ELDWELL

Spectrum
Quarterly Newsletter of Weldwell Speciality Pvt. Ltd. Vol. 26 No. 03 July-Dec, 2019

Dissimilar Metal
Welding Consumable Key
1. Inconel® Filler Metal 625
2. Monel® Welding Electrode 190

6 2 3. Monel® Welding Electrode 187

4. Inconel® Welding Electrode 112
5. Inco-Weld® A Welding Electrode
INCONEL R
MONEL R
6. Inconel® Welding Electrode 182
7
Alloy 600 Alloy 400 7. Inconel® Filler Metal 82
8. Monel® Filler Metal 60
5 8
7 8
INCONEL R
Copper
5 5 Mild Steel 8
Alloy 800 Nickel

5 7 7 1 HIGHLIGHTS
INCOLOY R

AISI 316 5
Editorial
Alloy 825 Basic of Dissimilar Metal Welding
Welding Stainless Steel of other Metals
Welding Copper to Various Metals
5 4 Dissimilar metal Welding of other metals
Equipment for Dissimilar Metal Welding
Thermal Spray Applications Get A Boost In India
Dissimilar Welding of Ni and Ni base alloys
Matrix of Nickel-based Welding Consumables
for Welding of Dissimilar Metals
NEWS from Industrty

IN SERVICE TO THE WELDING COMMUNITY

 EDITORIAL

Dear Reader,
Wishing one and all a very happy, educative and For application metals resistant to corrosion and at high
prosperous year 2020. temperature Nickel & Nickel-based alloys are preferred.
After highlighting, the proud achievements of the “Dissimilar welding of Nickel and Nickel base Alloys”
Indian Space and Nuclear Industries, the new issue of describes the typical requirements of welding.
Weldwell Spectrum focusses on the importance of “Dissimilar Metal Welding of other Metals” discusses
Dissimilar Welding. There are numerous products various miscellaneous common combinations of
being designed using different metal and alloy dissimilar joints for specific applications.
combinations to optimize specific properties of A case study of dissimilar metal welding indicates the
finished products. This leads to many dissimilar special parameters required. The details of the
metal welding applications across all industries. It welding machine used is described in “Equipment for
allows each section of the product subjected to Dissimilar Metal Welding”.
different environments to be optimized. The welding
“Thermal Spray Applications Get a Boost in India”
of steels of different strengths are also considered as
indicates the expansion of our product profile in this
dissimilar welding.
important segment of the industry.
The considerations of a successful dissimilar joint and
We once again appeal to our esteemed readers to
the fundamental factors affecting dissimilar welding are
offer their valuable comments and feedback to make
spelled out in “Basics of Dissimilar Welding”.
the ‘Spectrum’ more interesting.
Stainless Steel is one of the most common metals
involved in joining of different metals. The factors
influencing and selection of consumables through
prediction charts are discussed in “Welding Stainless
Steel to other Steels”.
Copper surfacing and overlaying for corrosion Ashok Rai
resistance is one of the most important applications, Editor
especially in the maritime sector plays an important
role. The characteristics are covered in “Welding of
Copper to various Metals”. Joining applications with Editor-in-Chief: Dr, S. Bhattacharya
its own alloys and the welding consumables used Team Members: Kapil Girotra, P.S. Naganathan,
also forms an important part of this article. Navin Badlani

02
 Basics of Dissimilar Metal Welding

Introduction mutual. If the metals cannot be dissolved together,

Design engineers are increasingly faced with the then the welding process will fail.
need to join dissimilar materials as they are seeking Weld metal dilution
creative new structures or parts with
The weld deposit is a mixture of base metals (usually
tailor-engineered properties. Sometimes a part 15%) and filler composition. A simple way to
needs high-temperature resistance in one area, good understand weld metal dilution is illustrated and care
corrosion resistance in another. Structures may need needed that base metal fusion, heat affected zone
toughness or wear resistance in one area combined and weld metal should have desirable characteristics.
with high strength in another location. Improving the It is important to note that for overlays higher alloys
are to be deposited over low alloys.
ability to join dissimilar materials with engineered
properties are enabling new approaches to
light-weighting automotive structures, improving
methods for energy production, creating next
generation medical products and consumer devices,
and many other manufacturing and industrial uses.
Dissimilar materials joining can be described as
combining materials or material combinations that
are often more difficult to join than similar two pieces
of material or alloys. However, many dissimilar
Dilution % = A/A+B x 100
materials can be joined successfully with the
appropriate joining process or welding consumables.
It is known that all metals have different properties,
and even two metals with the same name, such as
austenitic steel, can have different properties too.
Dissimilar metals are welded together in order to
maximise on the benefits that each metal produces,
while minimising the drawbacks. Dissimilar metal
welding being used in common power plant, Multiple-pass dissimilar weld
chemical plant and food processing applications as it
Bead 1 is diluted by the 2 base metals
can join ferritic low alloy steel with austenitic
stainless steel, a metal that is commonly used in Bead 2 is diluted by 1 & base metal B
these industries. Aluminium and steel are a popular Bead 3 is diluted by bead 1 & base metal A
combination. Steel is a strong, cheap and Bead 4 is diluted by beads 2 & 3
easy-to-work with metal, so is often the go-to choice
Fig. 1 Dilution during welding
for many industries such as the automotive sector.
Aluminium, on the other hand, isn’t as cheap or as Intermetallic compounds formation
strong, and is more complicated to work with, but is Sufficient consideration must be given to the
much lighter than steel. Another popular combination intermetallic compounds that will form within the
is welding stainless steel and copper due to the high transition zone between the two metals, investigating
level of electrical conductivity that is provided. crack sensitivity, susceptibility to corrosion and their
Alongside this, it is resistant to corrosion and rust. So, ductility. This explains why it can be useful to have a
“buttering layer” that is easily soluble with both the
a combination of these two metals is a great way to two dissimilar metals.
maximise on these benefits.
Weldability
Factors Influencing Dissimilar Metal Welding The level of weldability, incorporating the solubility
It is important to consider various factors, as and intermetallic compounds, refers to the ability of
mentioned below, before attempting to join two the two metals in question to be successfully welded
different metals, as this will determine not only how without resulting in cracks or any kind of defect. This
successful the welding will be, but also how long the will vary from metal to metal.Part of the calculating
newly joined components are likely to last. process is done by determining the carbon equivalency
(CE) of the dissimilar metals, and can be done using the
Solubility following formula:
Firstly, the solubility that is the chemical property of a
substance which determines its ability to dissolve in
a solvent, of the two dissimilar metals must be

03
CE = C + (Mn + Si) / 6 + (Cr + Mo + V) / 5 + (N i+ Cu) / 15 End-service conditions
Knowing the CE will allow one to determine the Finally, it is important to consider the end-service
temperatures to use before, during and after the conditions that the dissimilar joints will be subject to.
welding process, as well as how susceptible the new Some industries, such as the construction industry,
welded metals will be to cracking. welded metals will typically protect their heavy equipment using
be cracking. Knowing this will also allow one to select welded-on abrasive- resistant plates to their
appropriately, pre-heat and interpass temperatures machinery. However, this same process cannot
or selection of low hydrogen filler metals. always be used with metals of a lower tensile –
One needs to know the chemical make-up of the strength, as this increases the chances of cracking
dis-similar metals used as well. and shorter fatigue life. Using a small fillet weld can
Thermal expansion help to solve this problem by reducing the heat input
and residual stress levels on the abrasive-resistant
One must also consider the coefficient of thermal
plate.
expansion of the two metals involved, which relates
to how the metals will change shape in response to a Appropriately considering the heat and abrasiveness
change in temperature. If TE is significantly different that the dissimilar metal welds will be subject to in
for the metals, then the internal residual stresses of their end-service will allow one to select the right filler
the two metals will greatly reduce the operating life metals and joint designs to prolong the life of the
of the new welded joint. new weld.

Melting rates Dissimilar Metal Welding Process

Just as the two dissimilar metals may have different Once it has been thoroughly investigated considering
coefficient of thermal expansion, they may also have the above factors, one can begin the dissimilar metal
different melting points, which will cause an welding (DMW). DMW is, for the most part, extremely
immediate problem between the two metals. If this is similar to the welding of two similar metals. This is done
the case, then high input process is used. Both
metals melt and weld quickly enough and eliminates by physically melting the two metals together until they
the problem. form one strong, connected joint. The complication with
DMW is that often, two very distinct, very different
Corrosion metals may be getting welded together, which means it
Corrosion can occur in the transition of the two is not always as easy as simply melting the two parts
dissimilar metals. If the two metals are on widely
different sections of the electrochemical scale, then together to form a bond. The problems arise in the
this suggests a high level of susceptibility to transition zone between the two metals, where the
corrosion, which is, of course, a damaging problem to intermetallic compounds are formed.
the new weld. (Fig.2) A buttering layer, as mentioned earlier, is often used in
between the two parent metals and the weld metal to
make the joining process smoother and help to
provide an easy transition, solving many of the
factors that need to be considered above. The
success of the buttering layer depends on which
metal coating is used, how thick the coating is, and
how successfully the buttering layer has bonded with
the metal that it is coated on. The following example
demonstrates the use of a buttering layer within a
DMW, the differing qualities of the metals used, and
the order in which they are aligned:

Fig. 2 Corrosion within a plumbing pipe where two dissimilar

metals have been welded together

04
 Residual stress levels can be both good and bad, as it
Yield Tensile
can either positively or negatively affect fatigue
Component Material Strength Strength
(Megapascal) (Megapascal) strength, fatigue life, crack propagation, and
at 300°C at 300°C resistance to environmental factors such as
corrosion(Fig. 3). Whether it is good or bad depends
Stainless on the levels of residual stress, and it is
316L 213 453
Steel recommended to measure what the resulting stress
levels will be in the dissimilar metal weld, either by
Weld Metal 308L 333 441 physically testing it or calculating it on a
computational welding system.
Buttering 309L/
Layer 333 441 Some dissimilar welds undergo post-weld heat
308L
treatment to ensure that the strength of the two joined
Carbon or dissimilar metals is maintained. However, this can
Low Alloy A508 463 640
Steel cause a new set of residual stresses to be formed, as
you will be heating up the two metals again with
For a successful dissimilar metal weld to have taken potentially different thermal expansion levels.
place, the dissimilar joint needs to be as strong as
themetal with the weaker tensile strength, so that you Welding Metals with Dissimilar Strength Levels
know the joint will be able to withstand any stresses that It is possible that residual stress could be also caused
by dissimilar strength levels of the metals being
it faces; in the example shown above this is the
welded. Although the two metals by nature are
stainless steel. Copper and steel are two other metals dissimilar, one must do the best to appropriately
which are often welded together, but both possess very match them closely. This is done by making sure the
different properties and are not mutually soluble. tensile strength of the filler metal and the metal with
However, nickel is soluble with both and so can be used the lower level of strength are as similar as possible.
One will not be able to find exact match, but by
as the buttering layer, either as a whole piece of nickel or
keeping the difference between those two values as
as smaller nickel deposits on the steel surface. close as possible, one will be reducing the chances of
the weld cracking.
Residual Stresses In A Dissimilar Metal Weld
Residual stresses in a Dissimilar Metal Weld is As an example, if one is attempting to weld A514 low-
caused by the thermal contraction of the weld metal alloy steel, with a minimum tensile strength of
and the heated metal that is opposite, meaning that 110-KSI with A36 steel that has a minimum tensile
the residual stress distribution is extremely similar strength of 58-KSI then one should choose a filler
between the two different types of metal welding
metal that has similar KSI levels to the A36 steel ,
processes.
such as a metal with a 70-KSI. On occasion, the filler
metal can have a lower tensile strength than both the
higher and lower strength of metals. For example,
two metals with strengths of 100-KSI and 130-KSI
could be theoretically welded with a 70-KSI filler
metal. However, each metal is different, and one
would need to check the welding specifications. One
should avoid overmatching the filler metal, as this can
result in a high level of stress, thereby reducing the
usage life of the weld.
Conclusion
DMW is a boon to engineering industry if one is
looking for contrasting properties for any specific
application as is presently often demanded.
Dissimilar metals welding gives opportunity to
maximise on the benefits that each metal produces,
while minimising the drawbacks. Welding process for
dissimilar or similar metal welding is no different but
much more considerations need to be given to
Fig. 3 Cracking due to residual stress
factors mentioned in this article while welding
dissimilar metal welding.

05
Welding Stainless Steel to other Steels

Introduction High restraint joints, where material thickness is over

Stainless steel is one of the metals which is subjected 30mm, should also be preheated. Temperatures of
most to dissimilar welding since even a change in the 150 C are usually adequate. Carbon steels may be
chemical composition (grade) in stainless steel is also more prone to hydrogen associated defects than
considered as dissimilar metal. These changes in the austenitic stainless steels and so careful drying of
chemical composition makes significant impact on welding consumables is advisable. When welding
properties and consequently their applications. Stainless stainless steels to galvanised steel, the zinc coating
steels are welded to metals such as low-alloy steels, around the area to be joined should be removed
carbon steels, nickel besides other stainless-steel grades. before welding. Molten zinc if present in the weld
This section will primarily cover areas of welding of fusion zone can result in embrittlement or reduced
stainless steels with nickel and its alloys, low-alloy steels, corrosion resistance of the finished weld.
carbon steels and other stainless steels grades. Challenges
Factors Influencing Dissimilar Metal Welding Stainless steel has a high coefficient of thermal
Dissimilar welding of stainless steels is also subjected expansion, a measure that refers to the rate at
to the influence of all the factors mentioned in the lead which a material expands with changes in
article on basics of dissimilar welding. temperature. In short, stainless steel expands
Some of the major factors are presented below: and contracts more with temperature changes in
comparison to carbon steel.
Difference in
01
Stainless steel also has about half the thermal
M.P, T.C, , E
conductivity of carbon steel. Because of that lack of
thermal conductivity, a piece of hot stainless steel will
Formation of remain hot for much longer because it doesn’t
02
Oxide Layer
Joining
conduct heat away from the source as quickly. Since
Techniques
of Dissimilar
Hybrid carbon steel has more thermal conductivity, heat
Structure
Joints conducts along that piece relatively quickly, drawing
Formation of Brittle
intermetallic Phases 03 heat away from the weld zone.
Carbon steel must not be welded directly to austenitic
stainless steels as solidified weld metal will form
Poor Solubility in
Each Other 04 martensite, which has low ductility and which, as it
contracts, is likely to crack. Therefore, it is
recommended to select a higher alloy filler, which will
(M.P - Melting point, T.C - Thermal conductivity,
dilute to give the correct austenitic microstructure
- Coefficient of thermal expansion, E - Strength)
with enough ferrite to avoid shrinkage cracks. Using
Fig. 1 Various factors influencing DMW of
Schaeffler diagram or WRC -1992 diagram also, 309L
Stainless steel
welding consumable for CS to SS 304 and 309LMo
Welding process for welding CS to SS 316 is recommended.
Welding austenitic stainless steels to carbon and low
alloy steels are common in the process and
construction industries. Dissimilar metal welds
involving stainless steels can be done using most full
fusion weld methods, including GTAW and GMAW.
Weld procedures using filler (consumable) enable
better control of joint corrosion resistance and
mechanical properties. In selecting the weld filler, the
joint is considered as being stainless, rather than the
carbon steel. Over-alloyed fillers are used to avoid
dilution of the alloying elements in the fusion zone of
the parent stainless steel.
Fig.1- A Schaeffler diagram and the procedure (a-b-c-d-e) of
Carbon and alloy steels containing less than 0.20%C estimating the microstructure of E309 type diluted weld metal
do not normally need any preheat when being welded in welding type 304 to mild steel WRC 1992 diagram
to austenitic stainless steels. Carbon and alloy steels
with carbon levels over 0.20% may require preheat.

06
 Selection Of Welding Consumables (Filler) they should be free of Niobium (Columbium).
Selection of welding filler for dissimilar joints are Because austenitic stainless steels have lower
decided with the help of WRC 1992 diagram to avoid strength than duplex grades, welded parts
hot cracking and other undesirable metallurgical made with austenitic filler metals will not be as
changes. Hot cracking can be prevented by adjusting strong as the duplex base metal.
the composition of the base material and filler Essentially, such welding consumables should be
material to obtain a microstructure with a small used that satisfy the mechanical properties of at
amount of ferrite in the austenite matrix. The ferrite least one of the base metals of the joint
provides ferrite-austenite grain boundaries which are
able to control the sulfur and phosphorous For welding dissimilar metals, such a welding
compounds, so they do not permit hot cracking. This process that features a big dilution ratio, as
problem could be avoided by reducing the S and P to submerged arc welding is not recommended.
very low amounts, but this would increase When the GMAW & GTAW processes are used for
significantly the cost of making the steel. dissimilar metals, penetration into the carbon
Selection of filler metal for a successful dissimilar steel should be kept as small as possible
welding of stainless-steel uses WRC 1992 diagram In welding of carbon steel with austenitic
extensively. The diagram is reproduced below with an stainless steel, 309−type welding consumables
example of joining AISI 304 to ASTM A36 with higher Cr and Ni are ordinarily used. This is
because, with 308−type welding consumables, Cr
and Ni get diluted by the carbon steel base metal
and thus martensitic structure (brittle structure)
can be formed in the weld metal.
For welding dissimilar metals by a welding
process that features a big dilution ratio as
submerged arc welding process is not
recommendable.
The normal GTAW & GMAW welding processes
are most suitable, and these can be carried out
without preheating.
Fig.2-Illustration of Welding SS304 to AST A36 with For high carbon steel (>0.2%) or a thickness
E 309L-16 electrode Point D (A36), Point E(304) & Point G >30mm, a pre-heat of 150*C is adequate
(309-16) - assuming 30% base metal dilution in the root When the GMAW and GTAW welding processes
pass shown as Point H are used for welding dissimilar metals,
penetration into the carbon steel should be kept
WRC diagram and its use in welding
as small as possible
Duplex stainless steels can be welded to other duplex
stainless steels, to austenitic stainless steels and to Conclusions
carbon and low alloy steels. Duplex stainless steel Stainless steel is one of the metals which is most
filler metals with increased nickel content relative to commonly subjected to dissimilar metal welding. The
the base metal are most frequently used to weld advantage of high temperature and better corrosion
duplex stainless steels to other duplex grades. The resistant properties of stainless steel are exploited by
higher nickel content of the filer metal ensures that an DMW with less expensive metals for best economic
adequate level of austenite is formed in the weld considerations. In DMW of stainless steel any change
metal during cooling. When welding to austenitic of chemical composition is also considered as DMW.
grades, the austenitic filler metals with low carbon Though stainless steel can be welded with most of
and a molybdenum content intermediate between the other common engineering metals, high thermal
the two steels are typically used. AWS coefficient of expansion and low thermal conductivity
E309LMo/ER309LMo is frequently used for these do pose some challenge. Selection of most suitable
joints. filler metal is key to successful DMW of stainless
steels. A guideline has been provided for suitable
AWS E309L/ER309L is commonly used to join
selection of welding consumables by way of tables.
duplex stainless steels to carbon and low alloy
steels. If nickel-base filler metals are used,

07
Welding Copper to Various Metals

Introduction Copper to Aluminium Bronze

Copper and its alloys have some unique properties, Welded joints of this nature are mainly encountered
which in combination with other metals, provide a where branches, pump housings, etc ,utilising
wide array of applications where contrasting aluminium bronzes for their excellent corrosion
requirements are specified. To meet this demand resistance to severe turbulence or sea water are joined
DMW of copper and its alloys is a possible solution. to the main shell of, say, a copper heat exchanger.
High thermal conductivity and its metallurgical In these instances, the aluminium bronze will often be
impact on other metals, though, calls for higher in cast form. Direct welding is suitable and both
degree of precautions while doing DMW. Welding of aluminium bronze filler metal compositions (C13 and
copper and alloys with other metals have been C20) have excellent welding characteristics for the
presented below. purpose, provided that the castings are sound.
Copper to Steel Aluminium Bronze to Copper Nickel
Copper and copper-based alloys can be successfully The increasing use of copper nickel alloys, both 90/10
welded to the low-alloy and mild-alloy steels and and 70/30 compositions for heat exchanger shells can
stainless steels. This can be done using a mean welds between the copper nickel and aluminium
high-copper-alloy filler for areas where the metal is bronze castings for branches and end plates. Such
thinner, and for thicker sections, the steel should have joints are satisfactorily made directly using an
a buttering layer of the high-copper-alloy filler, and aluminium bronze filler of matching composition.
then welded to the copper. Often a very useful step in making Cu-Ni dissimilar
The copper must be pre-heated, as it has a melting point of metal welds is to overlay or butter the other metal
approximately 1,085°C. It must also be noted that the steel with nickel, nickel-copper or any other appropriate
metal should not be excessively penetrated in to, as any filler. In applying Cu-Ni overlays on steel, the usual
iron pickup within the copper will create a brittle insert that practice is to apply a first layer with ERNi-1 or
is more susceptible to cracking. ERNiCu-7 and then ERCuNi for subsequent layers.
Another approach is to cover the copper with a Although a high alloy barrier layer is standard, it is
nickel-based electrode, and if the metal is particularly possible to apply ERCuNi by GMAW directly on
thick, then a second layer is usually recommended. carbon steel with carefully controlled welding
To complete this process for thicker coppers, it procedures designed to achieve relatively low iron
should be pre-heated to 540°C. dilution on the first layer.

Copper to Copper-Nickel Welding to aluminium

It is rarely that copper requires direct welding to pure To weld the dissimilar metals of aluminium and
nickel, but joints between copper and the copper copper together, one should use a copper-aluminium
nickels are quite common in many heat-exchanger transition insert piece.
and chemical plant applications. In dissimilar metal The aluminium bronzes are a family of copper-based
joints with copper, it is common practice to use the alloys offering a combination of mechanical and
copper nickel rather than the other copper-base filler chemical properties unmatched by any other alloy
metals to minimise the risk of porosity, and to give series for many demanding applications such as
weld metal strength compatible with the copper marine and hydroelectric projects.
nickel side of the joint. There are no special
metallurgical difficulties in producing such a joint by
direct weld runs on a conventional weld preparation.
The difference in thermal conductivity will, however,
mean close attention to preheating the copper side of
the joint to ensure that full fusion of the copper is
attained. For this reason, it may be helpful to direct
the welding arc towards the copper. There will be
dilution of the copper nickel weld metal by copper,
and this must be considered when selecting the
composition of the filler alloy in terms of maintaining
matching corrosion resistance.
Welding copper nickel alloys to each other presents
no undue problems. Picture: A typical Aluminium bronze elbow joint to flanges

08
 Filler Metals for Dissimilar Metal Welds SIL-TRODE is used for inert gas welding of
(2014 Rev.) silicon bronze welding alloy (UNS C65600), for
Source: Copper Development Association (CDA) the inert gas welding of copper-silicon, copper
zinc, copper to copper-silicon, copper to
themselves and also to mild steel.
Metal to GMAW AMPCO-TRODE 10 is used to weld and join many
SMAW Comments
be joined and GTAW
(AWS) ferrous and nonferrous metals and combinations
to Cu-Ni (AWS)
of dissimilar metals. These metals include the
more weldable grades of cast iron, high and low
AWS 5.7
Preheat to
carbon steels, copper, bronzes and copper-nickel
AWS A5.6 ERCuNl or
Copper ECuNi or ERCuAl-A2/ 1000°F alloys.
ECuAl-A2 S Cu 7158 or (540°C) AMPCO-TRODE 46 is used for welding of cast
S Cu 6180 and wrought nickel-aluminum bronze.
AWS 5.7 AMPCO-TRODE 46 is a recommended for weld
Phosphor AWS A5.6 ERCuSn-A/ __ repairing NiBral boat propellers, power plant
bronzes ECuSn-A S Cu 5180A
valves, propeller gear housings, ship fittings,
AWS 5.7 marine propulsion systems and others.
Aluminium AWS A5.6 __
ERCuAl-A2/ AMPCO-TRODE 40 is used for welding of cast
bronzes ECuAl-A2
S Cu 6180 ship propellers conforming to MIL-B-21230,
Steel side to Alloy 2 for high resistance to corrosion, erosion
AWS and cavitation. AMPCO-TRODE 40 also exhibits
AWS A5.14 be overlaid
Carbon A5.11 good ability to join dissimilar metals.
ERNiCu-7/ S first with
steel ENiCu-7/
Ni4060 ERNi-1 or
E Ni4060
ERNiCu-7

AWS
A5.11 AWS A5.14 Stainless
Austenitic ENi-1 or ERNi-1 or
side to be
Stainless ENiCrFe-2 ERNiCr-3 /
overlaid first
Steels E Ni2061 E Ni2061 or
S Ni6082 with ERNi-1
or E
Ni6092

Suggested welding filler and preheat temperatures

Copper because of its high conductivity requires
preheating that increases with thickness and for over
15mm will require 540°C on the copper side for
proper wetting. Also is to be noted that alloys that
contain low melting elements such as Zinc and Tin
will require lower preheating levels. The following
tables recommends the maximum preheat
temperatures for GTAW dissimilar welds with copper
and suitable welding consumables:
Some of the popular welding filler metals are
described below:
COPR-TRODE is used primarily to fabricate
deoxidized copper and repair weld copper
castings. It may also be used to weld galvanized
steel and deoxidized copper to mild steel
Where high strength joints are not required. It is
also used to overlay surfaces to resist corrosion.

09
 METAL B
Base metal Phosphor Aluminium Silicon
Copper Cupro-nickels
bronzes bronzes bronzes
Low zinc PHOS-TRODE -C
brasses, ERCuSn-C
eg C23000 540 °C Max
Phosphor PHOS-TRODE -C
bronzes ERCuSn-C
eg C51000 540 °C Max

Aluminium AMPCO-TRODE 10
AMPCO-TRODE 10
bronzes, ERCuAl-A2
ERCuAl-A2 200 °C
eg C61400 540 °C Max

Silicon PHOS-TRODE -C AMPCO-TRODE 10

bronzes, ERCuSn-C ERCuSi-A 65°C max ERCuAl-A2
eg C65500 540 °C Max 65°C max

Cupro-nickels, AMPCO-TRODE 10 PHOS-TRODE -C AMPCO-TRODE 10 AMPCO-TRODE 10

ERCuAl-A2 ERCuSn-C ERCuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A2
eg C70600
540 °C Max 65°Cmax 65°Cmax 65°Cmax

Nickel, NICKEL 61 NICKEL 61

eg N02200
MONEL 60 MONEL 60
and
ER Ni or ER Ni or
Nickel-copper
ERCuNi-7 ERCuNi-7
alloys, eg
540 °C Max These combinations are not usually welded 65°C max
N04400
High nickel INCONEL 82 INCONEL 82
alloys, ERNiCr-3 ERNiCr-3
eg N08800,
540 °C Max 65 °C Max
N06600

AMPCO-TRODE 10 PHOS-TRODE -C AMPCO-TRODE 10 AMPCO-TRODE 10 AMPCO-TRODE 10

Low carbon
ERCuAl-A2 ERCuSn-C ERCuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A2
steels
540 °C Max 200°C Max 150°C Max 65°C max 65°C max

AMPCO-TRODE 10 PHOS-TRODE -C ERCuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A2

Low alloy steels
ERCuAl-A2 540°C ERCuSn-C 260°C 260°C Max 200°C Max 65°C max

Stainless steels, AMPCO-TRODE 10 PHOS-TRODE -C ERCuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A2

eg S30400 ERCuAl-A2 540°C ERCuSn-C 200°C 65°C Max 65°C Max 65°C max

10
 Dissimilar metal welding of other metals

There are many more metals which are subjected to normal applications.
DMW in addition to the one already discussed in For instance, carbon steel can readily be joined to
some details. In this article some of the other 2.25Cr-1Mo steel by using either a carbon steel or
commonly dissimilar welded metal are covered. 1.25Cr-0.5Mo steel filler metal. However, carbon
Low Alloys – Cr Mo Steels steel filler metals are usually selected except where
These steels are extensively used for high carbon migration (the diffusion of carbon from
temperature applications. The structural lower-Cr metal to higher-Cr metal during PWHT and
components of a power generation boiler use several service at high temperatures) must be decreased.
types of steels; therefore, joining dissimilar steels is Likewise, 2.25Cr-1Mo steel can be joined to
unavoidable at the interface of different service 9Cr-1Mo-V-Nb steel by using a 2.25Cr-1Mo filler
condition areas. When joining carbon steels and metal. In contrast, Cr-Mo steel and austenitic
Cr-Mo steels, or when joining dissimilar Cr-Mo steels, stainless steel are joined with a high Cr-Ni stainless
a filler metal with a composition similar to the (e.g., E309) but where carbon migration and thermal
lower-alloy steel or to an intermediate composition is stress are important factors, nickel alloy (e.g.,
commonly used for butt joints. This is because the ENiCrFe-1) filler metal are used. A quick guide to
weld metal need not be stronger or more resistant to recommended consumable for joining dissimilar
creep or corrosion than the lower alloy base metal in metals is tabulated below.

A quick guide to select filler metals for welding dissimilar metal butt joints for general applications

Base metal Mild steel 0.5Mo 1.25Cr-0.5Mo 2.25Cr-1Mo 5Cr-0.5Mo

Type 304 NC-39 (E309), NC-39L (E309L), TGS-309 (ER309). TGS-309L (ER309L)
Stainless steel NIC-703D (ENiCrFe-3), NIC-70A (ENiCrFe-1), TGS-70NCb (ERNiCr-3)
LB-52 CMA-76 CMA-96 CMA-106 CM-5
9Cr-1Mo-V (E7016) (E7016-A1) (E8016-B2) (E9016-B3) (E8016-B6)
9Cr-1Mo-V-Nb TGS-50 TGS-M TGS-1CM TGS-2CM TGS-5CM
(ER70S-G) (ER80S-G) (ER80S-G) (ER90S-G) (ER80S-B6)
LB-52 CMA-76 CMA-96 CMA-106
(E7016) (E7016-A1) (E8016-B2) (E9016-B3)
5Cr-0.5Mo
TGS-50 TGS-M TGS-1CM TGS-2CM
(ER70S-G) (ER80S-G) (ER80S-G) (ER90S-G)
LB-52 CMA-76 CMA-96
(E7016) (E7016-A1) (E8016-B2)
2.25Cr-1Mo
TGS-50 TGS-M TGS-1CM
(ER70S-G) (ER80S-G) (ER80S-G)
LB-52 CMA-76
(E7016) (E7016-A1)
1.25Cr-0.5Mo
TGS-50 TGS-M
(ER70S-G) (ER80S-G)

LB-52
(E7016)
0.5Mo
TGS-50
(ER70S-G)

Note: (1) This table guides to recommended filler metals matching the lower-alloy steels in various dissimilar
metal joints, excepting for Type 304 steel. Other types of filler metals may be needed where a specific
requirement is imposed.
Note: (2) Preheating and post-weld heat treatment for dissimilar Cr-Mo steels should be sufficient to the
higher-alloy steel: however, the PWHT temperature should be lower to avoid damage to the Base metal

11
Aluminium Alloys
Aluminium alloys are an extremely popular and useful industries like the automotive industry or the aircraft
metal for engineering applications. An aluminium industry, where two different parts are often welded
alloy is typically 85% aluminium, and then the together and needs to handle incredible pressures to
remaining percentage is comprised of a metal such provide a high level of safety and security. For
as copper, silicon, tin, magnesium or zinc. example, it is used to weld together two separate
The metal itself offers a range of advantages such as its parts of an airplane fuselage, which demands high
ductile and corrosion resistant nature, as well as a high levels of strength at such high altitudes. Dissimilar
level of electrical conductivity. But it is alloyed with other metal welding is commonly used in the automotive
metals in order to provide it with a higher strength too. industry as well.
The properties that aluminium alloys can offer to has Conclusion
been of great interest in joining the alloy with metals DMW of most of the metals are extensively used in
such as steel, titanium, magnesium and copper. industry though aluminium poses some restrictions
Low melting temperature and high reactivity of for such welding. Selection of right welding filler
Aluminium and its alloys makes welding of these with metal and preheat temperature play significant role.
other metals difficult and is not very popular.
However, it is commonly used in high-volume

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12
 Equipment for Dissimilar Metal Welding

Dissimilar Metal Welding joints are extensively used This makes them the perfect solution for dissimilar
in all segments of the industry. One of the most metal welding whether this is for medical devices,
common applications, is that between low-alloy steel fine wires, or other larger industrial solutions found in
and stainless steel. Pressure vessels made of the automotive or aerospace industries. The use of
low-alloy steel and connected to SS piping systems is Pulsed Lasers represents another direction for
a prime example of dissimilar welding requirement in dissimilar welding, offering both commercial and
the power industry. In the welding of these joints, technical benefits
there are several challenges such as, elemental For details of features and availability of Kemppi
migration, formation of secondary and complex Master TIG MLS 4000 please contact
phases, partially mixed zones and vulnerability of the Nivek Agencies, [email protected]
weld metals to liquation and hot cracking. These
problems mainly arise due to the differences in Brief Note on Kemppi Master TIG MLS 4000
chemical composition, thermal expansion Kemppi Master TIG MLS 4000 belongs to the
coefficients of the metals employed. MLS DC range, which has become an industry
standard for many users offering precise welding
Attempts have been carried out on the common
performance and lightweight, portable design.
welding techniques such as GTAW, GMAW and
The MLS 4000 has a 400 A power source with
SMAW for solving the drawbacks as mentioned
30% duty cycle at maximum output current
above. There are some solutions adopted by the
industries such as the use of the pulsed current
technique, proper selection of process parameters
and filler metal.
Pulsed current, a modified form of conventional GTW
method, enjoys several benefits regarding
metallurgical and mechanical properties including
lower heat input, reduced bead width and heat
affected zone, grain refinement and lower distortion.
In addition to that, the cooling rates are faster
compared to the conventional GTAW technique.
Several research and experimental studies have
confirmed use of Pulsed GTW is one of the optimum IMPORTANT FEATURES
solutions to overcome these disadvantages. Precise and Reliable HF Ignition - Even at low
currents and with long torches or cable sets
The chemical composition study showed that where Modular Adaptability
Pulsed Current Gas Tungsten Arc ( PCGTA) welding
Four different control panel containing basic
technique was used to weld dissimilar metals using
and specialist functions required for quality TIG
Kemppi Master TIG MLS 4000 provided best
and MMA welding
mechanical and metallurgical results.
Ignition pulse, MMA arc dynamics, pulse and
Dissimilar laser welding can be conducted in a variety
synergic pulse, TIG spot timer, 4T log and memory
of different ways. Modern laser welding machines are
channel function
designed to be maintenance free with ‘fit and forget
technology’, making them a reliable, efficient and Compact size and lightweight means simple site
effective solution to many other technologies. movement
Regardless of the thickness, or how different the Optional features include :
chemical and mechanical properties of two dissimilar pre-gas and post-gas control, torch switch
metals are, successful welding can be achieved using latching 2T/4T, remote control and set up options,
laser welding process. Lasers can work with all of the welding current upslope and downslope timer,
key metals including aluminium, brass, copper, and
various types of steel. A continuous wave range of
laser offering strengths of 200W to 1kW, can weld
everything from thin steel to thick carbon steel and
stainless steel.
For details of features and availability of Kemppi Master TIG MLS 4000 please contact
Nivek Agencies, [email protected]

13
Thermal Spray Applications Get a Boost In India

Thermal Spray is becoming one of the fasted growing spray consumables namely SENTES-BIR and
surfacing technologies when it comes to meet the Powder Alloys Corporation to bring the world class
need for prolonging the working life of a critical products locally available to the Indian industry at a
component or enhancing the mean life before failure market competitive price to bridge the existing gap
for better economics, competitiveness and lower SENTES-BIR is a renowned European producer of
environmental impact in comparison to many other gas atomized thermal spray powders having its
conventional processes. manufacturing facilities located in Izmir, Turkey.
It provides a shield to the machine components to Customer orientation, innovations and bespoke
resist both primary and secondary industrial wear products backed by a dynamic and research oriented
and achieves this with deposition of just a few structure have been trademarks of SENTES-BIR
microns which not only makes the entire process very since its foundation more than 30 years back.
economical but also saves the machine components SENTES-BIR’s Cobalt and Nickel based powders
from the adverse effects of heat affected zone. engineered for different applications, processes and
This technology is fast becoming the most potent grain size distributions requirements, are used
process to drive cost economics and extensively across the industry be it a critical spray on control
used in industries as sophisticated as aviation and valves, engine vales, glass moulds, canter etc. to get
additive manufacturing and conventional brick and the best out of these critical machine parts going
mortar industries like steel, power, glass, oil & gas, under tough wear cycles.Powders are manufactured
engineering and so many others. following a strict quality control guideline and sieved
The success of thermal spray processes to a great for different processes such as Plasma Transferred
extent determined by the selection of the right kind of Arc, High Velocity Oxy Fuel, Fuse and Spray, Laser
consumables depending on the working environment Cladding and Plasma Spray. The particle size
and base material, grain size distributions and distribution differentiates the metal powders from
manufacturing method for the recommended spray one process to the other. Technical help is available
equipment and spraying process. to customers for the right selection of thermal spray
powders for their applications and processes.
Weldwell Group, the industry leader in providing
SENTES-BIR’S thermal spray powders are marketed
advanced and state of the art welding consumables,
under the brand name of FORTECOAT.
has collaborated with two market leaders in thermal

Photo 1: Plasma Transfer Arc Process

14
 serve a variety of industries including oil & gas, power,
steel, bio-medical, aviation, industrial gas turbine, as
well as emerging markets such as additive
manufacturing.
PAC is a more than 40 years old organization having
deep roots in providing hardfacing and super alloys
thermal spray powders to industry globally to fight
industrial wear and enhance the working life of
critical machine components. The technology
developed by PAC includes inert gas atomization,
composite cladding, agglomeration, sintering,
plasma densification and hydride / dihydride.
PAC has a large numbers of OEM approvals across
the industry including aviation. The array of approvals
includes some of the world leaders like GE, Pratt &
Whitney, Honeywell, Siemens, Rolls Royce etc. The
In addition to thermal spray powders, SENTES-BIR exhaustive list of PAC thermal spray powders
also makes metal powder based brazing pastes for includes carbide, zirconia, ceramic, titanium, metals
brazing of critical parts and powders for additive based powders manufactured for a complete range
manufacturing. of processes such as High Velocity Oxy-Fuel (HVOF),
The second manufacturer of thermal spray powder Plasma Transfer Arc (PTA), Laser Cladding, Plasma
with which Weldwell Group has collaborated is and Spray / Fuse. Powders are marketed under the
Powder Alloys Corporation (PAC) having its brand name of PAC.
manufacturing facility in Ohio, USA. Powder Alloys
Corporation is a versatile manufacturer of metal, For sales and product enquiries, please contact
ceramic, carbides and super alloys powders. They [email protected]

Photo 2: High Velocity Oxy-Fuel Process

15
Dissimilar Welding of Ni and Ni base alloys

Introduction Welding Processes And Joint Design

Dissimilar metal welding of Ni and its alloys is often
required to take advantage of specific properties of Ni High-quality joints are readily produced in nickel
and its alloys particularly when the application is alloys by conventional welding processes. However,
under severe conditions of corrosion and / or high some of the characteristics of nickel alloys
temperature. However, in many cases the necessitate the use of somewhat different
comparative high cost of Ni and Ni base alloys makes techniques than those used for commonly
their use prohibitive. Welding of these alloys to encountered materials such as carbon and stainless
provide a protective layer on less expensive steels. Any welded joint can undergo metallurgical
load-bearing mild or low alloy steel makes it the most changes when subjected to cold work and heat
realistic financial alternative. Ni and Ni base alloys are treatment, even though Nickel alloys are not
extensively used either as overlay material or as a adversely affected by such composite overlaid
welding consumable for dissimilar metal welding materials. However, as a general rule it is best to
because of their compatibility with most of the select a welding process and procedure that
engineering materials. produces a weld with strength and corrosion
resistance superior to that of the component being
Welding Metallurgy and Design fabricated. In general, it is best to join materials with
Nickel-alloy joining procedures for dissimilar over-matching composition (more highly alloyed,
materials are influenced by metallurgical factors even more corrosion-resistant) welding products.
though most common materials allows unlimited
dilution by nickel without detriment. However, the Welding Of Ni And Ni Base Alloys With Dissimilar Metals
concern is about dilution of nickel alloy by the base
material containing copper, chromium and iron apart Nickel and nickel base alloys are easily welded to
from potentially detrimental elements such as Pb, Sn most commercially used metals. Exceptions are
or Zn. In addition to weld-metal dilution, the fusion welding to aluminium, titanium and most
differences in thermal expansion and melting points refractory metals and alloys. Welding of Nickel and
may influence the selection of Ni and Ni base alloys nickel base alloys to some of the commonly used
as filler metal for dissimilar joints. For metals are described below.
high-temperature service, both - metallurgical and Stainless Steel
design considerations, are important in obtaining
Austenitic stainless steels typically have 16–26%
expected life of fabricated equipment and should take
chromium (Cr) and 8-22% nickel (Ni). Alloy 304,
into account following additional factors:
which contains approximately 18% Cr and 10% Ni, is
General Guidelines - Some of the common a commonly used alloy for welded fabrications, and
recommended procedures such as cleanliness, lower these alloys can be readily welded using any of the
heat input, etc.; to be followed arc welding processes (TIG, MIG, MMA, and SA). It is
though necessary to select the most appropriate
Dilution Rates - First layer dilution from parent
welding consumable for the purpose. The attached
material, in case of overlays, has to be kept under
table of Nickel and nickel base alloys welding
control by appropriate choice of process, consumable
consumables may be used as guideline.
size (e.g. 3.2 mm dia electrodes) and welding
Other details of DMW of stainless steel is covered
parameters
elsewhere in this edition of Weldwell Spectrum.
Dilution Limits - Choice of consumables to ensure
Low alloy Steel
dilution of Fe, Cr, Cu etc., are within limits
Joining of Cr-Mo steels or low alloy steels to
Welding Products - Generally higher alloys compared austenitic stainless steel requiring elevated
to parent material are chosen to get desirable properties temperature creep and thermal fatigue resistance, Ni
even after post heat treatment, if applicable based filler metals are used. This process for the
initial runs, is known as buttering. The Ni-base alloy
Thermal Expansion - Extreme care is necessary
filler metal provides a gradation of CTE across the
when melting points and coefficients of thermal
weld joint that better distributes stresses resulting
expansion are widely different, Sometimes, a
from CTE differences at elevated temperatures.
mutually compatible intermediate alloy is used for
There are also metallurgical advantages by the use of
such joints.
Ni-base filler metals for this dissimilar combination.

16
 INCO
304-H Stainless A or 21/4 Cr - 1/2 Mo
82

Cast Iron
Nickel and its alloys are generally not welded and joined
to Cast Iron. However, for cast iron salvaging and
repairs, welding with nickel alloy electrodes is very
popular. A nickel-iron weld is stronger, with a lower
coefficient of thermal expansion reducing welding
stresses and improving resistance to cracking.
Copper and copper base alloys
It is rarely, that copper requires direct welding to pure
nickel, or vice versa, as copper and nickel are
completely soluble in each other. They give rise to a Selection Of Welding Consumables
range of copper-nickel alloys, and welding nickel to
copper-nickels is common by using nickel or There are a number of situations where nickel alloy
copper-nickel alloy welding consumables. In the welding consumables are used for welding dissimilar
unique application of welding copper to steels, since, combinations to provide engineering advantages.
both the metals are not mutually soluble, nickel is Each application in which the Ni-base welding
used as an intermediary metal. Such a transition joint material is used to weld other base metals usually
can either be effected by just using a piece of nickel or take advantage of unique characteristics of the
depositing several layers of nickel alloy on the steel, as-cast or as-deposited weld metal that allows it to
i.e., buttering or surfacing the steel with a nickel weld provide equal to or better properties than that of the
metal deposit. The subsequent welding can be wrought base metal. In general, these applications
completed by copper-nickel welding consumables. take advantage of the inherent properties of Ni-base
alloy welding materials and make them ideal choices
Overlay for specific types of applications.
This is another area where dissimilar welding plays a
major role as far as Ni and Ni base alloys are Conclusion
concerned. Almost all welding processes used for Nickel, because of its metallurgical characteristics and
joining alloy components can also be used for solubility, can be welded to most of the metals barring
overlay. However, ESSW/SAW are most commonly some of the reactive and refractive metals. Ni and nickel
used for overlaying. As with all nickel-alloy welding base consumables are most popular amongst the all
applications, base metal cleanliness is essential. All dissimilar welding consumables. Ni and nickel base
oxides and foreign material must be removed from alloys are extensively used as a cladding and overlay
the surface to be overlaid. For best results, for overlay material over steel to harness the technical advantages
purpose, dilution of iron must be kept to minimum of both and reduce cost. The selection chart of
levels. Excessive amounts of iron in the overlay would consumables for popular dissimilar grades of Nickel
compromise the corrosion resistance of the overlay Alloys is availabe separately.
and may cause weld cracking. Special Metals Welding Products Company offers a
wide range of products for joints in and between
nickel-based alloys, stainless and low alloys steels,
and cast steels.
Weldwell are the authorised distributors in India for all
welding products of Special Metals.
For more details and availability contact:
[email protected]

17
Matrix of Nickel - based Welding Consumables for Welding of
Dissimilar Metals

18
 NEWS from Industrty

Heavy Vehicle Factory (HVF) Avadi- 84 warhead which can decimate targeted
is to manufacture Russian-origin and upgraded T buildings
90 ‘Bhishma’ main battle tanks. 264 of these NTPC, BHEL ink pact for environment friendly
would be deployed on Pakistan front. power plant-
Adani Power to acquire GMR Chhattisgarh The plant would be 800 MW technology
Energy- demonstration plant (TDP) at its power plant in
Sipat, Chhattisgarh. The demonstration plant
GCEL owns an operational 1.370 megawatt (MW)
shall be based on the advanced ultra-super
supercritical thermal power plant in Raikheda,
critical (AUSC) technology.
Raipur district, Chhattisgarh. The plant consists
of 2 units of 685 MW each, commissioned in June India’s plan for capacity addition in nuclear
2015 and April 2016 respectively. power generation-

Panasonic partners with autonomous robotic According to DAE. nearly 21 nuclear reactors are
start- under various stages of construction and
Up Linkwiz to enhance welding processes in planning which will add around 15000 MW of
manufacturing. Main products include software power generating capacity.
to control robots used for welding and paint India to spend $100 billion on energy infra,
application, and software for conducting says PM inviting Saudi investment
automated inspection of each piece coming off a Transformative technologies like Artificial
production line. Intelligence, NLP and robotics are bringing
Women show their mettle with metal at welding about fundamental changes in our lives. India
event- will invest a massive $100 billion in oil and gas
infrastructure to meet energy needs of an
Eighteen Women from various heavy industries in economy that is being targeted to nearly double
the country participated in the National Welding in five years.
Competition, held in Chennai. The event was
organised by Indian Institute of Welding Unique 5 Space Science Missions by ISRO
(Chennai). (i) A radar-imaging satellite - The NASA-ISRO
Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) satellite will be the
NTPC Ltd along with Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) first satellite with a dual-frequency radar imaging
Have commissioned its first Electric Vehicle system (ii) Autonomous docking of spacecraft - The
charging station at an IOC petrol pump in Greater ‘Space Docking experiment’ (SPADEX) mission will
Noida, Uttar Pradesh. The EV charging station demonstrate autonomous rendezvous and docking of
offers four charging points with fast and slow two spacecraft in orbit. This demonstration is key to
charging options conforming to Bharat DC 001 building a space station that consists of several
and Bharat AC 001 standards. modules working together.(iii) First mission to study
‘Smart Factory Solutions’- the Sun - Launching in 2020 onboard a PSLV-XL
Panasonic has integrated its welding solutions rocket, the Aditya L-1 mission will study the Sun’s
and surface mount technology (SMT) machine surface and atmosphere ( photosphere and
business into a single division that will be known corona).(iv) Specialised X-ray observatory - ISRO will
as Smart Factory Solutions. This integration will be launching another space science mission, called
enable Panasonic to provide end-to-end solutions X-ray Polarimetry Satellite (XPoSat), onboard a PSLV in
to its customers seamlessly. 2021. (v) A Venus orbiter in the making- ISRO’s
Venus orbiter, with a payload capacity of 100 kg will be
NTPC commissions India’s first ultra-super placed in a highly elliptical orbit, of 500 X 60,000 km, for
critical plant- closeup and global observations, respectively. Its primary
The country’s first ultra-super critical Plant (2 scientific objectives include surface and subsurface feature
x660) MW capacity was commissioned at studies, atmospheric chemistry, and solar wind interactions
Khargone in M. P. by NTPC Other missions in ISRO’s pipeline include follow-ups
Indian Air Force to buy advanced 'bunker buster' to the Mars Orbiter Mission, Astrosat and
version of Spice-2000 bombs- Chandrayaan 2, all before 2025.
The IAF is now planning to acquire the bunker
buster or the building destroyer version with Mark

19
 SS & Duplex
Ni & Ni Alloy Cr Mo Steel A KOBE Group Copper and Copper Consumables
Consumables Consumables Company Alloys

Welding Aids, Flexible

Air Plasma Cutting Inverter Welding Welding Equipments
Enclosures
Machines Machines

Thermal Spray Low Alloy Consumable Inserts

Powders Consumables

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