Women and Symbolism: Imagery and Theory

Author(s): Gudrun Schubert

Source: Oxford Art Journal, Vol. 3, No. 1, Women in Art (Apr., 1980), pp. 29-34
Published by: Oxford University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1360176
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 Women and Symbolism: Imagery and Theory

GUDRUN SCHUBERT

"The world is my representation." (Schopenhauer) left hand was a fitting symbol of peace, though her
very slenderness and frailty were deemed not to
In the last ten years, the predominance of femaleaccord with the strong patriotic aspirations of some
contemporary spectators. A variant of this Salon pic-
imagery in late nineteenth-century art, in Europe and
particularly in France, has inspired several thought-ture (Fig. 1) shows an even purer, unclothed figure,
provoking articles. Our attention has been drawn to whose nakedness reminds us of the many classical
the kind of imagery popular with Art Nouveau artistsallegories of Truth which showed very simple female
and designers who showed women as decorative sub- figures with nothing to hide and nothing to disguise.
jects for admiration. Similarly, French Symbolist Paradoxically, therefore, it is this double allusion to
artists' penchant for virgins, fulfilled mothers andfrailty as well as to truth which lends force to the
femmesfatales has been examined. Nevertheless, these image. Puvis' willowy Hope emphasised that, even in
tendencies are treated on the whole in isolation. Too
the midst of the devastation shown in the background,
little reference has been made to contemporary pre-
peace was a very real possibility. In spite of the in-
occupations, especially in philosophy and literature,
itially reserved reception of this picture, its appeal
which, as well as being extremely popular, both in-nevertheless; so much so that the smaller version
grew
spired and in turn reinforced the artists' images. shown
It is here became very well known, appearing in
as well to bear in mind that not only was the overtApril 1896 in L'Estampe moderne and in the Figaro
'content' of art still largely literary and hence an for February 1899. Gauguin, admiring Puvis,
Illustre
awareness of ideas was crucial to artists, but also
kept a photograph of this in his hut in Tahiti and in-
that many, Gauguin for instance, found literary cluded
and a copy of it in the upper left-hand corner of his
philosophical discussions a great help in formulating
Nature morte a L 'Esperance (1901).
their own ideas about art. Schopenhauer, Huysmans Moving away from the image of virginity, woman
and de Gourmont - all acknowledged contributors to of life, as mother, and woman together with
as giver
Symbolist ideas - have a great deal to say aboutchild constitute an equally prevalent, time-honoured
women as well as about art. With the possible excep-
theme. A late nineteenth-century example is Eugene
tion of Baudelaire, this interplay in writers' ideas
Carriere's Motherhood (Fig. 2). It is one of many
tends to be underemphasised and consequently an themes in which the artist uses his own wife
similar
essential link in the understanding of female imagery
and child as models, though their individual identities
is missing. It is one aim of this essay to suggest aare
re-transformed so that they become symbols of the
assessment in the light of this connection. Even so,emotional
by state of Motherhood. Carriere's similar but
solely considering the male artists' imagery and the works included anecdotal details such as toys
earlier
male writers' views only one side of the coin can
andbeflowers, but by 1890-95, the approximate date of
seen. For a more complete appreciation, women's this picture, the absence of such items was generally
self-concepts and attempts at self-determination in the
acknowledged as emphasising the timeless relation-
areas of art and politics for example, also need ship
to bebetween mother and child.
taken into account. It is, therefore, a further aim of
The image of woman as giver of life, however, has
its of
this essay to suggest that a fuller understanding counterpart in the abundance of works at this
female imagery in late nineteenth-century French
period which use female imagery in close association
with death. Odilon Redon creates variations on the
painting can only be reached when all these juxta-
posed elements are considered together. theme of death in his two sets of illustrations to
An examination of a selection of key imagesFlaubert's
in La Tentation de Saint Antoine. In the first
series, dated 1888, Death is represented as a mask
order to determine the extent to which already well-
worn themes recur and in what ways, if any, crowned
their with roses. The version executed a year later
meaning can be seen to change, provides a useful and entitled Death: "Mine irony surpasseth all others. "
point of departure. The various stages in the female
(Fig. 3) retains the death's head and roses but makes
biological life-cycle from virginity to motherhoodthe
withimage even more powerful by also including a
emphasis on sexuality and its consequences provided
female figure on a sprung coil. In what appears to be a
motifs which appeared very frequently and we dream shall state, this figure raises her arm in protest
therefore look at examples of these. against inevitable fatality whilst the tight coil suggests
In the first Salon after the Franco-Prussian war and
inescapable entanglement. Redon was to return fre-
the Commune, Puvis de Chavannes' appropriately quently to the theme of death in his later pastels and
entitled picture Hope was shown. The virginal young
paintings. This particular rendering, however, came
girl, robed in white and holding an olive branch in herto be much imitated. Gauguin was one artist who was

THE OXFORD ART JOURNAL - April 1980 29

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fascinated by the image and used it as the basis for his ployed were by no means isolated examples of esoteric
programme design for Rachilde's play, Madame la ideas but rather ones which were rooted in contem-
Mort. porary culture. This leads us to a second observation
The use of attractive female imagery to suggest which concerns their use of basically well-established
lust, death and destruction was used to great effect by themes. We noticed that in his use of female imagery,
Gustave Moreau in his large painting of Salome dansant, Puvis' Hope does not go beyond already accepted
the sensation of the 1876 Salon. It is a subject regular- iconography, relying on associations of virginity with
ly treated in the previous three centuries and a harm- truth, purity and strength. Nor is Carriere's Mother-
less, light-hearted, only mildly wicked version of it, is hood controversial, since its impact depends on the
Regnault's Salome of 1870. Moreau goes significantly universalising of common experience. Both Puvis and
further while using the same subject, as we can see Carriere use aspects of female biological functioning
from one of his variants (Fig. 4). Here, Salome is a as basic inspiration. In the case of Redon and Moreau
powerfully mysterious, exotic figure distanced from we concluded that traditional iconography had been
the world of the spectator as much by the fantastic extended. Female imagery is used to evoke evil,
architectural setting as by the multitude of symbolic destruction and, contrary to tradition, death. A
features, incorporated in this and other variants of the dichotomy thus arises between straight motherhood/
composition executed by the artist, at this time- virginity, which receives favourable treatment, and
the rather hazy statue of the fertility goddess Diana the sexual attractiveness, divorced from motherhood,
of Ephesus, the crouching black panther etc. Salome which evidently results in undesirable consequences.
herself, perfectly poised in her dance and holding a This limited, polarised use of female imagery in
lotus flower in her right hand, is by no means the painting has its counterpart in contemporary philo-
naive, compliant daughter of Herodias who appears in sophy and literature, and, in the same way that the
the New Testament story. As the hero of Huysmans' iconography can be said to be well-established, so the
novel, A Rebours, was to discover, "she had become in written ideas we shall now consider have been chosen
some way the symbolic deity of indestructible lust, the for their wide-ranging appeal and popularity. Fur-
Goddess of immortal Hystera, the accursed Beauty thermore, the authors chosen have the additional and
exalted above all other beauties ... the monstrous essential advantage of including among their specu-
Beast ...". Moreau's rich sensuality of treatment
lations about women, highly interesting ideas about
emphasises the close association between physical
art. With due regard to these interlinked elements, we
attraction, lust and ultimate destruction suggested shall
byexamine the work of Schopenhauer, Huysmans
the tempting figure of Salome. Since Moreau was and
oneRemy de Gourmont.
of the best-read artists of his period, it wouldDuring be the late seventies and early eighties various
reasonable to suggest possible literary sources for selections
this of Schopenhauer's essays and The World as
theme and its treatment. Flaubert's Salammbo (1862), Will and Idea appeared in French translations and a
was one of his favourite novels and contains an ela- brief, explanatory book about his theories was
borate description of a Carthaginian princess which inproduced by Ribot in 1874. As well as being available
all probability inspired him. Furthermore, he mayin translation, the clear, down-to-earth style of the
also have had one of Baudelaire's sonnets from Les philosopher's own writing assured accessibility. A
Fleurs du Mal in mind (Spleen et Ideal, XXVII). Infurther,
both topical attraction was the repeated assertion
that
these cases the fatal attraction of the female figure the theories had been arrived at from experience:
is of
vital importance. This is also true of Mallarme's this accorded well with current preoccupations with
dramatic poem Herodiade, which he began to write scientific
in experiment and, equally, encouraged the
1864. In his painterly treatment Moreau could there-general reader to identify with the ideas, having
examined his own personal observations by way of
fore be said to echo the lust, lechery and destruction
comparison.
already associated with the literary treatment of His writings were so widely read,
reviewed and discussed that no self-respecting journal
similar subject-matter. Furthermore, the fascination
that this subject-matter held for Moreau inspired could
not fail to provide articles on him. Most generally
only the Salome subjects but also several similar appreciated
vari- were his ideas on pessimism, resignation,
ations on the theme of the fatal, destructive woman.
and atheism and consequent reputation for immoral-
The sensuous, evil temptress combined with ity. other
To artists of the last quarter of the century, how-
mythological and Biblical figures such as Helen ever,
ofhis extreme subjectivism and his ideas on art
Troy, and the small watercolour, Delilah, of the held
samethe greatest appeal. Thus the announcement at
year. the start of The World as Will and Idea that "The world
Having thus considered key examples of femaleis my representation", was a great encouragement to
imagery, we are in a position to make some generalthose Symbolist writers and artists preoccupied with
remarks. Firstly, all the artists considered were well- subjectivity. The same was true of the privileged place
known figures, exhibiting at the Salon and enjoyingoccupied by art in the philosopher's scheme. His ideas
established reputations in their time. This was parti- were discussed and clarified in a whole range of jour-
cularly true of Puvis and Moreau, and perhaps slight- nals, notably in the pages of the Symbolist Revue Wag-
ly less so for Redon and Carriere. Nevertheless, onnerienne. There can be no doubt about the widespread
the whole, it does mean that the images they em-influence of his writing.

30 THE OXFORD ARTJOURNAL - April 1980

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 < Fig. 1. Puvis de Chavannes. 'Hope'. 1872. Oil on canvas,
70. 7 x 82 cms. Louvre, Paris.

Fig. 2. E. Carriere. Motherhood. 1890-95. Oil on canvas,

32.6 x 41 cms. Louvre, Paris. V

Fig. 4. G. Moreau. 'Salome Dancing'. c. 1874-6. Musee

Gustave Moreau, Paris.

Fig. 3. 0. Redon. 'Death: "Mine irony surpasseth all

others". ' 1889. Lithograph, 26 x 19.6 cms. The Art
Institute of Chicago. The Stickney Fund. D

THE OXFORD ARTJOURNAL - April 1980 31

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 One crucial set of ideas, in the present context, Interestingly, though many of the philosopher's id
were those explained in the notorious Essay on Women, filtered through to public consciousness as a result
and by examining these we shall go some way towards Huysmans' work, he himself eventually found t
elucidating what are usually interpretated as miso- theory of resignation too harsh and sought a mo
gynist theories. Schopenhauer starts by asserting that comforting explanation for the world's evils in t
the fundamental raison d'tre of women is the propa- Roman Catholic faith.
gation of the species which "gives their whole life and Remy de Gourmont, however, did not find it
being a certain levity". Not surprisingly therefore, necessary to deviate from his view that Schopen-
"the general bent of their character is in a direction hauer's ideas were irrefutable. His incorporation of
fundamentally different from that of man ...". All them into his own work is, therefore, all the more
women's interests and actions are harnessed in this notable. Like Huysmans, his role in the Symbolist
one pursuit and any evidence to the contrary is movementmere is a crucial one, since he was the most
illusion. Schopenhauer tells us that "neither for
influential literary critic between 1885 and 1915. He
music, nor for poetry, nor for fine art, havewas they
a personal friend of Huysmans, and an important
really and truly any susceptibility: it is mere mockerytheoretician of Symbolism, helping to establish the
if they make a pretence of it in order to assist Mercure
their de France as the leading Symbolist journal. As
endeavour to please". French supporting sourcesHuysmans
in had produced a novel of importance to
the shape of Rousseau and Chamfort are cited. In
Symbolist artists, so de Gourmont, in 1893, wrote the
contrast to women's exclusive involvement with first analysis of Symbolism in L'Idealisme. In it he
instinct and the species, men's sphere consists of to produce a synthesis between German sub-
attempts
reason and the individual. Consequently, if jective
men areidealism, then topical in France, and current
scientific ideas. This may only have been of indirect
taken in by women, their intellects have been'clouded
by sexual impulses. A very far-reaching effectconcern to artists but his relations with them are
of these
separate spheres was the equation of (men's) nevertheless
reason direct and varied: for example,
with permanence and with noumena, whereas L'Idealisme contained a frontispiece by Filiger, his
(women's) instinct was properly situated review,
in the L'Ymagier, was illustrated by Bernard and
Rousseau
transitory realm of illusion. Thus instinct - and this amongst others and Vallotton's woodcuts
includes sexuality - is relegated to the lessergraced
spherehis collection of essays on contemporaries,
Masques. In his own activity as a writer he was not
of illusion and woman, as a fundamentally instinctual
onlyinimportant
being, cannot therefore seriously participate in- but also prolific and popular. His
opinions on the nature of women form a major
tellectual or, by extension, artistic activity.
A notable disciple of Schopenhauer's waselement
the art in his thought and to examine these will
critic and novelist Karl-Joris Huysmans whose 1884
therefore further the purpose of this essay.
work, A Rebours (Against Nature) was generallyInhailed
de Gourmont's early works female characters
as the Bible of Symbolism. At the time with of itsintellectual qualities had appeared, though these
publication Huysmans was already a well-known
gradually faded out in later examples. On the whole,
critic and many artists, noting his novel, used
whilstitrecognising
as women's fundamental importance
inspiration for their own work - Redon and to Mallar-
civilisation, he takes over, in his 1901 collection of
papers
me for example. As the title suggests, much of Chemin de Velour, Schopenhauer's views on the
its im-
essentially opposite characteristics of the sexes. Thus
portance centres around the evils of nature, directly
echoing Schopenhauer's theory of the overwhelming
women's only route to fulfilment in life rests on their
biology
and inescapable 'will'. Since 'will' and instinct arewhich determines a maternal and strictly
virtually identical, woman, through her instinctual
domestic role for them. He considers women as being
nature referred to above, needs to be avoidedclose to nature, far closer than the simplest man could
in spite
of her illusory attractions. Thus the novel's hero, ever be,
Desand considers sensuality as their chief distin-
Esseintes, whilst encountering various femaleguishing charac- characteristic. Echoing Schopenhauer, this
ters, fails to develop any serious involvement.means There that woman is incapable of abstract thought
is considerable emphasis on the illusory nature and necessarily
of precluded from direct participation in
happiness, both with regard to the relations between any spiritual life. Furthermore, when there is an
the sexes and also more generally. It is true that attempt
muchby a woman to enter the sphere of art, it
observation on these lines was already well-estab- merely means that she is making an effort for the sake
lished in the work of the naturalist novelists,ofsuch beingasreunited with the man of her choice. In
Zola, whom Huysmans admired. He had contrast, after all the many spheres of life open to men ensure
already observed and recorded, transforming thatevents
varied routes to fulfilment are open to them. De
from his own, sad life, in En Menage (At Home). Gourmont
But suggests that these opposite spheres, each
he takes these observations further. As we saw above important in its own right, ensures the mutual attrac-
in Des Esseintes' comments on Moreau's Salome, tion of the sexes. He goes so far as to state directly that
whose female charms are felt to have monstrous this attraction and fascination with the opposite is at
consequences, Huysmans develops observations the root of the (male) artists' inspiration, thus leading
about the sadness of life into theories of resignation
to the preponderance of female imagery in art, which
and pessimism directly in line with Schopenhauer. he fully acknowledges.

32 THE OXFORD ARTJOURNAL - April 1980

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 While all these writers' opinions on women, popu- same year there was an exhibition of women's work at
lar as they were, may not appear particularly contro- the Palais de l'Industrie and by 1905, Walter Shaw
versial, or misogynist for that matter, they do have Sparrow's Women Painters of the World included Leonce
interesting implications. By determining what women Benedite's contribution on women painters in France.
are, male opinion was to find itself at variance with Benedite's statements are interesting because his
female self-determination. The contrast between
announced concept of a proper sphere for the woman
men's imagery and opinion and women's aspirations
artist ties in so closely with the wider sphere allotted
to women which we have discussed. He makes a
is a wide one, since women made concerted attempts
liberal concession by declaring that "women a
to extend the limited role outlined for them. We shall
therefore examine some of these attempts in the
proving just now ... that the domain of art should b
sphere of art and politics and thereby point towardsopen to them as freely as it is to men, on the groun
the implications for female imagery in art. of right and reason ...", and then continues b
defining exactly what they should do: "they
Exclusive stress on women's biological role as out-
lined above had not always prevailed, since women specially gifted ... by the phases of their natura
had been acknowledged as important patrons of art, temperament, and by their intelligence to endow ar
not to mention their role as inspirational muse, with the elements of expression and beauty proper
notably so in the eighteenth century. In the period womankind." In spite of this belated welcome to art
under discussion a significant revival of interest women
in had already set up their own organisation
female activity in the arts can be discerned. The Gon-
nor were they necessarily going to be limited to th
court brothers, in Women in the Eighteenth Century, expression of elements deemed appropriate for them
devoted a section to those who were literary figures by
in others.
their own right and patrons of the arts. In the 1890s There is, however, an interesting example of actual
Madame de Stael's works were re-edited and the exclusion of women artists right at the end of the
Symbolist publishing house associated with century, the Mer- when women artists were increasingly active.
cure de France issued L. Marillier's book on the sensi- Sar Peladan, in Rule 17, headed 'Women', for the
bility and imagination of George Sand. And while Order of the Rose + Croix, 1893, states categorically
both these writers were active in an earlier period that "in accordance with magic law no work of any
when women's emancipation had made some strides woman could ever be exhibited" and he seeks to
forward, Lou Andreas Salome's volume of analysis justify this exclusion by explaining his views
on Women in Ibsen looked at near contemporary femin- women artists. Though they were under no circum
ist issues. stances to exhibit with the Order, they could ava
However, a less favourable attitude prevailed themselves of a restricted type of membership whic
towards women's increasing attempts to be active in
debarred them from entering into the honoured, hig
the fine arts. As is well known, women's activity estasspheres of the Order. In any case, they could onl
artists, particularly their chances of exhibiting at do thethis on condition of absolute obedience and in
Salon with the prestige and commissions this entailed, return their reward would be the (sacred) experiences
were seriously hampered by their exclusion from the of birth, child-raising, love and death. Sexual passion
life-drawing classes of predominantly male (establish- in both men and women in the Order, was strongly
ment) academies. This meant that it was much more disapproved of and one of the most important aims of
difficult for them to acquire the skill essential to the the Order was to banish sexual passion, replacing i
execution of the most highly-prized genre, history by abstraction and aesthetic rite. To this end, aspiring
painting. Nevertheless, women were not specifically members of the Order were required to swear "to
excluded from exhibiting at the Salon and many (e.g. keep their hearts pure of sexual love in order to give it
Victoria Dubourg, Louise Abbema) did so in the to lessthe ideal". Ultimately, should such a failing occu
prestigious genres such as flower painting and family at all, the blame was to rest on the woman and Pela-
portraiture. Women apart, there were other groups danof made it clear to female members that if they
artists, such as the Impressionists, who were should ever exercise their powers of perversity by
dissatisfied with the strictures imposed by academic making one of the knights fall in love with them, they
training and a career dominated by Salon exhibiting. would be banished instantly. So we come full circle
Their adopted solution was to organise their own when we see that in this organisation of artists
exhibitions. Women artists also banded together to do women, particularly when their sexuality is divorced
this and from its foundation in 1881 the Union of from maternity, are considered incompatible with th
Women Artists and Sculptors held annual exhibitions pursuit of the ideal, and with art. The sphere of art,
with its own prizes, curiously known as the palmes from which women are effectively excluded, and con-
academiques. sequently that of artists, occupies a brilliantly elevated
This feminine involvement in artistic practice did in Pe'ladan's scheme. He considers it the great
place
not pass unnoticed. Apart from the Goncourt's studymiracle, being the only real truth, and, further, it was
of female patrons of the arts in the previous century,
proof of immortality. Accordingly, the artist wa
this role of muse was extended to that of active partici-
invoked as a priest, a king and a wise man, who must
pant in M. Vachon's 1892 study on La femme not dansbe deflected from purposeful pursuit of the ideal
l'art, les protectrices des arts, les femmes peintres. Inby
thenatural instinct.

THE OXFORD ARTJOURNAL - April 1980 33

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 Having considered some aspects of women's active annual congresses in 1887, probably had the most
attempts at participating in the production of art impact. Attempts at self-determination took the form
themselves, their efforts to gain a measure of recog- of seeking such moderate reforms as the proposal that
nition in the wider sphere of political activity must married women should have control over their own
also be considered. In this sphere the impetus came earnings. The further proposal that women should be
from working-women and working-men. It is no able to testify in civil suits won considerable support
surprise that women's interests came to be reflected in not only from a large proportion of French women but
a variety of political organisations during the latter also among several parties in the Chamber of
half of the century when we consider that the Deputies. By the 1890s women's educational and pro-
industrial female labour force rose from 30% to 38 % fessional activity had increased enormously and by
between 1866 and 1911. Women had taken matters September 1900 when the fourth International
into their own hands as far back as the last years Congress
of the on the Conditions and Rights of Women
Second Empire with the foundation of the Frenchmet in Paris, feminism had become popular and
League for the Rights of Women which, however, fashionable, notably among the educated middle-
class.
failed to awaken significant interest in a nation
The fact that feminism, particularly attempts at
increasingly preoccupied with a fast growing German
self-determination
Empire at its borders. Concern with reorganising life in art and social rights, was
after the defeat of 1870 and the repression which
gaining such ground that it had become an issue of
followed the Paris Commune meant that workingtopicality, throws an interesting light on the views of
writers and the types of female imagery used by
men's assemblies were not active again much before
the late seventies. When the French Workers' artists.
Party There is clearly a discrepancy, since the more
reassembled in 1876, 78 and 79, their concern for the
freedom women actually gain the more restricted the
male image appears to become. We have outlined
growing presence of women in a rapidly developing
capitalist economy was very real. The 'woman
views of women, on the whole exclusively concerned
question' appeared at the head of each agenda and withat women's biological function, and seen that the
the last of these congresses, held in Marseille, power
thereand attraction of female sexuality was feared as
was a call for the complete equality of the sexes an evil
in leading to temptation and destruction.
both private and public life, in order to improve Schopenhauer,
on among the writers, gives the most per-
the traditionally limited familial roles for women.suasive and popular exposition of these ideas. Signifi-
Ideas such as these had formed an essential part of
cantly, he bases his conclusions on observation which,
attempts to elevate the status of women on the part indirectly,
of by allusion to scientific procedures and the
earlier reformers such as Fourier and Saint-Simon. resultant certainties, give his conclusions the aura of
Interestingly, they were, however, not the ideas of the'truth'. At the same time, he repeatedly asserts the
majority of workers in the late seventies and eighties. inviolability of subjectivism which as we remarked
To these people the 'woman question' was earlier, forms the central core of his scheme. In the
understood more in the manner outlined by the light of actual female activity at this period, the view
artisan anarchist Proudhon who defined 'equality' asof women found in the imagery of male artists and the
'equivalence' of the sexes in fundamentally separateideas of male writers can surely be seen as a form of
spheres of life. Courbet's famous posthumous portraitprivate compensation. As Schopenhauer's world is his
of Proudhon working in the circle of his family makesrepresentation, so female imagery reflects, not what
this point very well: the spectator can see that menwomen are, but how they appear to men.
think and organise, children need only play and the
wife/mother does the mending for the family. Courbet
re-worked his composition in 1866-7, painting outBibliographic Note
Mme Proudhon so that the woman is absent but her Jan Thompson 'The Role of Women in the Iconography of Art
presence is signified by a needlework basket. Though Nouveau', Art Journal, Winter 1971/2
an important start in altering women's limitedR. Pincus-Witten 'The Iconography of Symbolist Painting', Art
familial role had been made by socialist thinkers, and Forum, Jan. 1970
French Symbolist Painters, Arts Council exhibition catalogue, 1972
by working men's assemblies concerned with the role Puvis de Chavannes, Grand Palais, Paris, 1977
of women in industry, the rapidly growing middle-A. Schopenhauer 'On Women', Studies in Pessimism, selected and
class feminist movement, which started holding translated by T. Bailey Saunders, London, 1893

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