous in

nature.
Illustrative instances of composite systems cncompass concrete, which is strengthened with
graphite fibres, among others.
steeland epoxy, which is reinforced with
Classification of Composite
Based on the type of the matrix:
" Polymer matrix composite (PMC)
" Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)
" Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)
" Carbon-Carbon Composites
Based on the geometry of the reinforcement shape:
" Particulate composites
" Flake composites
" Fibre composites

Particulate composites

Flake composites

Fiber composites
Fig. 1.1: Types of Composites based on
Reinforcement Shape
 Matrix Introduction to Mechanical Engineering 1.25
Poly merconsist Composites (PMCs):
PMCs,
fibres,
tof
matrices
which are reinforced by eitherPolymer
short
matrix composites, often abbreviated as
These generally (discontinuous)
aramids.The matrix materials in anisotropic in nature, can
PMCs encompass resins suchinclude
or long (continuous)fibres.
materials like carbon and
ceramics such as
and
Metal Matrix
calcium-alumina
Composites
silicate. as epoxy, metals like aluminium

ametal matrix. Examples of(MMCs): Metal

matrix materials matrix composites, as the name implies, feature
titanium. Commonly used fibres in MMCs in MMCs include aluminium, magnesium and
purposeo reinforcing metals in MMCs is tocomprise carbon and silicon
snecific design requirements, enhance or modify their carbide. Thealign
properties to
primary
with
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs): Ceramic
subset of composite materials within the matrix composites or CMCs, represent a
fibres embedded in a ceramic matrix. ceramic category. They are characterized by ceramic
(AI203) and mullite Carbon (C), specialized silicon carbide (SiC), alumina
(A1203-Si02)
materialstypically include the same fibres are
ceramics: frequently employed in CMCs. The matrix
Carbon-Carbon carbon, SiC, alumina and mullite.
Composites (CCCs):
Rature carbon in both Carbon-carbon composites, abbreviated as CCCs,
the matrix and
properties such as toughness, reinforcements. These composites offer advantageous
refractoriness, improved thermal shock resistance, high-speed
Eictional characteristics and the combined strength of ceramics and
brakes, rocket nozzlesfibre-reinforced
cCCs find extensive applications in aircraft composites.
wehicles due to their ability to maintain and heat shields for space
mechanical integrity at elevated temperatures.
Advantages of Composites:
1. High Resistance to Fatigue and
Corrosion Degradation.
2. Excellent
Strength-to-Weight
less than conventional
Ratio, Resulting in Significant Weight Savings (25-45%
metallic designs).
3, Greater Reliability Reduces the Need
for Inspections and Structural
4. Directional Tailoring Capabilities Allow for Repairs.
Patterns.
Efficient Load Distribution Through Fiber
5. Redundant Load Paths Between Fibers
Enhance Structural Integrity.
Disadvantages of Composites:
1. High Cost of Raw Materials and Fabrication.
2. Brittle Nature Makes Composites More
Susceptible to Damage.
3. Weak Matrix Materials Contribute to Low Toughness.
4. Challenges in Reuse and Disposal.
5. Potential Health Hazards During Manufacturing, Use and Post-Use.
6. Difficulty in Joining Composite Parts.
1. Requirement for Refrigerated Transport and Storage with Limited Shelf Life.
8. Time-Consuming Curing Process, Often Requiring Special Tooling.
9. Complex Analysis of Composite Structures.
10. Matrix Vulnerability to Environmental Degradation.
 1.26 Basic Civil and Mechanical Engineering
Industries where Composite materials are applied:
" Aerospace
" Architecture
" Automotive

" Energy Production

Energy storage
Infrastructure
" Marine
Pipe & Tank
Sports & Recreation
" Transportation

1.2.6 Smart materials

Smart materials, also known as intelligent materials, are substances endowed with the capacity
to alter their physical properties in specific ways in response to stimuli. These stimuli can
encompass factors such as pressure, temperature, stress, moisture, pH, light, electric and
magnetic fields, chemicals and nuclear radiation, among others. The adaptable physicd
properties that smart materials can exhibit include changes in shape, stiffness, viscosity and
damping, among others.
This inherent smartness is typically achieved through a combination of factors, includnj
material composition, specialized processing techniques, modification of microstructure an
the introduction of controlled defects. These measures allow smart
materials to respond u
varying levels of stimuli in a controlled and predetermined manner.
Types of Smart Materials:
1. Piezoelectric Materials
2. Shape Memory Alloys
3. Magnetostrictive Materials
4. Electro-Rheological Materials
5. Magneto-Rheological Materials
Advantages of Smart Materials:
1. High Energy Density (in comparison to
pncumatic and hydraulie actuatoIs)
2. Excellent Bandwidth
3. Simplified Packaging
#
4. Unique Functions, such as the significant volume change smartges
response to temperature variations, exhibited by
Disadvantages of Smart Materials:
1. Complex Thermo-Mechanical Behaviour
2. Lack of Biodegradability
3. Potentialfor Environmental Pollution
 Introduction to Mechanical Engineering 1.27
4, High Production Costs
5. Uncertain Long-Term Effects
6. Possible Global Impact
Applications of $Smart Materials:
1.
Accelerometers (e.g., stabilizing quadrotors)
2. Strain Sensors
3. Emitters and
Receivers of Stress Waves
4. Active Vibration
Control in Stationary and Moving
5. Smart Skins for
Submarines Structures (e.g., helicopter blades)
6. Piezoelectric Materials with Skin-like Properties for
7. Utilization in Thermochromic Technologies, Sensing Temperature and Pressure
thermochromic paper, polymers and inks. including liquid crystals, leuco dye,
8.
Implenmentation in Photochromic Lens Technology.