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The Cultural Meanings of Money

Article in American Behavioral Scientist · October 2001

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The Cultural Meanings of Money: The Case of Latinos and Anglo-Americans

Celia J.Falicov, Ph.D.

Constructions, meanings and uses of money have similar and different conceptions across

cultural groups. Like other features of human behavior, some uses of money are universal, others

are culture-specific and others yet are idiosyncratic or subjective. When it comes to cultural uses

of money, a multidimensional definition of culture includes a variety of contextual factors, such

as ethnicity, gender, class, nationality, or immigrant status. (Falicov, 1995, 1998). The family

life cycle is also influential in the symbolic meanings and behavior toward money. (Doyle,

1992). In this paper, the focus will be on Latinos and Anglo-Americans different conceptions of

how money is symbolized and used. These differences stem from historical context, preferred

types of family structures and a multiplicity of ecological influences. Utilizing a simple label of

Latinos and Anglo-Americans to describe group ethnic differences oversimplifies a complex

reality that includes not only issues of nationality, social class, education, gender, religion, and

immigrant status but also family forms such as three-generational/extended and two-parent intact

nuclear family, single parent, divorced or remarried units. These similarities and differences

create overlapping zones within and in between cultures referred to as “cultural borderlands”

(Rosaldo, 1989) rather than clear cut differences. Nevertheless, in the midst of such diversity, the

flexible, non-stereotypical, use of generalizations may act as useful foils against which some

differences between cultures can be temporarily contrasted and highlighted.

For the purposes of this paper, comparisons will be drawn between intact two-parent

working class Latinos and middle class Anglo-Americans, although some of the differences

1
related to extended and nuclear family ideologies tend to override class stratification. The term

Anglo-Americans refers to white, middle-class Protestant ideals. Immigrants from Latin

America, i.e. Latinos, will be grouped generically in comparison to mainstream Anglo-American

culture. However, illustrations of Mexican and Cubans normative expectations will be

differentiated whenever relevant to make an attempt to point out differences among Latinos,

which of course, just like other ethnic groups, are not a homogeneous people.

Symbolic and concrete meanings of money and cultural differences between Latinos and

Anglo-Americans will be discussed within several themes: individualism and collectivism;

spending on family rituals; gifts, favors, and loans; money, class, and culture; balance of work

and leisure; religious beliefs and money; and traditional and egalitarian gender roles.

Individualism and Collectivism

Perhaps the most overriding differences between Latinos and Anglo-Americans reside in

the individualistic and collectivistic values that stem from their traditionally preferred forms of

family structures. Until recently, when many more diverse family forms began to be

acknowledged, the nuclear, two-parent family has been considered the ideal family structure by

the dominant American culture for many generations. Although the late nineteenth century saw a

temporary growth of extended families and household production, the extended, three- or four-

generation family, closely connected through the life span of its members has never been the

norm in the United States of America. In fact, the highest figure for extended family households

ever recorded in American history is 20 percent. Contrary to the popular myth that

industrialization destroyed the extended family, the high point occurred between 1850 and 1855,

the most intensive period of early industrialization (Coontz, 1992).

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 The prototypical mainstream American nuclear family is generally defined as two adults,

husband and wife, with approximately two children. This type of family is modeled by

democratic and egalitarian standards that tend to promote individual expression. Examples of

individualistic interactions within a nuclear family include emphasis on self-expression, direct

communication, and rewarding of autonomous behaviors of children.

In contrast, the nuclear Latino household is embedded in a complex extended network of

families and friends based on a collectivistic belief system. From agrarian times to the present,

extended families have been the prevailing form of family arrangement in Latin America. In

modern times, nuclear households, although physically separate and not part of shared household

production, remain part of an extended web of family and intergenerational connectedness.

Financial responsibilities are often shared and reflect various forms of interdependence among

family members. The importance of family connectedness and cohesiveness may override the

individual need for self- expression. It is interesting that the English word “privacy” does not

exist as a noun in Spanish and that the adjective “private” (privado) has connotations of secrecy

and confidentiality. In other words, family togetherness is the fundamental part of the “fabric” of

the family. The construct of “familismo” is used to describe the solidarity, family pride, loyalty,

and sense of belonging that one finds in Latino families. Poverty often strengthens the

“familismo” bond, because of the need for survival. (Falicov, 1998).

In the United States, most nuclear families are typically isolated from their extended

families with a clear boundary in place. In the nuclear Anglo-American family, it is less

common for grandparents to live with their children and very unusual for other relatives to share

a daily life. In contrast, it is common for grandparents and other relatives to live with an

extended Latino family. There is even a broader definition of extended kin for Latinos. It may

include immediate family members, distant relatives, close family friends (“comadres” or

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“compadres”), long-standing neighbors, in-laws, and godparents referred to as “padrinos.”

The sheer size of this group drastically changes the daily texture of family life and the use of

family resources.

Unlike the Latino extended family, the nuclear Anglo-American family maybe less open

to involvement from other than immediate family members. Latinos make boundaries permeable

in extended families, and help materially with room and board, jobs, and money; or help

emotionally, with advice, support, or reassurance. Emphasis is on interdependence between

Latino extended family members rather than the value of independence and self-reliance. In

financial matters, the same collectivistic, permeable boundaries attitude exists in Latinos.

Although money is earned and saved individually, it is often shared, particularly in times of

need. Like among Anglo-Americans, there is a tendency to derive self-worth from self-

sufficiency but personal ownership or accumulation may be flexible when necessary. This

dynamic is illustrated in a situation that appears with certain frequency among Mexican working

class couples. Because of the custom of patrilocal residence, young couples from rural or urban

poor areas in Mexico may live with the husband’s side of the family for several years after

marriage. This situation often results in considerable tensions between the young wife and the

mother-in-law. The young wife’s dream is to achieve “la casa propia” (a home of her own)

which means to have a home for her own nuclear family. In a case where the conflict between

the wife and mother-in-law has escalated to unbearable stress, the husband borrowed the cash

payment for a separate residence from several of his “compadres” who not only gave the money

as a long-term loan, but also would never ask for an interest payment.

The values inherent in collectivistic cultures manifest themselves in systems of financial

exchanges and money expenditure. Three areas of expression of this value will be discussed:

spending on family rituals, gifts, favors and loans, and balance of family leisure and work.

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Spending on Family Rituals

Nowhere is “familismo” better reflected, and reinforced, than in the family rituals that

represent a key component of Latino collectivism. Latino rituals are extended family

celebrations that proclaim and reaffirm unity and connection. From birth to death, Latino life

cycle stages are honored and celebrated with traditional rituals (For further discussion of this

issue, see Falicov, 1998). Emotional investment in rituals that connect family members and

reaffirm their family and cultural identity may find part of their symbolic expression in the actual

amount of individual and shared money spent on those rituals.

A ritual that accompanies a girl’s entrance into the romantic, premarital arena is the

“quinceañera.” At her 15th birthday, parents and relatives host this elaborate party, which

includes a religious ceremony, a dinner, and a dance for 100 to 500 people. Protocol demands

formal dress for the girl and her escort, and 14 other couples. The tradition tends to be preserved

among Mexican Americans, and has become an extravagant, lavish affair for Cubans in Miami.

As an initiation rite, the “quinceañera” bears some similarity to the American tradition of the

debutante ball or “sweet 16” party, but its celebration is common among all Latino social class

levels. Because of the expenditure involved, large family celebrations may be financed

collectively. Sometimes this is the case of the “quinceañera” but it could occur also at the time

of a wedding or a funeral.

The Latino wedding itself (the “casamiento”) is a colorful and joyous, collective

celebration. From working-class to upper-class settings, a “casamiento” is an elaborate church

and dinner affair with formal attire and hundreds of guests. When the nuclear family cannot

afford everything, many adult relatives and family friends become financially and instrumentally

responsible for various aspects of the wedding: godparents of “cojines” put the pillows to lean at

5
the altar, godparents of “flores” buy flower arrangements, and godparents of “pasteles” provide

the cakes and sweets. Grown and more acculturated offspring may protest, often to save their

families huge debts, but parents often insist on an elaborate celebration.

In Francis Ford Coppola’s film Mi Familia (1994), José Sánchez’s daughter gets married

22 years after he came on foot from his small town in northern Mexico to Los Angeles,

California. Although he and his wife work very hard to make a modest living for their six

children, they throw a magnificent “casamiento” with “mariachis” (Mexican musicians), lavish

food, beautiful dresses, and joyous dancing. One of Jose’s sons later recalls that it took his father

years to recover from the party’s debt, but still he said: “Father had to show the world how much

his daughter meant to him… that is what money is for!” (Falicov, 1998)

The collectivistic conception of money is also reflected in another crucial aspect of

Latino culture: the structure of gifts and loans provided to relatives at short distance in this

country and more long distance to relatives in the country of origin.

Gifts, Favors, and Loans: Short and Long Distance

Money is a fundamental “glue” that holds the Latino family together and maintains bonds

for life. It allows families to reinforce bonds that keep the elderly, grown children, and other

relatives closer to home. Gifts, favors, and loans are viewed as part of life and not perceived as

individual weaknesses. The exchange of gifts, favors, or loans applies to all of the extended

family and kin, a manifestation of solidarity and unity. Communication styles express and reflect

the need to preserve harmony and connection in large groups and is also manifested in

communications about money.

Communication Styles- In order to preserve harmony and lessen conflict, collectivistic

cultures favor indirect and covert communications. In more individualistic cultures, there is a

6
desire to assert oneself by being more direct (Cisneros, 1995). Often, among Latinos, potentially

tense communications take place through the use of humor and/or parables. For example,

Cuban’s use of “choteo” (humor) takes the form of exaggerations, jokes, or satire to reduce

tension in interpersonal conflicts. Teasing is a form of deflecting anger and using indirect irony

or sarcasm. Likewise in collectivistic cultures bonds are reinforced by positive emotional

expression which are valued through words of endearment, affection, and compliments (Falicov,

1998).

In order to minimize their request for material or financial help, or any sense of shame or

failure that may be involved, Latinos use indirect communication, or emotionally charged

language. For example, they may ask for a “little favor” a “little assistance,” or “me da pena”

meaning “I am embarrassed to have to ask.” They may also refer to the financial situation as a

“slight problem.” In other cases, emotional language is used in making the request such as “you

will save my life,” “I will be forever grateful to you,” and “God will reward your generosity of

spirit.” These emotional overtures provide a sense of bonding between the individuals. If the

borrowing is very prolonged or excessive, indirect language may also be used to convey

displeasure or resentment.

There are informal and articulated principles behind the giving of loans, gifts, and other

forms of help. In order to understand Latino immigrants, one of them that maybe particularly

important to take into account, are variables that relate to various forms of closeness-distance.

Closeness-Distance Variables- According to Lomnitz & Lizaur (1987), there are several

factors that influence the frequency and intensity of financial exchanges between Latinos. These

include physical distance, genealogical distance, economic distance, age difference, and

ideological difference. All of these factors contribute to determining the level of “confianza” or

trust that influence the type of financial exchanges among extended kin.

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 In terms of physical distance, if extended kin live close to each other, there is more

opportunity to share material and financial resources on a frequent basis. However, distance can

also promote financial exchanges. For example, Latino immigrants in the United States often

send money back to their families and feel that it would be disgraceful not to do so. During the

initial stages of migration, children are often left with grandparents due to the burden of

establishing financial stability in a new country. Additionally, there maybe a need for

immigrants to send small children or troubled adolescents back to their native country during

difficult times. Thus, exchanges may become mutually beneficial.

For many Latinos, the emotional investment and even the hope of returning home never

go away. Many Latino immigrants send money home to rebuild communities and provide funds

for education, food and shelter (Rouse, 1992). For example, Ainslie (1998) quoting a New York

Times article of December 1996, describes a small Mexican rural village called Tehuixtla in the

state of Puebla. Most of the immigrants left Tehuixtla due to water shortages and economic

necessity and now reside in New York, Los Angeles, and Houston. These three expatriate

groups have collaborated to raise funds through a variety of means (dances, car washes, and fund

drives) to help community survival in the hopes of returning. They have even consulted a “water

witch” to help locate a new water source for the town.

It is also extremely common to maintain the virtual extended family through sending

financial support for elderly parents left behind in the countries of origin. Sue & Sue (1990)

discussed a clinical referral where a young Spanish-speaking Mexican American, Jose´, was

extremely stressed about sending money to his parents in Mexico. Jose´ wanted to get married,

but this would necessitate his sending less money to his parents. Jose´ considered sending this

money an inescapable duty and obligation and if he was unable to do so, he would be committing

a sin. With emotional support and short-term counseling through his priest, Jose´ was able to get

8
married and resolve the issue of sending less money to his parents. In this particular example,

the tension engendered by the cultural clash of contractory family ideologies was resolved

through by the forgiveness of religion as a resource.

Genealogical distance refers to the closeness of biological ties. Based on kin bonds,

there is an implied group set of rights and/or entitlements. The closer the biological tie, the more

entitled one is to gifts and/or favors. However, ties may be very close between children and non-

biological kin, such as godparents. Among traditional Latino families, godparents have financial

obligations as well as substitute parenting responsibilities, if needed. (Coontz, 1992; Falicov,

1998).

The more economic prosperity, the more power a relative has in the relationship, and this

creates social and economic distance. A hierarchy is established where a richer relative may lend

money only while maintaining limited social interactions with the poorer relative. Age

differences as markers within three-generational families also influence interactions among

Latinos perhaps to a larger extent than among Anglo-Americans. Respect and authority are

attributed to one’s age in Latino culture. There is a sense of duty toward the elderly within the

extended family structure. Younger relatives will financially assist older relatives such as an

older aunt or uncle, including housing them in their own homes even if the emotional connection

is tenuous or conflicted. Of course, this is also true to some extent for many other cultures,

including Anglo-Americans when it comes to their own parents, but perhaps there is a greater

sense of obligation and guilt among Latinos that contributes to a less defined physical and

emotional boundary between the generations in the extended group. Lomnitz & Lizaur (1987)

also mentioned ideological differences in education and political belief systems as influences in

financial exchanges. Conflicts in these areas create more distance in relationships resulting in

less economic, emotional, and interpersonal interchange.

9
 Through an elaborate set of implicit norms, gifts, favors and loans are a powerful

reinforcer of family connectedness for Latinos throughout the life cycle. For Anglo-American

families, each generation has prospered on their own, independent from family help and

achieved greater prosperity than their parents with less of an unquestioned need for such sense of

obligation to the extended family.

Paradoxically, however, the median American family income has not increased since the

1970’s when adjusted for inflation. Therefore, the American dream may not be a reality for many

nuclear family children growing up in today’s economy, and they may not achieve the prosperity

of their parents. In fact, a cultural shift is increasingly taking place where more and more Anglo-

American children will rely on their parents for financial assistance. According to sociologist,

Marcia Millman (Gallagher, 1992), the financial “dependence” of adult children on their parents

is an “unprecedented situation” that may make these families structurally closer to the exchange

systems of Latinos.

Money, Class, and Culture

The world of money is patterned by socioeconomic class as well as by cultural values. A

family’s relationship with money deeply intertwines social class with ethnicity in a variety of

ways. Many Latinos are poor or working class. Poor families, for example Mexican, Puerto

Rican or Central American immigrants, purchase by cash because credit is not available to them.

Moreover, in their country of origin, checking accounts are used much less than cash transactions

for people of all social classes. In this country, poor families will purchase in small quantities at

local markets or convenience stores. Due to lack of resources, these families pay much more for

products and services than middle-class or more affluent ones. The result is a two-tiered system

where the more affluent pay by credit card and/or checks, and the poor pay by cash. Weatherford

10
(1997) refers to this as the cash ghetto economy that applies to all poor people such as Anglo-

Americans, African Americans and Asian Americans, regardless of ethnicity.

Because poor families often do not have bank accounts, a resource was needed in order to

cash checks received from social security, welfare, and/or employers. As a result, check-cashing

establishments developed. After paying the check-processing fee, these families receive even

less money. These same businesses can send money to relatives or pay off debts and offer

services in different languages.

Many poor, working class, or undocumented Latinos receive under-the-table payments

for performed work. Examples include domestic work, household repairs, automobile repairs,

and selling goods on the street. Because these wages are not regulated, Latino immigrants are

often grossly underpaid. This has created an informal economy that operates beyond traditional

financial structures and rules.

Poor people have always saved money in the form of valuable goods that can be easily

pawned or sold such as gold or silver jewelry, watches, and televisions. This behavior is common

across all class lines for immigrants from Mexico, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and other

Latin American countries due to fear of the economic instability in their own countries. Many

individuals may carry large sums of money, sometimes hidden in their clothing, and hide money

at home in jars or containers. Rich Latin Americans may amass large amounts of gold to protect

themselves against the instability of the peso.

For wealthy Latino families (as perhaps for wealthy families everywhere), there is the

tendency toward “familismo” expressed in favoring the hiring of their own children in the family

business or in the businesses of close wealthy friends. In these situations, the grown children

have extremely flexible work conditions, high salaries, and multiple lifetime benefits such as

connection to parental household and shared services or resources.

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 For middle-class and upper-class mainstream Anglo-Americans, the world of money is

electronic. These individuals pay by debit cards, checks, and/or credit cards. They receive

paychecks, transfer money between accounts, and make deposits to retirement accounts all by

electronic methods. The future use of money and the expansion of the Internet will greatly

change the world of money even further in the near future. Money may take the form of e-cash,

cyber cash, or e-money and be used exclusively via electronic methods. (Weatherford, 1997)

However, these new forms of money will require education and access to electronic resources.

Therefore, poor and working class Latinos may be, at least temporarily, locked out of the

cyberspace economy of tomorrow.

Balance of Work and Family Leisure

Work is a universal central organizer of individual and social life and very much part of

culture and class. Material possessions and money have become very important to Latinos in

their own countries and in this country due to the emphasis on consumption related to

globalization in many parts of the world. Consumption among Latinos may not only relate to

self-worth, but also to the quality of family life. Latinos value time with family, and possessions

may be seen as enhancing bonding or simply fit into the family contexts. For example, Latinos

may spend considerable amount of money on a huge television to be watched by everybody in

the living room, rather than spending on two or three smaller televisions to be used in the privacy

of the teenagers’ own rooms.

In terms of the workplace, being treated with respect or “buen trato” by employers and

co-workers is extremely important to Latinos. Rather than valuing status, recognition, and the

next promotion, Latino immigrants are concerned above all with being treated with dignity and

respect. As a result, they may have a much stronger emotional relationship with employers than

12
Anglo-Americans. Perhaps because of language and limited understanding of the workings of

institutions, employers may be regarded as advisors and consulted to help with cultural

transitions such as dealing with school systems or other institutions. Employers may even be

asked for or offer financial assistance through loans, perhaps as a quasi-extended network.

Although Anglo- Americans discuss the importance of family and lament their lack of

time, there is an unquestioned focus on work, while Latinos, possibly Mexicans much more than

Cubans (who have achieved a higher socioeconomic level) worry about sacrificing family leisure

time in the pursuit of economic advance. According to Harvard economist Juliet Schor, “the

average American is now working the equivalent of two months more each year than their

German or French counterparts.” (Carter & Peters, 1996, p. 305). A recent study by a United

Nations agency showed that Americans put in longer hours than workers in any other

industrialized nation (Brooks, 1999), as a consequence they work more hours, have less leisure

time, and less involvement with families.

Religious Beliefs and Money

Because of its importance in Latino history, the Roman Catholic religion is a critical

component in understanding Latino culture and its relationship with money. In addition, other

native traditions such as folk medicine and witchcraft also influence this relationship. For

example, “white witches” (Falicov, 1999) may be consulted to bring success to a new business

enterprise or to locate work. Even the same people often use religious prayer as well.

Cultures differ on the degree to which their people believe that life is or is not under

one’s direct control. This notion has been described in social science as an external or internal

locus of control. (Sue & Sue, 1990). For Latinos, God, fate or destiny is in charge, rather than

solely oneself. Many Latinos will use phrases such as “God will provide,” “God willing,” or

13
“God has willed it.” When Latinos are faced with dire financial circumstances, their attitude is

often one of acceptance.

During difficult times, faith and prayer provide a reliable source of support and strength

for Latino families. The practice of prayer and religious traditions provides coping skills during

times of stress. When political action is not possible and self-determination is limited, placing

oneself under the protection of benevolent and powerful spirits may help counteract fear,

powerlessness, and lack of agency (Lechner, 1992; Comaz-Diaz, 1995). Therefore, it is unclear

whether an external locus of control is related to ethnicity or to socioeconomic class (Falicov,

1998).

The Protestant work ethic has fostered an internal locus of control and responsibility for

Anglo-Americans who tend to feel a sense of mastery or control over their future destiny. The

internal belief system is one of “if I work hard, I will be rewarded in this life.” For Latinos,

rewards for hard work and a good life may occur in the afterlife, rather than in the present.

These rewards are often beyond one’s control and expressed as “God’s will.”

Because of Catholic religious values, reproduction is very important to Latinos. At least

in theory, marriage is considered for life and often based on procreation. Consequently, the

choice is not between having fewer children and improving one’s standard of living as it is in

nuclear Protestant American families. Rather, until very recently, it was accepted to have as

many children as God allows (“each new child will come with a loaf of bread under their arm”

goes a popular saying) and stretch financial resources in order to provide for a large family. In

contrast, Anglo-American couples base their marriage on the idea of “romantic love” and the

number of children in a family is decided by financial considerations and personal choice about

preferred lifestyle, rather than by God’s will.

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Traditional and Egalitarian Gender Roles

Gender roles are based on a traditional hierarchy in Latino families that may be tied to the

compounding effects of Roman Catholicism in a patriarchal society. Ideally, a man should be

family-oriented, strong, hard working, and brave. The ideal woman is considered to be

submissive, self-sacrificing, and responsible for the household and children. These public roles

are based on a set of values that address the masculine and the feminine ideals among Latinos.

“Machismo,” or the cult of manliness, is a matter of popular and stereotypical parlance while the

counterpart equivalent of the female mystique is described as “Marianismo” or the cult of the

Virgin Mary, roles that in turn are supported by the extended family ideologies. (Falicov, 1992).

Positive aspects of “machismo” include characteristics such as courage, honesty, hard

work, dedication and loyalty to family, and emphasis on the role of father. Primary research

with 105 Latino men stressed the importance of being responsible and providing for the needs of

their children. A successful man was defined as one who works hard to provide for his family,

sacrifices for one’s children, and has a selfless character. (Mirande´, 1997).

On the negative side, many Latino men continue to benefit as a group from the

subordination of women. “Machismo” involves men’s control of money, even at an

unconscious level. The man is publicly in charge of all major financial decisions, and these

decisions may be made without the wife’s knowledge. Although the Latino woman is the keeper

of the home, she may only make small daily decisions and often depends on her husband for an

allowance. As a result, Latino women are often not educated in regard to the conduct of financial

transactions and are ambivalent in their relationship to money (Coria, 1986). In contrast, many

Anglo-American women may have the freedom to be in charge of depositing the husband’s

15
paycheck, make major purchase decisions, manage household bills, and sometimes may even

dispense an allowance to the husband for his own recreational spending.

Even when Latino women work outside the home, they often alternate between a more

assertive role at work and a traditional one at home and have experienced many of the same

obstacles that Anglo-American women encounter in attempting to establish more egalitarian

relationships. (Hochschild, 1989). Latino women’s sense of accomplishment is very tied to

motherhood, and they may postpone accomplishments in career and the workplace resulting in

less personal monetary protection in the case of a divorce.

The process of inheritance in Latino families further demonstrates the inequality of

Latino women in financial decisions. Inheritance in extended families is frequently managed

within a patriarchal system whereby the male siblings are the administrators of the estate, often

to the detriment of their sisters. Mothers may not be included either, and the elder male siblings

tend to benefit the most. This gender split can exist in both poor and rich Latino families.

To be sure, the above gender ideologies do not encompass or describe all Latino families.

Many marital structures may be more egalitarian in nature or a combination of traditional and

egalitarian values. Recent research on Latino families found that gender roles may be more

egalitarian than the stereotype has maintained (Mirande´, 1997). As early as the 1970’s, two

other research studies supported a more egalitarian perspective on decisionmaking for Mexican

migrant farm families in California and a more equal division of household labor in Los Angeles

and San Antonio. (Hawkes & Taylor, 1975; Grebler, Moore, & Guzman, 1970). Similarly,

Anglo-American couple relationships vary between traditional and egalitarian structures as well.

Therefore, there are many different variations of gender roles within both Anglo-American and

Latino couples.

16
 Money has many universal symbolic meanings including power, compensation for

feelings of inadequacy, expressions of love and affection, and social status and success. (Poduska

& Allred, 1990). The balance of gender power in a relationship appears to correlate to money.

Money as Gender Power: According to Carter and Peters (1996), actual earnings

establish the balance of power in a relationship. This is clearly demonstrated by the lack of

value housework has in Anglo-American society. Work in the home is not considered to be as

valuable a contribution to a relationship as outside work that earns a salary (Blumstein &

Schwartz, 1983; Carter & Peters, 1996; Coontz; 1997).

During the 1800’s, housework had a much higher status in the United States because

many of these activities, including making candles, quilts, preserves, and foods provided

additional income for the family as well as necessary goods for survival (Blumstein & Schwartz,

1983). Although many women work in today’s economy, they still perform most of the

household work and child rearing. Women, when they earn less, usually do more of the

housework, again demonstrating that the imbalance of power in a relationship is at least partially

related to money. This relationship between earnings and housework is found among both

Anglo-Americans and Latinos. In research with Chicano families, the husband assumed more of

the household tasks when the incomes of both partners were more balanced (Mirande´, 1997).

When men earn more in a relationship, they tend to dominate and exert their power.

Women with lower earnings or those that work part-time have less decision-making power in

comparison to other women with higher earnings. (Coontz, 1997). However, when American

women earn more, they tend to downplay the difference in salary and share power more

equitably. (Carter & Peters, 1992; Coontz, 1997).

In studies with approximately 200 couples, higher incomes for Anglo-American women

equate to increased autonomy and independence regarding financial matters. In addition, women

17
with higher incomes often keep personal accounts that are limited to their access only.

Additional support for the power of money comes from research regarding cohabiting couples.

In these relationships, women seem to be less conflicted to use money to achieve equal power

(Blumstein & Schwartz, 1983).

Because of the established traditional roles in Latino families, there appears to be less

conflict around the issue of money and power. Publicly, the male has the unquestioned power in

the family. Through the important role of mother and homemaker, women assert a different kind

of emotional or interpersonal influence through relationships, but this should not be confused

with the freedom afforded by monetary power. Furthermore, a man’s place in the hierarchy

needs to be maintained with concrete monetary earnings.

When reality does not fit the traditional gender stereotypes of the Latino male provider

and the female keeper of house and home, conflicts may ensue. For example, if a Latino man

cannot achieve financial stability for his family, he may lose his respect and position of authority

in the family. This may result in more “machismo” or compensatory aggressive dominant

behavior on his part, leading to conflict and misunderstandings in the family (Falicov, 1998). In

many cases, although Latino women have entered the workforce out of necessity, cultural

dissonance in the gender expectations makes the adjustment difficult for both partners.

For example, for Mr. Morales, an immigrant Mexican father, cultural and financial

stressors had led to a weakening of his authority in the family. After several years in this country,

Mr. Morales had been unable to achieve financial stability for his family. To compensate, he

tried to help his wife with the children by asserting his role as the disciplinarian. However, his

adolescent children rebelled against his strictness, leaving him even more ineffective and

frustrated.

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 In another Mexican family, the Reyes, the father’s unemployment had led to a loss of

power and increased conflict with both his wife and son who wanted to drop out of high school

and go to work to support the family monetarily. The father had refused to take jobs where he

was not respected or was abused by his employer. The therapist expressed admiration for the

father’s sacrifice and integrity and referred to these qualities as deserving the“buen trato.”

(dignity and respect in the workplace) he was looking for. She then described the son’s school

refusal and challenge of the father as showing care and concern for the family. Through the use

of reframing both the father and son’s behaviors in positive ways, the therapist was able to

bridge the cultural gap between father and son by appealing to the universal need for reciprocal

filial caring and concern (For more detailed description of these two cases, see Falicov, 1998).

In short, money, earnings, and savings, insofar as they relate to who determines the rules and

makes the major decisions, has a powerful impact on the dynamics of a relationship among

Latinos and Anglo-Americans.

Conclusion

Perhaps the most salient difference between Latinos and Anglo American conceptions and uses

of money is based on different belief systems about the organization of family life, individual

boundaries and the nature or purpose of human interactions. For Latinos, who often live in

emotional or/and physical proximity to the extended family, money, although earned and owned

individually, it is often polled to be used by family members in various ways: to pay for family

ritual celebrations, for gifts, favors, interest-free loans or transnational remittances for relatives

or friends in financial need. Wealthy Latinos, favor hiring their own children and other relatives

in the family business, a situation that offers shared resources and multiple lifetime benefits, but

may at times increase family tensions. This collectivistic view that stresses solidarity and family

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unity is in contrast with middle class Anglo Americans who consider money as an individual

reward for one’s individual hard work. Earnings, in turn, enhance one’s means of self-

expression and allow for greater autonomy among family members, such as young people

leaving family and city, or paying for their own college. Loans are obtained through institutions,

not through relatives, and gifts of favors are modest.

The emphasis on money as a means for enhancing interaction with family or friends is also

manifested in a different rythms of work and leisure. Latinos value time and leisure with family;

money or material possessions are seen as enhancing bonding or fitting into family shared

contexts such as picnics, or watching TV together. Anglo-Americans have increasingly become

more work-oriented and may crave for more individual than family leisure time in their busy

schedules.

Values about gender roles and expectations significantly impact conceptions and uses of

money among Latinos and Anglo-Americans. For both groups patriarchy is the prevalent

ideology and gender power is tied to the superior earnings of the man. However, Latina

women’s identity may be tied closely to the home and motherhood and be less informed about

finances, inheritances or even her rights than the Anglo American housewife who handles the

bank accounts, pays bills or even gives the husband an allowance.

Religious and folk belief systems also play a role. Latino Roman Catholicism may be an

important lens on money matters insofar as fate, destiny or God may be regarded as ultimately

controlling dire circumstances. This is in contrast with the Protestant ethic of Anglo Americans,

which promote taking charge and developing control over one’s future destiny. Likewise, many

Latinos believe in having as many children as God allows and trust that they will find the way to

provide financially. Anglo Americans attempt to control the number of children according to

choice and preferred financial life style, rather than God’s will.

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 In sum, basic ideologies about collectivism and individualism, balance of work and

leisure, traditional and egalitarian marital relationships, and religious beliefs that construct life

circumstances as being more or less under individual control shape and inform diverse attitudes

and uses of money among Latinos and Anglo-Americans.

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