ESS Hodder
ESS Hodder
ESS Hodder
IB DIPLOMA
Environmental
Systems and Societies
Study and Revision Guide
SECOND EDITION
Andrew Davis
Garrett Nagle
. D
é’ ED%?ATI%EIS
IB
DIPLOMA
Environmental
Systems and Societies
Study and Revision Guide
| Andrew Davis
SECOND EDITION Garrett Nagle
HODDER
‘7 ED%CATION
Dedications
For my family, and with thanks to Danny, Cecilia and Yvonne Chew, Dr Arthur Chung, Dr Chey Vun Khen,
and to all my friends and colleagues in Sabah. This book is dedicated to the memory of Dr Clive Marsh.
A. J. Davis
With thanks to Angela, Rosie, Patrick and Bethany for their continued support, patience and good humour.
G. E. Nagle
Our thanks to So-Shan Au for her help and guidance throughout this project.
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Command terms Vi
Glossary 174
How to use this revision guide
Welcome to the Envivonmental Systems and Societies for the IB Diploma Study and
Revision Guide. This book will help you plan your revision and to work through
it in a methodological way. It follows the Environmental Systems and Societies
(ESS) syllabus topic by topic, with revision and practice questions at the end of
each section to help you check your understanding.
Common mistake
SIGNIFICANT IDEAS Keyword definitions
There are eight topics in the IB ESS These identify typical mistakes that Definitions are provided on the
syllabus, each divided into several sub- students make and explain how you pages where the essential key
topics. Each sub-topic begins with a can avoid them.
terms appear. These key words are
list of ‘Significant ideas’, which are
those that you can be expected
overarching principles that summarise
the content of each section. CASE STUDY to define in exams. A glossary of
these essential terms, highlighted
Parts of the syllabus require you to throughout the text, is given at the
use case studies. Examples are given end of the book.
in the relevant sections of the book.
These tips give advice that will help
you boost your final grade.
You can keep track of your revision by ticking off each sub-topic heading in the
book. There is also a checklist at the end of the book. Use this checklist to record
progress as you revise. Tick each box when you have:
m revised and understood a topic
m tested yourself using the Quick check questions
®m used the Exam practice questions and gone online to check your answers.
Use this book as the cornerstone of your revision. Don’t hesitate to write in it and
personalise your notes. Use a highlighter to identify areas that need further work.
You may find it helpful to add your own notes as you work through each topic.
Paper1
Paper 1 (1 hour) contains short-answer and data-based questions relating to a
previously unseen case study. The total number of marks for this paper is 35.
The case study is contained in a resource booklet, in which you will be given a
range of data in various forms (e.g. maps, photos, diagrams, graphs and tables).
Questions will test your knowledge of the syllabus and your ability to apply this
to the new case study. You are required to answer a series of questions, which can
involve a variety of command terms, by analysing these data. Questions will be
based on the analysis and evaluation of the data in the case study, and all of the
questions are compulsory. The questions test assessment objectives 1, 2 and 3 (for
information on assessment objectives, see pages vii—xi). Remember:
m The size of the boxes provided gives an indication of the length of answer
expected — make sure your answers are concise.
B Look carefully at the number of marks awarded for each question. For example,
if 2 marks are awarded the examiner is looking for two different points.
Paper2
Paper 2 (2 hours) is in two sections: Section A (25 marks) and Section B
(40 marks). Total marks for the paper are therefore 65. The questions test
assessment objectives 1, 2 and 3. Section A contains short-answer and data-based
questions; because this section can cover any aspect of the course, it is essential
that you thoroughly revise the whole syllabus so that you can tackle any questions
that come up. In Section B you must answer two structured essay questions from
a choice of four. Each essay is worth 20 marks. The final part of each essay in
Section B (9 marks) will be marked using mark bands. For good marks in your
essay your response will need to contain:
m substantial evidence of sound knowledge and understanding of ESS issues and
concepts
a wide breadth of statements that show clear knowledge, effectively linked
with each other and to the context of the question
consistently appropriate and precise use of ESS terminology
effective use of relevant, well-explained and original examples, where required
examples that are subjected to well-balanced, insightful analysis
explicit judgements or conclusions that are well supported by evidence
conclusions that include some critical reflection.
Case studies will help you answer Paper 2 essay questions — make sure you have
learned these from the course (examples are given in this book). You should use
your own case studies to answer the essay questions rather than taking ideas from
the resource booklet case study.
You need to plan your time for Paper 2 carefully:
B Do not spend too much time on one of the two sections.
m Plan your time before the exam
m By practising past papers you will be able to work out how much time you need
to take. This will vary from student to student, but here is some general advice:
1 You should be looking to spend less time on Section A (short-answer and
data response) than on Section B (the two essays).
[0 The essays need to be thought about carefully and planned — aim to spend
a minimum of 35 minutes per essay but to move on if you are still on the
first one after 40 minutes.
How to use this revision quide vii
m Choose your essays carefully. Look at all sections of an essay before making
your choices.
B Some students write pages on sections worth only a few marks, and then
run out of time later on. Look carefully at the number of marks available
for each question and adjust the amount of time you spend on that question
accordingly. Writing a plan for your essays will help you.
B There are usually several sections in an essay question — make sure you answer
all parts.
Essays should be subdivided into sections, not written as one long paragraph —
examiners like this because it makes the paper easier to read and mark. Leave at
least one line between sections of an essay for clarity, and note on your scripts if a
continuation sheet has been used.
Assessment objectives
To successfully complete the course, you need to have achieved the following
objectives:
1 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of relevant:
m facts and concepts
m methodologies and techniques
® values and attitudes.
2 Apply this knowledge and understanding in the analysis of:
B explanations, concepts and theories
m data and models
m case studies in unfamiliar contexts
®m arguments and value systems.
3 Evaluate, justify and synthesise, as appropriate:
B explanations, theories and models
B arguments and proposed solutions
® methods of fieldwork and investigation
m cultural viewpoints and value systems.
4 Engage with investigations of environmental and societal issues at the local
and global level through:
m evaluating the political, economic and social contexts of issues
m selecting and applying the appropriate research and practical skills
necessary to carry out investigations
m suggesting collaborative and innovative solutions that demonstrate
awareness and respect for the cultural differences and value systems of
others.
These assessment objectives are examined in the following way:
Which component addresses this
Assessment objectives assessment objective? How is the assessment objective addressed?
1-3 Paper 1 Case study
1-3 Paper 2 Section A: short-answer questions
Section B: two essays (from a choice of four)
1-4 Internal assessment: practical work Individual investigation assessed using mark bands
Command terms
Command terms indicate the depth of treatment required for a given assessment
statement. Objectives 1 and 2 address simpler skills; objectives 3 and 4 and relate
to higher-order skills.
It is essential that you are familiar with these terms, for Papers 1 and 2, so that you
are able to recognise the type and depth of response you are expected to provide.
viii How to use this revision guide
The following tables show examples of all of the command terms, with selected
questions to show how they can be used in exams. ‘Advice for success’ gives you
hints about how to respond to the command term.
B Objective 1
Demonstrate an understanding of information, terminology, concepts,
methodologies and skills with regard to environmental issues.
Term Definition Sample question Advice for success
Define Give the precise meaning of ~ Japanese knotweed can be The glossary in the course guide is a good starting
a word, phrase, concept or described as a pioneer species. point for learning definitions
physical quantity Define the term pioneer species. [1]
(Paper 1, Nov 2012)
Draw Represent by means of a For an ecosystem you have studied, Be prepared to draw diagrams in both Papers 1 and 2;
labelled, accurate diagram draw a food chain of at least four your answer will be electronically scanned, so draw
or graph, using a pencil named species. [1] the diagram or graph clearly and create labels that
(Paper 1, May 2011) can be easily read
A ruler (straight edge) should be used for straight lines
Diagrams should be drawn to scale
Graphs should have points correctly plotted (if
appropriate) and joined by a straight line or smooth
curve
Label Add labels to a diagram Label a point on Figure 5 to show You need to be precise — in this case, the power
the likely location of the power station must be on the land!
station responsible for the thermal
pollution of local waters. [1]
(Paper 1, Nov 2012)
List Give a sequence of List three types of solid domestic A list is likely to consist of just a few words — you will
brief answers, with no waste. [1] not gain any credit for an explanation or a detailed
explanation (Paper 1, May 2010) description
Measure Obtain a value for a Measure the decrease in the Use the scale to measure the extent of the decline
quantity thickness of the ice sheet on the
south coast of Greenland between
1950 and 2010. [1]
State Give a specific name, State the term for the pattern of The answer is likely to be short as well as specific
value or other brief answer vegetation shown in Figure 1. [1]
without explanation or (Paper 1, Nov 2012)
calculation
How to use this revision quide ix
B Objective 2
Apply and use information, terminology, concepts, methodologies and skills with
regard to environmental issues.
Apply Use an idea, equation, Apply Simpson'’s diversity index to The formula for Simpson’s diversity
principle, theory or law in work out the diversity of species in the index will be supplied and does not
relation to a given problem or woodland ecosystem. [2] need to be memorised
issue
Calculate Obtain a numerical answer, Calculate the percentage increase in grain ~ You should include all the steps
showing the relevant stages of ~ production between 1967 and 2005. [1] involved in calculating the answer
working (Paper 1, Nov 2012) The final response should be made
clear and have appropriate units
where applicable
Describe Give a detailed account Describe one other system where human Be guided by the number of marks
activities have created environmental assigned to the question; more
problems through a positive feedback marks require a more detailed
system and explain how the system can be description
brought back to balance. [8]
(Paper 2, Nov 2012)
Distinguish Make clear the differences Distinguish between negative feedback In this type of question it is
between two or more concepts and positive feedback. [2] essential that you emphasise
or items (Paper 1, May 2010) the differences between the two
concepts — it is not acceptable to
just define the two terms/give two
separate descriptions
Estimate Obtain an approximate value Estimate the area covered by national Use the scale on the map and your
parks in Borneo. [1] ruler to work out an approximate
value
You do not need to spend a lot of
time measuring round curves
|dentify Provide an answer from a Identify two limiting factors affecting the ~ Only a very brief answer is needed
number of possibilities vegetation in the alpine meadows. [2] here
(Paper 1, Nov 2012)
Outline Give a brief account or Outline two problems caused by the use Two negative impacts of the use
summary of herbicides to control invasive species of herbicides must be described
such as Japanese knotweed. [2] briefly
(Paper 1, Nov 2012)
How to use this revision guide
B Objectives 3 and 4
Synthesise, analyse and evaluate research questions, hypotheses, methods and
scientific explanations with regard to environmental issues.
Using a holistic approach, make reasoned and balanced judgements using
appropriate economic, historical, cultural, socio-political and scientific sources.
Articulate and justify a personal viewpoint on environmental issues with reasoned
argument while appreciating alternative viewpoints, including the perceptions of
different cultures.
Suggest Propose a solution, hypothesis ~ Suggest one way in which the The term ‘suggest’ is used when there are
or other possible answer pattern of vegetation shown in several possible answers and you may have
Figure 1 might change as a result to give reasons or a judgement
of global warming. [1]
(Paper 1, Nov 2012)
To what extent Consider the merits or otherwise To what extent is an isolated Opinions and conclusions should be
of an argument or concept system a useful hypothetical presented clearly and supported with
concept? [3] appropriate evidence and sound argument
Xii How to use this revision guide
week to go
Aim to fit in at least one more timed practice of entire past papers,
comparing your work closely with the mark scheme.
Examine the checklist carefully to make sure you haven't missed any
of the topics.
Tackle any final problems by getting help from your teacher or
talking them over with a friend.
e There is a wide spectrum of EVSs, each with its own premises and
implications.
Each of these:
m resulted in the creation of environmental pressure groups, both local and global
m promoted the concept of stewardship
® increased media coverage, which raised public awareness (Figure 1.2).
Attitudes towards the environment change over time:
® When a new resource or product is first developed, people are more likely to
see benefits than potential problems, which emerge later (e.g. the car).
m Key events prompt change (see above).
® Environmental pressure groups help to raise awareness by distributing leaflets
and staging events (e.g. Greenpeace). Figure 1.2 Literature on ecological
®m Environmental attitudes can become politically mainstream when economic issues has influenced the
consequences of pollution are seen (e.g. the Stern report on global warming). environmental movement
m School curricula can reflect and promote changing attitudes.
Changing technologies can help to spread new attitudes (e.g. the internet).
B QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS
® International organisations (e.g. the United Nations Environment Programme
— UNEDP) can raise the profile of environmental issues through conferences. 1 Describe the role of any four
These can set targets that take effect through national government strategies named historical influences in
(e.g. Agenda 21 — page 82). the environmental movement.
2 Outline how major landmarks
have influenced public perception
Common mistake of environmental issues.
There is a tendency in exams to write over-long answers. If you are asked, 3 Describe how attitudes towards
for example, to describe the role of historical influences in the environmental the environment can change
movement, make sure that you give a detailed account appropriate to the over time.
number of marks awarded. If 2 marks are awarded then two different points, no
more, are needed.
Social systems
Environmental value systems (Figure 1.3), like all systems, have inputs and outputs:
m Outputs of an environmental system are determined by processing the inputs.
m Outputs can be modified by personal characteristics (e.g. age, gender, strong- Keyword definitions
willed vs compliant, optimistic vs pessimistic) and emotions.
Ecosystem — A community and
the physical environment with
Inputs Outputs which it interacts.
Social system — People, groups and
Education _
Perspectives institutions that work together,
Cultural influences _ forming distinct patterns and
I Environmental value Appraisal relationships that define the
Social influences Py
‘ ‘ 4 Decisions society.
The media (e.g. film, TV)
Action
Religion
Environmental value systems work within social systems. Both social systems and
ecosystems exist at different scales, and have common features such as feedback
and equilibrium.
Storage | Ideas and beliefs Biomass; the atmosphere; soils; lakes, rivers, sea
Producers | People responsible for new input (e.g. ideas, books, films) Plants, algae and some bacteria
Consumers Absorb and process new input (e.g. ideas, food, material possessions) Consume other organisms
1.1 Environmental value systems
and leisure
lack faith in modern, large-scale technology
O00
Specific groups representing different EVSs lie on the spectrum from ecocentrism
through to technocentrism, with deep ecologists and cornucopians at opposite
ends of the environmental values system continuum (Table 1.2).
Table 1.2 Comparing the environmental value systems of deep ecologists
and cornucopians
Strengths Limitations
Ecocentrism Approaches are more sustainable Conservation can be costly, with little economic return
Responses aim to minimise impact on the environment by May be unpopular with countries seeking economic
encouraging restraint development
Promotes methods more in harmony with natural systems May hinder economic growth and development
Does not have to wait for technological developments to Requires individual change, which can be difficult to
occur encourage
Raises general environmental awareness in communities
Technocentrism Provides alternatives that don't inconvenience people Technological solutions may give rise to further
Substitutes materials and so avoids costly industrial environmental problems
change Substituting does not solve the problem of
Allows economic, social and technological development consumerism
to continue Allows for greater resource consumption
High costs
1.1 Environmental value systems 5
Describe and evaluate ecocentric and technocentric responses to eutrophication. A question may ask you to discuss
two contrasting environmental
ECOCENTRIC problems. The contrast can be one of
cause or scale. If you do not pick two
* Encourage methods that are in balance with natural systems — for example,
very different environmental issues
use animal dung on agricultural fields or crop rotation, so that less or no
you will lose marks. Appropriate
fertiliser is needed.
contrasting issues would be, for
* Encourage people to use less detergent through educational campaigns example, climate change and
to promote more environmentally friendly detergent (i.e. zero or low biodiversity loss.
phosphate).
* Plant a buffer zone between fields and water courses to absorb any runoff
from fields treated with fertiliser. (e LTg Rl
cornucopian.
Worked example
Compare the attitudes of two named contrasting societies towards the natural environment, and discuss the consequences
of these attitudes to the way in which natural resources are used.
Example used: indigenous farmers using shifting cultivation in the Amazonian rainforest in Brazil, and city dwellers in
Brasilia.
INDIGENOUS FARMERS
» Natural resources are used in a way that minimises impact on the environment.
Attitudes can broadly be termed ‘ecocentric’ (see details in Table 1.3).
Lifestyles and practices are compatible with the forest in which they live — using forest materials to make their homes and
canoes, and for medicines.
* Use farming methods that mimic forest structure, for example by maintaining the layered structure of rainforest to
protect ground crops from the Sun and heavy downpours.
* Only return to farmed sites after around 50 years to allow soil fertility to be restored.
* They are animists and recognise the spiritual role of the forest, which leads to respect for trees and other species.
* Overall they are less destructive and have a closer connection between social systems and ecological systems.
Culture
Friends | Parents
L [soaal . . . . . . . . . . .J1 e roe
an be . :
changed? Politics-"".'"fluf-"ces;i\ Economic Gender
\ position
Who is ‘
responsible? Behaviour /Technocentrlc response
(e.q.
governments or (e.g. action/no action)
individuals?)
Ecocentric response
Expert tip
The course requires you to reflect on where you stand on the spectrum of
environmental value systems, and to develop your own EVS. You need to be
able to justify your decisions on environmental issues based on your EVS, and
Expert tip
consider how your viewpoint relates to all the environmental issues that you
study throughout the course, such as population control, resource exploitation, EVSs are individual; there is no
sustainable development and climate change. ‘wrong" EVS.
Intrinsic value
Natural systems have different values. Humans gain value from goods and services
provided by ecosystems (Chapter 8, page 154-5), most often by people visiting or
residing in the ecosystem. Value also can come from ecosystems from harvesting
Keyword definition
food products, timber for fuel or housing, medicinal products and hunting animals
for food and clothing. Natural systems also have intrinsic value Intrinsic value — A characteristic
of a natural system that has an
Different EVSs ascribe different intrinsic values to components of the biosphere inherent worth, irrespective of
(the living part of the Earth). economic considerations, such as
Ecological values have no formal market price: soil erosion control, nitrogen the belief that all life on Earth has
fixation and photosynthesis are all essential for human existence but have no a right to exist.
direct monetary value, although some estimates have been made.
Ecosystems that are valued on intrinsic grounds may not provide identifiable
goods or services, and so remain un-priced or undervalued from an economic S TTg &[]
viewpoint.
How can we quantify values such as
There are many examples of places or ecosystems that have an important national intrinsic value, which are inherently
identity — for example, Mount Fuji in Japan or Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania. qualitative? Have an example ready
Uluru (Ayers Rock) in Australia has great spiritual value for the Aboriginal - such as Mount Fuji or Uluru - to
population. Such areas or ecosystems have intrinsic value from an ethical, support any statements that you
spiritual or philosophical perspective, and are valued regardless of their potential make about the intrinsic value of
use to humans. nature in an examination.
Intrinsic values may vary between different EVSs (see the worked example on
page 6). They include values based on culture, aesthetics and bequest significance
(i.e. their value to children and grandchildren).
EXAM PRACTICE
1 Identify three landmarks in the development of the o
modern environmental movement, and justify why
each one was significant. [9]
2 Compare the characteristics of ecosystems and
social systems. [5]
3 Compare the likely views of a deep ecologist and a
cornucopian on the exploitation of coal reserves
in an undisturbed ecosystem. (5]
4 Outline the arguments that might be given for
preserving biodiversity by a deep ecologist and an
environmental manager. (4]
5 Justify your personal viewpoint of the environmental
issue shown in the photograph (right), which shows
deforestation in a tropical rainforest. (6]
Topic 1 Foundations of environmental systems and societies
Sustainability
el
TeI 114 Social
systems systems
Runoff and
groundwater A systems approach should be taken
Figure 1.7 A diagram of an ocean
o
—_— for all the topics covered in the ESS
system, with flows into and out
course.
from the storage (the ocean)
Common mistake
If you are asked to construct a diagram of a system, do not draw a picture. This
reduces the time available for completing the question. You are expected to draw
diagrams with boxes and arrows, representing storages and flows. Draw bold,
clear, well-labelled diagrams.
1.2 Systems and models 9
Biomass
/ Precipitation
Weathering
and erosion (e ITa il
If a question gives data on the size
Leaching of the flows or storages, you are
Runoff expected to show these on diagrams
either by drawing boxes and arrows
Figure 1.8 Diagram showing a nutrient model for a rainforest ecosystem.
proportionally, or by including
The size of the boxes represents the amount of nutrients stored, and the numbers.
S TTg il
When drawing a diagram, include processes on the input and output arrows to
show the transfers (blue arrows in Figure 1.8) and transformations (red arrows in
Figure 1.8) taking place.
Strengths Limitations
e They simplify complex systems and allow predictions to be They might not be accurate and can be too simple.
made. They rely on the level of expertise of the people making them.
e Inputs can be changed to see their effects and outputs, Different people can interpret them in different ways.
without having to wait for real events.
They may be used politically.
e Results can be shown to other scientists and to the public. They depend on the quality of the data that go into the inputs.
Models are easier to understand than detailed information
about the whole system. Different models can show different outputs even if they are given
the same data.
Keyword definition
Model — A simplified version of a system. It shows the flows and storages as
well as the structure and workings.
Expert tip
You need to be able to evaluate the use of models as a tool in a given situation,
for example, climate change predictions.
1.3 Energy and equilibria 1
Systems can have stable or unstable equilibrium (see Figures 1.10, 1.11, 1.12 and 1.13).
disturbance
System average System
state state state \ /
|-
Y
me Time
Figure 1.10 Steady-state equilibrium. There are Figure 1.11 Stable equilibrium. Disturbance leads to a
continuing inputs and outputs of matter and energy, return to the original equilibrium
but the system as a whole remains in a more-or-less
constant state (for example, a climax ecosystem)
disturbance
System
state
\ (B) e
)
> -~ —TTT Tflrrfi%fi%fimrr > 4
Time st T e
Figure 1.12 Unstable equilibrium. The system moves to a Figure 1.13 Diagrams showing the difference between
new equilibrium following disturbance (A) stable and (B) unstable equilibrium
Keyword definitions
Equilibrium — A state of balance among the components of a system.
Steady-state equilibrium — The condition of an open system in which there
are no changes over the longer term, but in which there may be oscillations
in the very short term. B QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS
Stable equilibrium — The tendency in a system for it to return to a previous 15 Define steady-state equilibrium
equilibrium condition following disturbance. This is in contrast to unstable 16 Explain the differences between
equilibrium, which forms a new equilibrium following disturbance. stable and unstable equilibrium.
Temperature Decreased
increases albedo
Figure 1.14 An example of positive feedback: the Figure 1.15 An example of negative feedback: the
effect of rising temperatures on planetary albedo predator—prey relationship between snowshoe hare
and lynx in the boreal forest of North America
m All feedback links involve time lags.
m Positive feedback tends to amplify change away from equilibrium (Figure 1.16),
whereas negative feedback mechanisms help to maintain stability (Figure 1.17).
1.3 Energy and equilibria 13
Keyword definitions
Feedback — When part of the
output from a system returns as an
input, so as to affect subsequent
outputs.
Positive feedback — Feedback
that increases change; it
promotes deviation away from an
equilibrium.
Negative feedback — Feedback
that tends to counteract any
deviation from equilibrium and
promotes stability.
Albedo — The amount of light
reflected by a surface.
KEY
—— Snowshoe hare
— Lynx
160
120 9
Thousands of hares
40/
0
1850 1875 1900 1925
Year
Expert tip
Use case studies you have studied to illustrate examples of positive and negative
feedback. For example, when discussing climate change you could use: increased
temperatures lead to increased melt of permafrost, increasing release of
methane, increasing temperatures (positive feedback); increased carbon dioxide
leads to increased plant productivity, leading to increased growth, resulting in
reduced carbon dioxide (negative feedback).
Common mistake
The term 'negative’ does not mean that the feedback loop is detrimental to the
environment. Quite the opposite — it usually counteracts deviation away from
steady-state equilibrium.
The term ‘positive’ does not mean that the feedback loop has a constructive
effect on the environment. Positive feedback increases change in a system,
leading to it moving further away from steady-state equilibrium.
14 Topic 1 Foundations of environmental systems and societies
Tipping points
Tipping points occur when there is a dramatic change in the ecological state,
away from equilibrium. They represent points beyond which irreversible change
or damage occurs. Positive feedback loops tend to amplify changes and drive the
Keyword definition
system towards a tipping point where a new equilibrium is adopted (Figures 1.12 Tipping point — A critical
and 1.13B). Such changes are caused by human population growth and associated threshold when even a small
factors (Figure 1.18), such as: change can have dramatic effects
and cause a disproportionately
B resource consumption
large response in the overall
® habitat transformation and fragmentation system.
m energy production and consumption
m climate change.
Percentage of lightly Figure 1.18 Approaching a tipping
- affected ecosystems percentage of Earth's point in the Earth’s biosphere.
g terrestrial ecosystems Light green indicates the fraction
g that show state shifts of Earth’s land within the dynamics
characteristic of the past 11000
years; dark green indicates the
fraction of terrestrial ecosystems
g |
650
million
i cople
pilion 4 g5 that have undergone dramatic state
‘E people peop billion changes; question marks emphasise
that scientists still do not know how
8 illion 9.00 much land would have to be directly
o S billion
—o «n” . transformed by humans before a
o g
3 g e ? tipping point occurs
TB P et s
= o°.. L L .
2 ,+** Critical transition as increased
© emergent global forcings reach
threshold values that rapidly
change all of Earth's ecosystem
L
>S5
2 o
Ecological changes due to agriculture High
All of these factors exceed, in both rate and magnitude, the changes seen in the
most recent global-scale shift in equilibrium at the end of the last ice age. Most
projected tipping points are linked to climate change (Chapter 7).
Increases in CO, levels above a certain value (450 ppm) would lead to increased
global mean temperature, causing melting of the ice sheets and permafrost
(Chapter 7).
Resilience of a system
The resilience of an ecological or social system refers to its tendency to avoid
tipping points, and maintain stability through steady-state equilibrium.
Keyword definition
Diversity and the size of storages within systems can contribute to their resilience Resilience — The tendency of a
and affect the speed of response to change: system to avoid tipping points and
m Large storages and high diversity mean that a system is less likely to reach a maintain stability through steady-
tipping point and move to a new equilibrium. state equilibrium
m Complex ecosystems such as rainforests have complex food webs, which allow
animals and plants many ways to respond to disturbance of the ecosystem (e ITg ]
and thus maintain stability. They also contain long-lived species and dormant
seeds and seedlings that promote steady-state equilibrium. The resilience of a system, ecological
or social, refers to its tendency
m Agricultural crops are monocultures (i.e. containing one species) and so have
to avoid such tipping points and
low diversity and resilience, compared with naturally occurring grasslands.
maintain stability.
1.4 Sustainability 15
Humans can affect the resilience of systems through reducing these storages and
B QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS
diversity.
17 Compare negative and positive
Tropical rainforest has high diversity but disturbance through removal of tree feedback mechanisms.
biomass storages can lower its resilience leading to longer recovery time.
18 Give two examples of negative
Nutrients are locked up in decomposing plant matter on the surface of the
feedback, and two of positive
soil in rainforest, and in rapidly growing plants. When the forest is disturbed, feedback, which are relevant to
nutrients are quickly lost when the leaf layer and topsoil are washed away, and the ESS course.
when tree biomass is harvested.
Fires can affect grasslands and crops. Natural grasslands have high resilience,
because a lot of nutrients are stored below ground in root systems, so after fire
they can recover quickly. Agricultural crops are destroyed by fires because of
their low resilience.
VRS Ve e
7 Sabah is a Malaysian state, located in northern Borneo. The natural
vegetation is tropical rainforest, and coral reef is found around the coast.
Borneo has oil reserves in offshore waters.
a Tourism is an important economic activity in Sabah. Construct a model
(diagram) that demonstrates the range of impacts tourism may have
both directly and indirectly on Sabah ecosystems. [4]
b Define the term negative feedback. [1]
Define the term positive feedback. [1]
Explain why most ecosystems, such as rainforest, are negative
feedback systems. [1]
e With the help of a diagram, describe the circulation of carbon
in Borneo. On your diagram describe at least four storages and
three processes. (7]
a State, giving the reason, why natural systems are never ‘isolated’. (1]
b Draw a flow diagram model to illustrate an example of negative
feedback within an ecosystem. (2]
1.4 Sustainability
SIGNIFICANT IDEAS
All systems can be viewed through the lens of sustainability.
Sustainable development meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Environmental indicators and ecological footprints can be used to assess
sustainability.
Environmental impact assessments (EIAs) play an important role in sustainable
development.
Key:
Items marked * denote goods
Items marked denote services
Items in red are considered to be from
Expert tip
provisioning services
Items in blue are from regulating services You need to be able to discuss the
Items in green denote cultural services value of ecosystem services to a
society.
1.4 Sustainability 17
Not surprisingly, much of the sustainability debate centres on the problem of how
to weigh conflicting values in our treatment of natural capital.
Sustainable development
Revised ».
The term sustainable development was first used and defined in 1987 in Our
Common Future (The Brundtland Report). There are many variations on the
theme of sustainable development — for example, sustainable urban development,
sustainable agricultural development and sustainable economic development.
To an economist, sustainable economic development might suggest economic
growth remaining consistently high whereas for an environmentalist sustainable
economic development might suggest using renewable energy resources to produce
environmentally friendly goods.
Some critics may argue that the evolution of sustainable development has done
little to change the way in which the world works. Others may argue that we are
now increasingly aware of the environmental and social consequences of human
impacts at a local scale and a global scale. Being aware of the inequalities allows us
to plan for a better future.
B In 1972 the Stockholm Declaration (the UN Conference on the Human
Environment) was the first international meeting about the global
environment and development.
m In 1987 the Brundtland Commission defined the term sustainable development.
® In 1992, at the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit Local Agenda 21 statements
were introduced. These were for all levels of government — from national to
local — to help improve the environment.
® In 1997 the Kyoto Protocol introduced attempts to reduce emissions of CO,
® The 2002 Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development focused
on social issues, such as poverty, sanitation and access to water.
® In 2012 the Rio +20 conference claimed that there was a ‘techno fix for every
problem’. In addition, it stated that any agreements would not be legally binding.
18 Topic 1 Foundations of environmental systems and societies
(e LTa Rl
Common mistake
Learn some specific examples of
Students frequently mistake sustainability and sustainable development. sustainable schemes — for example,
Remember, sustainability is the use of global resources at a rate that allows Curitiba (Brazil) has a sustainable
natural regeneration and minimises damage to the environment, whereas transport programme and a ‘green
sustainable development is development that meets current needs without exchange’ whereby residents can
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. exchange waste products for food or
bus tickets.
Common mistake
Many projects that societies undertake appear sustainable. Hydroelectric power B QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS
(HEP) is a good example. However, a huge amount of oil and gas is used in the
22 Define sustainable development
building of dams and transporting materials to the dam site. Moreover, the
country using the dam may well use other non-renewable forms of energy in its 23 What were the main conclusions
‘energy mix'". of the Rio 420 conference?
DA\ R L Ve e
9 Explain the relationship between natural income and sustainability. (3]
10 Distinguish between the terms sustainability and sustainable development.
11 The diagram below shows features of sustainable development.
Economic achievements
|
Sustainable
innovation
Education
Innovation
Infrastructure
Economic policies
(I
EIAs incorporate baseline studies before a development project is undertaken.
They assess the environmental, social and economic impacts of the project,
predicting and evaluating possible impacts and suggesting mitigation strategies for
the project. They are usually followed by an audit and continued monitoring. Each
country or region has different guidance on the use of ElAs.
S TIa R
EIAs provide decision makers with information in order to consider the
environmental impact of a project. There is not necessarily a requirement to
implement an EIA’s proposals, and many socio-economic factors may influence
the decisions made.
Expert tip
Criticisms of EIAs include: the lack of a standard practice or training for
practitioners, the lack of a clear definition of system boundaries and the lack of
inclusion of indirect impacts.
CASE STUDY
LONDON 2012
An EIA was carried out to assess the impacts of the
London 2012 Olympics on the area of east London
where the Olympic Park was to be built. The EIA was
structured to address the environmental effects
resulting from development of the Olympic Park. It
was divided into four phases:
B Olympic and Paralympic Construction, 2007-2011
m the period during the Olympic and Paralympic
Games, 2012
Olympic Legacy Transformation, 2013-2014
Olympic Legacy, 2015-2021.
The environmental effects were assessed for each of these phases against a baseline, which represented the conditions on
the site if the London 2012 Games had not taken place.
The EIA identified the likely impacts of the development and proposed measures to reduce or offset adverse effects
(mitigation measures). For example, during the construction phase, it was predicted that construction traffic would affect
the flow of traffic, air quality, noise levels and the general character of the area around the site.
It was proposed that these problems would be reduced by limiting and controlling times when construction traffic was
active, using a waste management strategy that limited the amount of waste being transported, and using local waterways
to move material on and off the site.
A seven-point scale was used to assess the environmental impacts (Table 1.7):
1 = major adverse
2 = moderate adverse
3 = minor adverse
4 = neutral
5 = minor beneficial
6 = moderate beneficial
7 = major beneficial
Conclusions about environmental impacts assumed that proposed mitigation measures had been put into place.
1.4 Sustainability 21
Table 1.7 The overall assessments of environmental effects, using the seven-point scale
Assessment period
Environmental impact 2007-2011 2012 | 2013-2014 2015-2021
Traffic and transport: 3 2 4 4/5
highways 2/3 3/4 5/6 4/5
public transport 4/5 2/3 6
walking and cycling
Energy: 3 4 6
U
energy infrastructure 4 4 4
B~
energy demand 4 4 4
B
carbon emissions 4 4 5
vl
heat island effect
Socio-economic and community:
O
O
employment B
O
U~
sport and leisure
U1
U
retail
oy
N
culture
Y
Y
U
health
Visual effects
BB oOo
W~
' Soil conditions, groundwater, contamination -
Ao
BN
Water: -
o w
W
water quality
oo
o
o
W
aquatic ecology
Ww
W
hydrology
B~
£
B
flood risk
Terrestrial ecology and nature conservation
w
o
B oW
Air quality 4 4
Overall, by the final stage of the development, all environmental effects were predicted to be neutral or better, with major
benefits for walking and cycling, sport, leisure and culture.
In May 2009 the Olympic Board stated that London 2012 had a clear policy for alleviating the impacts of manufacture,
supply, use and disposal of material for the 2012 Olympic Games. The design of the Olympic Park therefore ensured that the
environmental impacts were minimised.
Ecological footprints
The ecological footprint (EF) of a population is the area of land, in the same
vicinity as the population, that would be required to provide all the population’s
resources and assimilate its wastes. The EF is a useful model for assessing the
demands that human populations make on their environment (Chapter 8).
Keyword definition
Ecological footprint (EF) — The area of land and water required to support
a defined human population at a given standard of living. The measure
takes account of the area required to provide all the resources needed by the
population, and the assimilation of wastes. Expert tip
You need to be able to explain
If the EF is greater than the area available to the population, this is an indication the relationship between EFs and
of unsustainability. sustainability.
22 Topic 1 Foundations of environmental systems and societies
Keyword definition
Pollution — The addition of a substance or an agent to an environment
through human activity, at a rate greater than that at which it can be
rendered harmless by the environment, and which has an appreciable effect
on the organisms in the environment.
dissolving
Acid lakes
and rivers
runoff
vegetation
damaged
by acid rain
vegetation damaged
by acid
Figure 1.19 A systems diagram to show the impact of pollutants:
acid rain and its effects
Type of
‘Source pollution Causes Effects
Agriculture Fertilisers, manure, Spreading fertilisers on fields; runoff of Eutrophication
silage manure and silage
Pesticides Spraying crops Biomagnification and bioaccumulation
Salination Irrigation Accumulation of salts in soils kills plants
Manufacturing Solid waste Disposal of by-products and waste Contaminated land, for example the Lower Lea
industry Valley, London (Olympic Games site, 2012)
Toxic spills and leaks Industrial dumping and accidents Release of toxic substances into the environment
(e.g. methyl isocyanate gas, Bhopal, India)
Domestic waste Solid domestic waste Waste in landfill sites Contamination of groundwater; release of methane
Sewage Waste from toilets; disposable nappies Eutrophication; reduced oxygen in water; disease
Transport Runoff fromroads Oil leakages, road drainage Contamination of groundwater, streams and soils
Energy Sulfur dioxide Burning coal Acid precipitation
Nitrogen oxides Formed from atmospheric nitrogen in vehicles Acid rain, petrochemical smog (tropospheric ozone)
Particulates (PM10s Combustion of fossil fuels Reduced respiratory and heart function
and PM2.5s)
Nuclear waste Radiation leaks Radioactive material escaping into nuclear plant
and surrounding area (e.g. Fukushima-Daiichi, Japan
2011)
Keyword definitions
Point-source pollution — The
release of pollutants from a single,
clearly identifiable site — for
example, a factory chimney or the
waste disposal pipe of a factory into
a river (Figure 1.20).
Non-point-source pollution —
Figure 1.20 Sewage entering a river — an example of point-source pollution The release of pollutants from
numerous, widely dispersed
origins — for example, gases from
the exhaust systems of vehicles or
power plants (Figure 1.21).
S TTa R ]
If the pollution is located at a point
distant from the possible source of
Figure 1.21 A coal-powered power plant. The pollution combines with the pollution, it is possible that many
emission from a variety of sources and is an example of non-point-source potential sources could be involved,
pollution l.e. non-point-source pollution.
24 Topic 1 Foundations of environmental systems and societies
Keyword definitions
Acute pollution — Pollution that produces its effects through a short, intense
exposure. Symptoms are usually experienced within hours.
Chronic pollution — Pollution that produces its effects through low-level,
long-term exposure. Disease symptoms develop up to several decades later.
Acute effects of, for example, air pollution, include asthma attacks; chronic effects
include lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and heart
disease. The acute and chronic effects of exposure to UV light are examined in
Chapter 6 (page 122).
Keyword definitions
Primary pollutant — A pollutant that is active on emission.
Secondary pollutant — A pollutant that arises from a primary pollutant that
has undergone physical or chemical change.
Oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are examples
of primary pollutants, released by motor vehicle exhaust, industrial activity and
chemical solvents. Ground-level ozone is an example of a secondary pollutant For some pollutants there may be a
where NOx and VOC:s react with sunlight to form tropospheric (ground-level) time lag beforg an.appreciable effect
ozone (Chapter 6, page 121). on organisms is evident.
Human activity
producing
pollutant
Expert tip
Using Figure 1.22, you should be able
to show the value and limitations
of each of the three different levels
of intervention. In addition, you
should appreciate the advantages of
employing the earlier strategies over
Release the later ones and the importance
pollutant into of collaboration in the effective
environment management of pollution.
Common mistake
Some pollution can be natural
— volcanic eruptions can cause
acidification and climate change — so
Impact of it is not entirely due to humans.
pollutant on
ecosystem
= Political systems
m Less developed countries are often willing to allow pollution to encourage
local industry — Mexico’s macquiadoras industries are a good example.
B The dumping of toxic waste from MEDCs to LEDC:s is sometimes allowed by
the governments and sometimes it is done illegally — for example in the case of
the Dutch company Trafigura and the dumping of toxic waste in Cote d’Ivoire.
26 Topic 1 Foundations of environmental systems and societies
Lower standards for pollution may encourage industry into certain countries.
Many footwear companies in LEDCs may have dangerously high levels of glue
in the workplace.
(e IIa il
A political blind eye may be turned if the industry is profitable, paying taxes
and creating jobs. When discussing the human factors
LEDC:s often do not have the resources to enforce the laws that they do have that influence pollution management
in place. strategies, real examples should be
used.
Economic systems
Many rich countries have a ‘throwaway’ society and so generate a large amount Common mistake
of waste and pollution.
Although many MEDCs invest in
Increasingly in the richest countries people value a clean and tidy pollution prevention technologies,
environment, so pollution is not tolerated. they still contribute a significant
All three steps of the pollution model are likely to be carried out. proportion of the world’s pollution
In many MEDCs the most common step may be the second as the rich society through travel and transport, and the
might want to keep the pollution-causing industry, but regulate it. import of goods produced for their
Poorer countries often recycle large amounts of waste through informal waste benefit.
pickers — in Cairo, the Zabbaleen waste collectors recycle up to 80% of the
waste they collect.
Many LEDCs can only afford old, polluting equipment and have limited B QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS
resources for technology to clean up pollution. 30 Identify the population group
In some cases UN protocols have not been signed as countries fear they may that recycles up to 80% of the
slow the economy — the USA’s failure to sign up to the Kyoto Protocol is a case waste that it collects.
in point. 31 Suggest why an LEDC might
As countries develop there is a tendency to spend more money on pollution accept waste materials from
prevention. another country.
Keyword definitions
Species — A group of organisms
that interbreed and are capable of
producing fertile offspring.
Population — A group of organisms
of the same species living in the
same area at the same time, and
which are capable of interbreeding.
Keyword definitions
Environmental variable 2
Environmental variable 1
(e.g. temperature)
Diseases are caused by pathogens, which include bacteria, viruses, fungi and
single-celled animals (protozoa). A pathogen may reduce the carrying capacity
of the organism it is infecting (Figure 2.3). Changes in the incidence of the
pathogen, and therefore the disease, can also cause populations to increase and
decrease around the carrying capacity.
Figure 2.4 A lichens is a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and an Figure 2.5 Pitcher plants feed on
alga insects trapped in their highly
adapted leaves (the pitchers)
Predation is when one animal (or sometimes a plant — see Figure 2.5) eats
another animal. The number of prey is reduced by the predator, lowering the
prey’s carrying capacity. The carrying capacity of the predator is affected by the
prey because the number of predators is reduced when prey become fewer (see
predator—prey interactions, Chapter 1, page 13).
Herbivory is when an organism feeds on a plant. The carrying capacity of
herbivores is affected by the quantity of plants they feed on. An area abundant in
plant resources will have a higher carrying capacity for herbivores than an area
that has less plant material.
2.1 Species and populations 31
Population
size
Time
m There is slow initial growth when the population is small (point 1 in Figure 2.6). Expert tip
m With low or reduced limiting factors the population expands exponentially Limiting factors will slow population
into the habitat (point 2). growth as it approaches the carrying
m As apopulation grows then there will be increased competition between the capacity of the system.
individuals of that population for the same limiting factors, i.e. resources.
®m This results in a lower rate of population increase (point 3).
m Population reaches its carrying capacity (see page 29), fluctuating around a set B QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS
point determined by the limiting factors (point 4). 3 Define the term carrying
m Changes in limiting factors cause the population size to increase and decrease. capacity
B Increases and decreases around the carrying capacity are controlled by
4 Explain why populations
negative feedback mechanisms. fluctuate around a set point.
m Plateau phase, where limiting factors restrict the population to its carrying
capacity (point 4). Changes in limiting factors, predation, disease and abiotic
factors cause populations to increase and decrease around the carrying
capacity (K).
Population
: size
B J-populatlon curves
J-population curves show only exponential growth. Growth is initially slow
but becomes increasingly rapid, and does not slow down as population increases
(Figure 2.7). >
Time
m The population is not controlled by limiting factors in the exponential growth Figure 2.7 J-population growth
phase. curve
B After reaching its peak value, the population will suddenly decrease (dotted
line on Figure 2.7).
Populations showing J-shaped curves are controlled by abiotic but not biotic Expert tip
factors. Abiotic factors cause the sudden decrease in the population (the
population crash). S- and J-population curves describe a
generalised response of populations
to a particular set of conditions
B QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS (abiotic and biotic factors).
Photosynthesis (Figures 2.10 and 2.11) is the transformation of light energy into
the chemical energy of organic matter:
m Carbon dioxide, water, chlorophyll and certain visible wavelengths of light
(e.g. red and blue) are used to produce organic matter (glucose) and oxygen.
m The process is controlled by enzymes — warmer conditions increase the rate of
photosynthesis up to an optimum temperature.
light S TIg ]
carbon dioxide water ———————» glucose + oxygen . . .
chlorophyll All organisms respire — bacteria,
protoctists (e.g. algae), fungi, plants
Figure 2.10 The word equation for photosynthesis and animals.
light
6CO,
6H,0
The rainforest food chain in Figure 2.13 contains the following trophic levels:
producer — rainforest understorey leaves
primary consumer — sambar deer (herbivore)
secondary consumer — Borneo python (carn ivore
tertiary consumer — crested serpent eagle (top carnivore
Keyword definition
Ecosystems contain many interconnected food chains that form food webs
Trophic level — The position that
(Figure 2.14). These show the complex feeding relationships that exist among
an organism occupies in a food
species.
chain, or a group of organisms in a
Tertiary consumers community that occupy the same
Crested
position in food chains.
C serpent eagle
o
N ! Expert tip
s | Secondary consumers
U
M Clouded Borneo If asked to draw a food chain,
leopard python you should use specific organisms
E By o e
(e.g. ‘Borneo python’ rather than
R \\“\ f H\‘“x\x
S | Primary consumers M % ~~—_ ‘snake’) from a specific ecosystem
(e.g. ‘Borneo rainforest’ rather than
Sumatran Sambar Red leaf Giant ‘forest’).
Orang-utan rhino deer monkey squirrel
A b4 4
T \ / 2 e
\ s o
/ \ .-'/ r 2
Common mistake
/ ./ 5 //
Fruit Leaves Seeds Arrows in food chains represent
energy flow and always run from left
to right, towards the consumers, not
towards the organisms being eaten
Figure 2.14 A rainforest food web from Borneo, showing trophic levels;
decomposers feed at each trophic level
You do not need to draw pictures of the plants and animals in food chains.
Common mistake
If you are asked to draw a food chain, do not draw a food web, or vice versa.
A food chain is linear, showing energy flow through an ecosystem. A food web
shows the complex interactions between different food chains.
2.2 Communities and ecosystems 35
Strengths Weaknesses
e Asimple method of giving an e They do not take into account the size of
overview of community structure. organisms (page 36).
e Good for comparing changesina e Numbers can be too great to represent
number of individuals over time. accurately.
e Some animals feed at more than one trophic
level (omnivores) and are therefore
difficult to place.
Worked example
Construct a pyramid of numbers from the following data.
» Draw two axes on graph paper — the vertical axis should be located a0 Number of individuals
centrally on the paper (Figure 2.16 — axes are shown as dotted
lines). Lettuce 16
» Data are plotted symmetrically around the vertical axis, for example Slug 10
there are 16 lettuces, and so the vertical bar is drawn with eight
units to the left and eight to the right of the axis. Hedgehog 6
* The height of the bars is arbitrary, but each bar should be the same g5qger
height.
* Label each trophic level.
Badger
Hedgehog
Slug
Lettuce
® Pyramids of biomass
A pyramid of biomass shows the biological mass at each trophic level. Each trophic Common mistake
level is measured in grams of biomass per square metre (gm™) or kilograms per
square metre (kgm ). Biomass can also be measured in units of energy (e.g. Jm ). Units are often not included when
describing pyramids of biomass —
®m Because energy decreases along food chains (second law of thermodynamics) these must not be forgotten (e.g.
biomass decreases along food chains, so pyramids become narrower towards grams of biomass per square metre,
higher trophic levels. gm ).
®m Biomass is measured as dry weight (biological mass minus water).
m Both pyramids of numbers and pyramids of biomass represent storages.
Pyramids of numbers and biomass can be inverted, i.e. narrower at the base than
at the next trophic level:
m If producers, such as an oak tree, are relatively large in size and so few in
number, there will be fewer producers than primary consumers in a food chain
(Figure 2.17).
Sparrowhawk
Thrush
Caterpilla
Oak tree
Figure 2.17 Pyramids of numbers do not take into account the size of
the organisms, and can therefore be inverted
m Data for numbers and biomass pyramids are taken at a point in time. The
biomass of the producers may be less than the consumers that feed on them —
this also leads to the pyramid of biomass being inverted (Figure 2.18).
Expert tip
Mackerel
‘Pyramids of biomass’ refers to a
Sand eel standing crop (a fixed point in time)
Zooplankton and ‘pyramids of productivity’ refer to
the rate of flow of biomass or energy.
Phytoplankton——\—-—‘
M Pyramids of productivity
If data are taken over a full year, the total biomass produced at the producer level will
Expert tip
always be greater than the primary consumer level, and so on through the food chain,
following the second law of thermodynamics. Such data are shown as pyramids of You need to be able to explain
productivity. Pyramids of productivity refer to the flow of energy through trophic the relevance of the laws of
levels and always show a decrease in energy along the food chain (Figure 2.19). thermodynamics to the flow of
energy through ecosystems.
T Heat
Solar Top
insolation
Herbivores Carnivores
carnivores Figure 2.19 Diagram showing the
transfers and transformations
of energy as it flows through an
ecosystem. Arrows showing flows of
energy vary in width, proportional
to the amount of energy being
transferred
Expert tip
(eI g i)
Storages of energy are shown by boxes in energy-flow diagrams (representing
the various trophic levels), and the flows of energy or productivity are shown You need to be able to analyse
as arrows, sometimes of varying widths to indicate differences between the guantitative models of flows of
magnitudes of the different energy flows. energy and matter.
2.2 Communities and ecosystems 37
Pyramids of productivity are the only pyramids that are always pyramid shaped:
m Pyramids of numbers and biomass show the storage in the food chain at a
given time, whereas pyramids of productivity show the rate at which those
storages are being generated.
Productivity is defined by the amount of new biomass created per unit area per
unit time. It is measured in units of flow (e.g. gm™yr™ or Jm™yr™).
Entering solar
S TTg o]
Reflection by
scatter 3% Pathways of energy through an
ecosystem include:
Absorption by
Clouds 19% molecules and dust » conversion of light energy to
chemical energy
17% * transfer of chemical energy from
Ground 9% Clonie one trophic level to another with
varying efficiencies
» overall conversion of ultraviolet
and visible light to heat energy by
an ecosystem
* re-radiation of heat energy to the
atmosphere.
Worked example
) eaten
primary consum » secondary consumer
(caterpillar) (shrew)
T
e
tissue (10)
magine 100 units of energy
being eaten. Only 10 units
get to be tissues; the rest is
lost in respiration and as
waste products.
’Q gas, faeces
and waste (60)
Figure 2.22 Calculating the ecological efficiency for energy flow from a caterpillar to a shrew
12 Explain the differences between photosynthesis and respiration. Use the You need to be able to explain the
terms transfer and transformation in your answer. transfer and transformation of energy
13 Outline the transfers and transformations of energy as it flows through an as it flows through an ecosystem.
ecosystem.
14 Explain the term ecological efficiency.
Expert tip
Make sure you understand the difference between storages and flows of energy:
Expert tip
» Storages of energy are shown as boxes, representing the various trophic levels,
You need to be able to analyse the
and measured as the amount of energy or biomass per unit area.
efficiency of energy transfers through
* Flows of energy or productivity are given as rates (i.e. inclusive of time), for a system.
example Jm day
Keyword definitions
Gross productivity (GP) — The total gain in energy or biomass per unit area
per unit time, which could be through photosynthesis in primary producers
or absorption in consumers.
Net productivity (NP) — The gain in energy or biomass per unit area per
unit time remaining after allowing for respiratory losses (R).
Primary productivity — The gain by producers in energy or biomass per
unit area per unit time. This term could refer to either gross or net primary
productivity.
Secondary productivity — The biomass gained by consumers (heterotrophic
organisms), through feeding and absorption, measured in units of mass or
energy per unit area per unit time.
Productivity is production per unit time. You must include units when defining it.
NPP is the rate at which plants accumulate new biomass. It represents the Expert tip
actual store of energy contained in potential food for consumers. NPP is easier to
calculate than GPP as biomass is simpler to measure than the amount of energy You need to be able to calculate the
values of both GPP and NPP from
fixed into glucose.
given data.
You need to understand the link between sustainable yields and productivity.
42 Topic 2 Ecosystems and ecology
Producers
Decomposers
The cycles shown in Figures 2.26 and 2.27 illustrate the different ways cycles can
be represented.
M Carbon cycle
Storages in the carbon cycle (Figure 2.26) include:
B organic storage — organisms and forests
B inorganic storage — atmosphere, soil, fossil fuels and oceans.
2.3 Flows of energy and matter 43
-
CO2
Carbon in shell fish, coral and
in air and water
Carbon zooplankton. Marine animals use
in fossil fuels, e.g. carbonate ions and calcium to
coal, oil and gas create shells of calcium carbonate
(biomineralisation)
Respiration
Incomplete
decomposition Combustion
and fossilisation in forest Photosynthesis
fires
\
Respiration
Carbon
in saprotrophic
bacte ria and fungi Carbon
in producers
Feeding
Carbon
in consumers
(J
Feeding
Transfers Transformations
® Nitrogen cycle
Storages in the nitrogen cycle (Figure 2.27) include:
B organic storage — organisms
B inorganic storage — soil, fossil fuels, atmosphere and water bodies.
Denitrification
wzlnitrate
Nitrogen A
fixation Oxidation/nitrification
NO,/nitrite
Decomposition Oxidation/
nitrification
Figure 2.27 The nitrogen cycle
44 Topic 2 Ecosystems and ecology
Transfers Transformations
M Nutrient cycles
Nutrient cycles can be drawn as simple diagrams, showing the storages and flows
of nutrients. Figure 2.28 shows the differences in storages and flows of nutrients in
two contrasting ecosystems.
W Matter cycles
Carbon cycle
Human activity has many impacts on the carbon cycle.
Urbanisation
Increases the need for energy and therefore increased use of fossil fuels
(increased combustion — see below).
Leads to decreased land covered by vegetation, reducing photosynthesis.
Increases food requirements, leading to increased land use for agriculture (see
below).
Increased transport of food leads to greater energy requirements and increased
fossil fuel use (see below).
Deforestation
Carbon storages are reduced as trees are removed.
Soil erosion is made worse, leading to the flow of carbon stored in soil into the
rivers.
A reduction in photosynthesis and therefore less carbon dioxide removed from
the atmosphere.
Increase respiration from decomposers feeding on decaying forest residues.
Agriculture
Increased land use for agriculture rather than native ecosystems, altering the
nature of carbon storage.
The carbon storage present in crops is transported to new locations, altering
the carbon cycle on a local and global scale.
Nitrogen cycle
Human impacts on the nitrogen cycle include the following.
Agriculture
Nitrogen fixation via industrial techniques, such as the Haber process, has
significantly increased the amount of global nitrogen fixation, leading to
increased amounts of useable nitrogen in the form of fertilisers.
Application of nitrate fertiliser increases the amount of biologically available
nitrogen in an ecosystem.
Nitrate fertiliser, used to increase crop yield, runs off or leaches into bodies
of waters, such as rivers and lakes, causing eutrophication and disruption to
ecosystems (see pages 100—102).
Eutrophication leads to low oxygen levels in aquatic ecosystems, changing
food-web structure, resulting in habitat degradation.
The addition of nitrogen can lead to changes in biodiversity and species
composition that may lead to changes in overall ecosystem function.
Nitrogen in the biomass of crops is transferred from fields in one area to
markets in other areas. These processes remove nitrogen from the cycle in
46 Topic 2 Ecosystems and ecology
one location and add it to another cycle at a different location. This alters the
nitrogen cycle and can cause disruption to ecosystems.
Waterlogged soils on agricultural land leads to an increase in denitrifying
bacteria, increasing the rate at which nitrogen gas is returned to the
atmosphere.
Deforestation
Trees store nitrogen in the form of amino acids and protein. When trees are
removed, this storage is lost.
Logging increases the amount of atmospheric nitrogen and decreases land-
based storages.
EXAM PRACTICE
3 a Suggest how the differences in the sizes of comparable storages of
the two ecosystems shown in Figure 2.28 (page 44) can be
explained in terms of their different climates. [7]
b Draw a labelled flow diagram showing the flows and storages of
inorganic nitrogen that normally occur within soil. Show on your
diagram how these flows provide a link between the storages of
dead organic matter and biomass. (3]
State two transfers and two transformations in the carbon cycle. (2]
Using a diagram, show how carbon is cycled through an ecosystem. (4]
Ui
Biomes
Biomes are collections of ecosystems sharing similar climatic conditions that
can be grouped into five major classes: aquatic, forest, grassland, desert and
tundra. Each of these classes has characteristic limiting factors, productivity
Keyword definition
and biodiversity. Biome distribution depends on levels of insolation (sunlight),
temperature and precipitation (rainfall). The model in Figure 2.29 shows the Biome — A collection of
relationship between temperature, precipitation and biome. It shows the likely ecosystems sharing similar climatic
stable biomes that are found under specific climatic conditions. conditions — for example, tundra,
tropical rainforest and desert.
Plant growth strongly influences the distribution of different biomes.
Temperat
emperature and d rainfallrainfall are
are two two ofof th. the main limiting
limiting factors
factors thatthat affect
affect plant
plan
growth, and so these abiotic factors can be used to model and predict the (STl ] e)
geographical distribution of different ecosystems around the planet. You need to be able to explain the
distribution, structure, biodiversity
and relative productivity of
contrasting biomes. Climate should
be explained in terms of temperature,
precipitation and insolation only.
DT a R
mean annual temperature (°C)
You need to be able to explain the distributions, structure, biodiversity and You need to be able to analyse data
relative productivity of contrasting biomes. for a range of biomes.
2.4 Biomes, zonation and succession 49
Polar cell
Keyword definition
Latitude — The angular distance
from the equator (north or south
Ferrel cell
of it) as measured from the centre
of the Earth (usually in degrees).
Hadley
cell
Hadley
cell
D Tali]o)
Ferrel cell The tricellular model is made up of
the polar cell, the Ferrel cell in mid-
latitudes and the Hadley cell in the
tropics.
Polar cell
(D ITg ]
The Hadley cell controls weather over the tropics, where the air is warm and
unstable. High levels of insolation at the equator heat up the air. Hot air rises, Downward air movement creates
creating the Hadley cell. high pressure. Upward air movement
creates low pressure and cooling
As hot air rises, it cools and condenses, forming large clouds that lead to the air that leads to increased cloud
heavy rainfall that is characteristic of tropical rainforest. The pressure at the formation and precipitation.
equator is low because air is rising.
The air from the Hadley cell cools as it travels away from the equator, where it
meets air from the Ferrel cell. The cooled air descends at 30° north and south of
the equator. Expert tip
Pressure here is high. The air is dry, and so it is in these locations that the desert The tricellular model of atmospheric
circulation explains the distribution
biome is found.
of precipitation and temperature
Air either returns to the equator at ground level or travels towards the poles as and how they influence structure
warm winds. Where the warm air travelling north and south hits the colder polar and relative productivity of different
winds, at approximately 60° north and south of the equator, it rises because it is terrestrial biomes.
less dense. This creates an area of low pressure.
As the air rises, it cools and condenses, forming clouds. Precipitation results, so
this is where temperate forest biomes are found.
50 Topic 2 Ecosystems and ecology
3N N v e e
8 Explain how different limiting factors will determine productivity in two
contrasting biomes. (4]
9 Explain why productivity in tundra is low. [3]
10 Tropical rainforest has a mean NPP of 2.20kgm-2yr-', and tundra
0.14kgm=2yr . When NPP per kg biomass per year is calculated,
tropical rainforest has a value of 0.049, and tundra a value of 0.233.
Compare and explain these data. (4]
The colour of each semicircle indicates the retracting biome (top for North America, Europe, Asia; bottom for Africa
and New Zealand) and the expanding biome (bottom for North America, Europe, Asia; top for Africa and New Zealand
e
= &
e
ey g
= —_,:Rg:}- ¥ -
e e —
e R
Succession
Changes in the community of organisms frequently cause changes in the physical
environment that allow another community to become established and replace
the former through competition. Often, but not inevitably, the later communities Keyword definition
in such a sequence or sere are more complex than those that appear eatlier. Succession — The orderly
The formation of an ecosystem from, for example, bare rock is called primary process of change over time in a
succession community.
Expert tip
Keyword definitions
You need to be able to describe
Sere — The set of communities that succeeds another over the course of
the process of succession in a given
succession at a given location.
example and explain the general
Pioneer community — The first stage of an ecological succession that patterns of change in communities
contains hardy species able to withstand difficult conditions. undergoing succession. Named
examples of organisms from the
Climax community — A community of organisms that is more or less stable, pioneer, intermediate and climax
and that is in equilibrium with natural environmental conditions such as communities should be provided.
climate. It is the end point of ecological succession.
aquatic plants (e.g. water lilies) — reeds — low woodland species (e.g.willow) S TTg o]
Figure 2.33 Succession in freshwater If you are asked to give an example of
a succession, include organisms from
the pioneer community, the climax
mosses and lichens — grasses and herbs — shrubs (e.g. birch) — woodland
community and the seral stages in
Figure 2.34 Succession in an abandoned quarry between.
Expert tip
You need to be able to distinguish the roles of - and K-selected species in
succession.
2.4 Biomes, zonation and succession 53
r-strategist K-strategist
Table 2.9 Features of an ecosystem at early and late stages during the
process of succession
Climax communities
Climatic and edaphic (soil) factors determine the nature of a climax community.
Climax communities are more stable than earlier seral stages because:
m they contain more complex food webs — this provides more stability because if
one organism goes extinct it can be replaced by another
®m negative feedback mechanisms lead to steady-state equilibrium
m each seral stage helps to create a deeper and more nutrient-rich soil, so
allowing larger plants to grow
B aclimax community is more productive, providing more energy to support
consumers and decomposers
B increased biomass leads to an increased number of niches, which increases
species and genetic diversity, resulting in greater stability.
Zonation
The main biomes display zonation
N )
in relation to latitude and climate.
Plant communities can also Keyword definition
display zonation with altitude on a <+ Snowline Zonation — The arrangement or
mountain (Figure 2.36), or around
patterning of plant communities
the edge of a pond in relation to
or ecosystems into parallel or
soil moisture.
sub-parallel bands in response to
change, over a distance, in some
environmental factor.
CASE STUDY
EXAM PRACTICE TR R
11 Explain the relationship between succession and stability. [6] The concept of succession, occurring
12 a Define the term succession. [1] over
L time, should be carefully
_ S _ distinguished from the concept of
b Explain how diversity changes through a succession. (5] zonation, which refers to a spatial
¢ Using the terms diversity and resilience, outline the effects of pattern. An exam question may ask
disturbance on a named ecosystem. [6] you to distinguish between the two.
13 Compare the strategies that pioneer species and climax community
species are likely to have in terms of specific growth rate, parental
care and competitive advantage. [4]
14 Explain what is meant by the terms ecological succession, pioneer You need to be able to interpret
community and climax community. [6] models or graphs related to
15 Describe and explain how gross primary productivity changes during the succession and zonation.
stages of succession. [6]
16 Distinguish between the terms succession and zonation. (6]
How is it
Abiotic factor measured? Evaluation
Wind speed* Anemometer Gusty conditions can lead to large variations in
(Figure 2.38) data
Temperature Thermometer Problems in data if temperature not taken from
consistent depth
Light Lightmeter Cloud cover changes light intensity, as does
shading from plants or lightmeter operator
Flow velocity* Flowmeter (Figure Readings must be taken from same depth;
2.39) water flow can vary due to rainfall/ice melt
Wave action! Dynamometer Changes in wave strength during a day and over
a monthly period affect results You need to be able to evaluate
Turbidity’ Secchi disc Reflections off water reduce visibility; methods to measure at least three
~measurements are subjective ~ abiotic factors in an ecosystem.
Dissolved oxygen ~ Oxygenmeter Possible contamination from oxygen in air when
using oxygenmeter
Soil moisture® Evaporate water; If soil is too hot when evaporating water, m
soil moisture probes organic content can also burn off You need to be able to evaluate
Type of ecosystem where technique is mainly used: *terrestrial; freshwater; marine; all three sampling strategies.
2.5 Investigating ecosystems 57
Common mistakes
Abiotic factors can vary from day to day and season to season. Electronic data-
loggers overcome many of the limitations shown by abiotic measuring devices: ‘Climate’ and ‘temperature’ are
sometimes used interchangeably.
® They provide continuous data over a long period of time. These terms are not the same: climate
® They make data more representative of the area being sampled. includes rainfall, humidity and wind
® More data can be collected, making results more reliable. speed as well as temperature.
32 |dentify an abiotic factor found in a freshwater ecosystem. Outline how you If you are using sampling methods
would measure this factor. as examples in exam questions, use
specific examples and avoid vague
33 Identify an abiotic factor found in a marine ecosystem. Outline how this answers. If you have been on a field
factor would vary with depth. trip, knowledge of techniques gained
34 |dentify an abiotic factor found in a terrestrial ecosystem. Evaluate the through fieldwork should be used.
technique used to measure this factor.
Worked example
Construct a key for the following animals: spider, beetle, monkey, gibbon,
rhinoceros, eagle, snake, frog, leopard, butterfly, kangaroo and dolphin.
Expert tip
Limitations of keys include:
Keys can also be shown as a diagram,
® The organism might not be in the key. with branches representing each step.
Terminology can be difficult.
There might not be a key available for the organisms under investigation.
Some features cannot be easily established in the field — for example, whether an S TTg o]
animal has a placenta or not, or whether an animal is endothermic or ectothermic. You need to be able to construct
simple identification keys for up to
system
Standardised methods are needed to compare biotic components of ecosystems
with one another. Such studies also allow ecosystems to be monitored and
evaluated over time, and for the effects of human disturbance to be understood.
When carrying out fieldwork you must follow the IB ethical practice guidelines
and IB animal experimentation policy: that is, animals and the environment
should not be harmed during your work.
Expert tip
Sampling strategies may be used
to measure biotic and abiotic
factors and their change in space,
along an environmental gradient
(pages 62-63), over time, through
succession (pages 51-54) or before
and after a human impact (for
example, as part of an EIA - see
Chapter 1, page 19-21).
®m One criticism of the method is that it involves the killing of living organisms (e Ta Rl
(although not all the organisms in an area need to be sampled — see below).
m Problems exist with measuring biomass of very large plants such as trees, and Data from methods for estimating
with roots and underground biomass. biomass can be used to construct
ecological pyramids.
The sample is weighed in a container of known weight. You need to be able to evaluate
The sample is put in a hot oven (80°C). methods for estimating biomass
After a specific length of time the sample is reweighed. at different trophic levels in an
ecosystem.
The sample is put back in the oven.
This is repeated until the same mass is recorded from two successive readings.
No further loss in mass indicates that water is no longer present. Expert tip
Biomass is recorded per unit area (e.g. per metre squared) so that trophic levels can To estimate the biomass of a primary
be compared. Not all organisms in an area need to be sampled: producer, all the vegetation, including
® The mass of one organism, or the average mass of several organisms, is taken. roots, stems and leaves, is collected
within a series of 1m x 1 m quadrats.
®m This mass is multiplied by the total number of organisms to estimate total
The dry weight method is carried out
biomass.
and average biomass calculated.
m This is called an extrapolation technique.
Worked example
The table below contains data from two different habitats. Total number of
species (= 'species richness’) and total number of individuals is the same in each
case. Calculate the diversity of both habitats and comment on the differences
between the habitats.
Simpson’s index must be calculated for each habitat. This can be done using a
table to calculate components of the index:
Numbers Numbers
(n) found in (n) found in
Species habitat X habitat Y
C 10 10(9) = 90 2 2(1)=2
Figure 2.42 Using a point quadrat Figure 2.43 A cross staff being used to relocate
quadrats at regular height intervals along a rocky
shore. This allows zonation on the shore to be studied
2.5 Investigating ecosystems 63
CASE STUDY
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is a broad concept encompassing the total diversity of living systems,
which includes the diversity of species habitat diversity and genetic diversity
Conservation efforts rely on the quantification of biodiversity to provide an
understanding of natural systems and the effect of human activities on them.
Figure 3.1 Cheetahs have a small gene pool - such species are prone to
extinction
Keyword definitions
Biodiversity — The amount of biological or living diversity per unit area.
It includes the concepts of species diversity, habitat diversity and genetic
diversity.
Species — A group of organisms that interbreed and are capable of producing
fertile offspring.
Species diversity — The variety of species per unit area. This includes both
the number of species present and their relative abundance.
Habitat diversity — The range of different habitats in an ecosystem or biome.
. . . . . . Expert tip
Conservation of habitat diversity usually leads to the conservation of species
and genetic diversity. You need to be able to distinguish
Coa , . . . between biodiversity, diversity of
Genetic diversity — The range of genetic material present in a population of species, habitat diversity and genetic
a species. diversity.
Diversity indices
Species diversity in communities is a product of two variables: the number of
species (richness) and their relative proportions (evenness). Species richness in an
area can be high, but diversity low (Figure 3.2). Species diversity is a better measure
of ecosystem quality and health than species richness (see Case study, below).
¢
.
Figure 3.2 Species richness vs species diversity. The species richness is the same in both ecosystems (ecosystem A and
ecosystem B — three species of beetle in each). In ecosystem B, diversity is higher than ecosystem B because evenness
is higher. One species dominates in ecosystem A, indicating a less complex ecosystem
3.1 An introduction to biodiversity 67
Diversity indices, such as Simpson’s index (Chapter 2, pages 60—61), can be used I eR
to describe and compare communities. Diversity indices can be used to assess
hether the i fh 1 . bl You need to be able to comment on
whether the impact of human development on ecosystems is sustainable or not. . .
. g . the relative values of biodiversity data.
When comparing communities that are similar:
m low diversity could indicate pollution, eutrophication or recent colonisation of
) Expert tip
a site
B the number of species present in an area is often indicative of general patterns Diverse communities are ones that
of biodiversity, although disturbed sites often have artificially increased species have high evenness — each species
richness due to the mixing of habitats that are usually spatially separate in is approximately equally abundant,
indicating a complex ecosystem with
undisturbed sites.
lots of niches.
CASE STUDY
BEETLE COMMUNITIES IN BORNEO
Pitfall traps were used to sample dung beetle communities in the tropical
rainforest of Borneo. Pitfalls were made from pots buried in the soil, baited with
primate dung to attract beetles (Figure 3.3). Pitfalls are a method of sampling
mobile populations (see Chapter 2, page 58). Pitfalls were used to collect beetles
in primary (undisturbed) forest by a large river (riverine forest), primary forest
further in the interior, logged forest (areas harvested for timber) and plantation
(one species of tree grown to produce a local crop).
Results from the investigation are shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Results from pitfall trapping of dung beetles in the rainforest of
Sabah, Malaysian Borneo
Species richness is the total number of species collected in each forest type. Diversity was calculated for each location, and
also a dominance index. The dominance index is a measure of the degree to which a few species dominate the community —
high dominance indicates low evenness.
Results show that riverine forest had the highest species richness — this is because it is an area where several habitats meet,
increasing the number of species sampled. This forest had a lower diversity than interior primary forest, due to the dominance
of one species and the corresponding lower evenness.
Logged forest had high species richness but lower diversity compared with undisturbed forest. Logged forest contains a
mixture of species usually separated along environmental gradients in primary forest: riverine species and those found in the
canopy move into logged areas, increasing species richness artificially. The lower species diversity in logged forest indicates
a simplified ecosystem where some species dominate (indicated by a high dominance measure). Plantation forest has the
lowest species richness and also a low diversity, indicating a loss of primary forest species and a much simpler ecosystem
compared with primary rainforest.
Species richness is a poor indicator of habitat disturbance when used on its own. Diversity indices, and measures of
evenness, more clearly show changes to community structure as a result of human impact.
Some think that biodiversity is only seen in animals. This is incorrect — it is a term Pitfall traps can use bait to attract
that can be applied to all living organisms. animals. In the example discussed
Don't forget to include ‘per unit area’ in the definition of biodiversity in the Case study, above, a pot
containing bait hangs vertically from
Species richness (the number of species) is often used incorrectly as an equivalent
a support stick. Air holes in the top
term to species diversity. Species richness is simply the number of species in
of the pot allow the scent of the bait
an area, whereas species diversity also includes the relative abundance of each
out, to attract insects.
species (see pages 60 and 66).
68 Topic 3 Biodiversity and conservation
EXAM PRACTICE
Evolution
Biodiversity arises from evolutionary processes.
Keyword definition
Evolution — The cumulative, gradual change in the genetic characteristics
of successive generations of a species or race of an organism, ultimately
giving rise to species or races different from the common ancestor. Evolution
reflects changes in the genetic composition of a population over time.
® Natural selection
Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution by natural selection
(Figure 3.4). This explained how the Earth’s biodiversity has arisen:
m Populations show variation (i.e. not all individuals are the same).
m Populations always over-reproduce to produce excess offspring.
m Resources, such as food and space, are limited and there are not enough for all
offspring.
m There is competition for resources.
Due to variation within the species, some individuals will be fitter than others.
m Fitter individuals have an advantage and will reproduce more successfully than
individuals who are less fit. Figure 3.4 Charles Darwin published
m The individuals that survive contain genes that give them an adaptive advantage. The Origin of Species in 1859; the
These genes are inherited by offspring and passed on to the next generation. book explained and provided
® Opver time there is a change in the gene pool, which can lead to the formation evidence for the theory of evolution
of new species. by natural selection
3.2 Origins of biodiversity 69
Speciation is the process by which new species form. Natural selection works with
isolating mechanisms to produce new species (see below).
Natural selection contributes to the
evolution of biodiversity over time.
Expert tip
Biological variation arises randomly and can either be beneficial to, damaging to,
or have no impact on, the survival of the individual.
W Reproductive isolation
Reproductive isolation is caused by processes that prevent the members of two
Keyword definitions
different species from producing offspring together. It includes: Isolation — The process by which
two populations become separated
m environmental isolation — the geographic ranges of two species overlap, but by geographical, behavioural,
their niches differ enough to cause reproductive isolation genetic or reproductive factors.
B temporal isolation — two species whose ranges overlap have different times of If gene flow between the two
activity subpopulations is prevented,
m behavioural isolation — courtship rituals (breeding calls, mating dances etc.) new species may evolve. See also
between two species vary, such as in birds of paradise evolution.
B mechanical isolation — physical differences in, for example, reproductive
organs, prevent mating or pollination Speciation — The formation of
B gametic isolation — sperm and ova are incompatible, and will not allow new species when populations of a
fertilisation to take place species become isolated and evolve
differently from other populations.
See also evolution.
70 Topic 3 Biodiversity and conservation
Plate activity
The outer crust and upper mantle (the lithosphere) of the Earth are divided into
many plates that move over the molten part of the mantle (magma).
m Plates move apart, slide against each other or collide.
m Plates move apart at constructive plate margins (Figure 3.6).
m Plates move together at destructive plate margins (Figure 3.7).
m Plates collide at collision plate margins (Figure 3.8).
Figure 3.6 A constructive plate Figure 3.7 A destructive plate Figure 3.8 A collision plate
margin. Continental plates move margin. Crust is subducted margin. Continental plates collide,
apart (e.g. the East African rift valley beneath (forced under) the other leading to increased continental
system, including Lake Tanganyika crust, causing rising magma to plate thickness and eventually
and Lake Victoria). Magma rising form new land (e.g. the Andes of new mountain ranges (e.g. the
from a gap in the crust may create South America) Himalayas, where the Indian plate
new land (e.g. Iceland) is pushed against the Asian plate)
Keyword definition
Plate tectonics — The movement of the eight major and several minor
internally rigid plates of the Earth’s lithosphere in relation to each other and
to the partially mobile asthenosphere below.
You need to be able to explain how plate activity has influenced evolution and
biodiversity.
3.2 Origins of biodiversity 71
CASE STUDY
GALAPAGOS FINCHES
B The Galapagos Islands were created by rising magma from breaks in the crust ('hot spots’).
B \Volcanic islands were formed as a plate moved over the hot spots.
B An ancestral finch colonised the islands from mainland South America.
m Different populations of the finch became isolated on different islands.
B They adapted to the different conditions found on each island (see Figure 3.9).
B Galdpagos finches have undergone speciation to fill many of the niches on these volcanic islands and they now are very
different from the original mainland South American finch.
Ay,%, ®
Y
N .
R @% Woodpecker finch
IS (Camarhynchus pallidus)
Bo
s
Ancestral
o seed-eating _
= a ground WP bI .
Large cactus finch &= finch arbier tnc
(Geospiza conirostris) 20 Certhidea olivacea)
¢ o
_©
Figure 3.9 Speciation in Galapagos finches; this process is known as adaptive radiation
Table 3.2 Past mass extinctions, during which 99% of all species that have ever existed on Earth have been lost
Period Millions of years ago Possible cause of mass extinction Biodiversity loss
Cretaceous—Tertiary 65 Asteroid impact 16% of marine families
or 18% of land vertebrate families
Volcanic activity leading to climate change including dinosaurs
76% of all species
End Triassic 199-214 Volcanic activity leading to climate change 23% of all families
80% of all species
Permian—Triassic 251 Comet/asteroid impact 57% of all families
or 96% of all species
Volcanic activity reducing O, in sea (largest mass extinction)
Late Devonian 364 Global cooling (followed by global warming), 19% of all families
linked to diversification of land plants (less CO 7509, of all species
in atmosphere)
Ordovician—Silurian 439 Sea-level changes due to glacier formation 27% of all families
86% of all species
Past mass extinctions have been caused by natural, physical (abiotic) causes.
Scientists consider that the Earth is currently undergoing a sixth mass extinction Keyword definition
caused by human activities (i.e. biotic causes). The current mass extinction can be Mass extinction — events in
divided into two phases: which 75% of the species on Earth
disappear within a geologically
® Modern humans dispersed to different parts of the world, around 100000 years
short time period, usually between
ago.
a few hundred thousand to a few
® Humans started to grow food using agriculture, around 10000 years ago.
million years.
B Scientists predict that at current rates of extinction the Earth will enter its
sixth mass extinction within the next 300-2000 years.
9 Define the term mass extinction You need to be able to discuss the
causes of mass extinctions.
10 What is the difference between past mass extinctions and the predicted
sixth mass extinction?
EXAM PRACTICE
2 a Define the term species diversity. [1]
b Explain how natural selection can produce new species. (2]
3 State, giving examples, two ways in which an understanding of plate
tectonics has helped to explain patterns of biodiversity. [4]
CASE STUDY
Tropical rainforests are vulnerable to disturbance, with an average of 1.5 hectares (equivalent to a football pitch) lost every
4 seconds. Because they have high biodiversity, many species are affected when they are disturbed. Deforestation and forest
degradation are being caused by demands for:
m timber
m land for cattle to provide beef
B soya and biofuels (e.g. oil palm in Southeast Asia).
Tropical rainforests are found on nutrient-poor soils that are thin and easily eroded once forest is cleared. The time taken for
rainforest to regenerate depends on the level of disturbance:
B Small-scale disturbance, for example from shifting cultivation (pages 110-112), can recover in around 50 years.
m Large areas of cleared land will take longer to grow back (around 4000 years), if at all.
W Areas subject to selective logging methods will regenerate more quickly than areas logged using conventional methods.
Threats to tropical rainforest in the 1970s and 1980s led to the growth of the
Green movement. Green politics is an ideology that places central importance
on ecological and environmental goals, and sustainable development. The Green
movement aims to reduce deforestation and increase reforestation.
3.3 Threats to biodiversity 75
Common mistake
If an exam question asks you to outline factors that make a species prone to
extinction use examples such as those given here: do not talk about general
causes for the loss of biodiversity, for example floods, droughts and volcanic
activity.
76 Topic 3 Biodiversity and conservation
If you are asked to give factors that are used to determine a species’ Red List The Red List classification system has
conservation status, do not talk about human activities such as logging: even several different conservation status
though such activities mean that some species are more vulnerable than others, it categories. You do not need to know
is not a factor that determines Red List status. the definitions of these.
CASE STUDY
THE ELEPHANT BIRD OF MADAGASCAR
Table 3.4 The Sumatran tiger — a species currently critically endangered and heading towards extinction
Sumatran tiger
Critically endangered
Has a small and declining population for the following reasons:
Loss of habitat (tropical rainforest).
It is seen as a danger to humans and livestock and so is hunted.
Fragmentation of its habitat makes breeding difficult.
The high market value of its body parts encourages poaching.
As a top predator its population is small because little energy reaches the top of the pyramid.
The species is only found on one island (Sumatra) and so it is prone to extinction.
A large area is needed to maintain a viable population, but tropical rainforest on the island of
Sumatra is rapidly being cut down.
The small population size leads to low genetic diversity, which leaves the species more prone
to disease.
Top carnivore
You need to be able to discuss the case histories of three different species:
one that has become extinct due to human activity, another that is critically
endangered, and a third species whose conservation status has been improved by
intervention.
78 Topic 3 Biodiversity and conservation
CASE STUDY
THE GOLDEN LION TAMARIN MONKEY
Table 3.5 The golden lion tamarin monkey - a species currently critically endangered but whose conservation
status has been improved by intervention
Conservation status Critically endangered, but conservation status has been improved by intervention
How are they being Numbers in the wild have increased from a low of 400 in the 1970s to around 1000 today.
restored? Captive breeding programmes in zoos (ex situ conservation) have produced numbers that
allow release into the wild.
There are efforts to preserve native forests for in situ conservation, for example Reserva
Biologica de Poyo das Antas, near Rio de Janeiro.
CASE STUDY
BORNEO’S RAINFOREST
Table 3.6 The threats faced by Borneo's rainforest
B Ve e
4 Outline three reasons why tropical rainforests are vulnerable to habitat
destruction. (3]
5 Name a species of plant or animal that has become extinct, and list two
factors that help to explain why that species became extinct. (2]
6 List three characteristics that might make some bird species more prone
to extinction than others. 2]
7 Suggest why more extinctions can be expected on islands than on
continents. [5]
8 With reference to a named ecosystem describe the natural and human
threats it faces and discuss the consequences of this disturbance. [10]
Expert tip
You need to be able to describe the ecological, socio-political and economic
pressures that have caused, or are causing, the degradation of an area of
biological significance, and the consequent threat to biodiversity.
NGO IGO
Speed of Rapid: organisations can make their own decisions Slow: there must be agreement between governments
response
Use of media Use film of activities (e.g. chasing whaling boats) to Professional media liaison officers prepare and read
gain media attention written statements
Diplomatic Unaffected by political considerations Many constraints: cannot make decisions without
constraints Activities can be illegal, although this is discouraged agreement from all parties
Disagreements can cause serious constraints
Political Green politics can establish environmental issues as Direct access to the governments of many countries
influence part of the political process
Enforceability No direct power: must use public opinion to persuade Use international treaties and national or state laws to
governments to act protect the environment, ecosystems and biodiversity
It outlined a series of global priorities for action, while recommending that each
country prepare its own national strategy as a developing plan that would take
into account the conservation of natural resources for long-term human welfare.
The WCS emphasised the importance of making the users of natural resources
become their guardians and recognised that conservation plans can only succeed
with the support and understanding of local communities. It focused on specific
arguments for preserving biodiversity (i.e. socio-economic, genetic resource and
ecological arguments) because:
m these are more universally agreed by people with different environmental
viewpoints
m ethical and aesthetic arguments are more difficult to define and can vary
between different communities
m these arguments are more scientifically verifiable than ethical or aesthetic
arguments
B most influential nations, and those nations involved in drawing up the WCS,
attach more value to scientific validity than other arguments.
Table 3.8 Features of protected areas that are better or worse for
conservation
Better Worse
A Single large area Single small area
B Single large area Several small areas of the same total size
&
o
- <l
Protected areas that are better for conservation have the following features:
m Larger and so support a greater range of habitats, and therefore greater species
diversity.
Higher population numbers of each species.
Greater productivity at each trophic level, leading to longer food chains and
greater stability.
B Maintain a low perimeter:area ratio to reduce edge effects. Fewer edge effects
mean more of the area is undisturbed.
Maintain top carnivores and large mammals by having a large area.
If areas are divided, then fragmented areas need to be in close proximity to
allow animals and plants to move between them.
B Maintain gene flow between fragmented reserves by allowing movement along
corridors.
m Allow movement of large mammals and top carnivores between fragments by
maintaining corridors.
W Buffer zones
Buffer zones help to protect conservation areas and maintain equilibrium and
biodiversity. They contain habitats that are either managed or undisturbed,
and minimise disturbance in the protected area from outside influences such as
people, agriculture, pests and diseases.
In Figure 3.15, for example, salak palm provides a barrier to stop illegal hunting,
encroachment of farmers and illegal felling of trees in the protected area. The
salak palm also provides a barrier to stop animals leaving the reserve and being
killed in the surrounding area.
The sugar cane is grown by local farmers to provide a cash crop, while fruits from
the salak palm also provide food. The crops provide protection against fire.
You need to be able to discuss the best design for protected areas using the
criteria of size, shape, edge effects, corridors and proximity.
3.4 Conservation of biodiversity 85
CASE STUDY
Local support
Local guides and rangers earn a living assisting tourists within the park and protect the forest and its biodiversity.
There are many ecotourism resorts near the reserve run by local people.
Their economic future and the future of the park are closely linked.
They have a positive vested interest in the conservation area.
They have a respect for, and pride in, the reserve.
Government agencies
B The Sabah Wildlife Department and Forestry Department help to manage the reserve.
B The government, through its employees, wildlife agencies, rangers and guides, provides the park with security and
infrastructure.
These government agencies monitor and control visitor numbers and help to protect the reserve.
They provide resources.
They liaise with local groups, non-governmental groups and international organisations.
Research
B The Forest Research Centre (FRC) at Sepilok carries out scientific research within the reserve:
It helps educate those inside and outside the park, both nationally and
internationally.
Research is also carried out by the orang-utan rehabilitation centre at the edge
of the reserve (Figure 3.16; see below), which returns captive animals to the wild.
Education
The orang-utan rehabilitation centre rehabilitates orphaned orang-utans. It is a
major international tourist attraction, focusing on public education, research and
conservation.
Limitations
Although the impact of Sepilok has been overwhelmingly positive, there are some limitations.
The Sepilok Forest Reserve is a relatively small area surrounded by developed areas such as oil palm plantations. The
forest is not large enough to sustain populations of large mammals and important species such as the orang-utan.
Populations of orang-utan are supported by feeding from the rehabilitation centre.
A large number of tourists who visit the centre visit for a morning or afternoon and do not stay in the area, so local
communities do not benefit financially from the increased number of visitors.
Whilst the internationally famous Sepilok forest reserve is maintained, other areas that are equally biologically significant
are not conserved and are degraded or cleared to make room for plantation forest.
Overall, however, the impacts of Sepilok have been overwhelmingly positive, drawing many tourists to the area and raising
the profile of Malaysian conservation internationally.
m Keystone species
Keystone species are essential for the functioning of the ecosystem and in
protecting the integrity of a food web.
In tropical rainforest, fig trees are a keystone species. The figs they produce are fed on
Figure 3.17 A rhinoceros hornbill
by birds, such as hornbills (Figure 3.17), and mammals, such as organ-utan, and these
feeding on figs in the canopy of
animals rely heavily on this resource during the times of the year when other food is tropical rainforest in Malaysia. Figs
uncommon. Without figs, many species would disappear from the community. are keystone species in these forests
W Flagship species
The selection of ‘charismatic’ species can help to protect others in an area. Such
species are known as flagship species. The Bengal tiger is an example of a flagship
species (see also page 89).
m CITES
CITES is the Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species
(of Wild Fauna and Flora). It is an international agreement aimed at preventing
trade in endangered species of plants and animals, and therefore:
®m reduces demand for trade
m contributes to species conservation.
Under the convention countries agree to monitor trade in threatened species (and
their products) at ports and airports. Illegal imports and exports are confiscated,
which discourages illegal trade. If trade in whole organisms or parts of organisms
can be reduced, pressure on wild populations is reduced.
CITES has helped to protect elephants and rhinos by reducing trade in ivory and
thino horn.
Strengths Limitations
Table 3.10 Strengths and limitations of captive breeding and reintroduction programmes
Strengths Limitations
Populations can build up quickly as habitat Do not directly conserve the natural habitat diversity of the species. Conservation
and food are abundant. of habitat should lead to conservation of species.
|J Abundant food and habitat reduces Not all species breed easily in captivity (e.g. giant pandas).
competition. It is difficult to maintain genetic diversity and so gene pools of species may
e Allow predators and diseases to be be small.
controlled. Released animals may be easy targets for predators.
e Individual animals can be exchanged Aesthetic values can lead to an imbalance in conservation activity, meaning that
between collections to prevent inbreeding popular, charismatic species are conserved (e.g. Madagascan lemurs) while small,
and to maintain genetic diversity. less-popular animals may not be part of the conservation programme (e.g. endemic
e Successful examples include the Arabian Madagascan hissing cockroaches).
oryx and golden lion tamarin monkey Some countries may have technical or economic difficulties in establishing
(see page 78). programmes.
W Zoos
Zoos protect species in carefully controlled environments. They are an example of
ex situ conservation
Strengths Limitations
They allow education through visits and so the public are more o There are ethical arguments about keeping animals in captivity
likely to support conservation campaigns. for profit.
Genetic monitoring can take place. e If the zoo is not properly managed, poor conditions can lead to
They allow captive breeding and reintroduction programmes psychological and physiological problems with animals.
(see above). Zoo animals may be unable to adapt back to life in the wild.
The number of offspring surviving to adulthood is higher, They can focus on high-profile/charismatic species and so can be
so species numbers increase more rapidly. less successful at saving ‘non-cuddly’ species.
Studying species in zoos allows a better understanding of ° Saving a species should require preserving the animal’s habitat,
these animals, leading to improved management of the which also benefits all other species.
species outside zoos. e A species can be artificially preserved in a zoo while its natural
They can be used as an ‘ark’, preserving a species until its habitat is destroyed (e.g. giant panda).
habitats are protected or restored.
Strengths Limitations
Zoos Allow controlled breeding and maintenance of genetic Have historically preferred popular animals; not
diversity necessarily those most at risk
Allow research Problem of reintroducing zoo animals to wild
Allow for education Ex situ conservation and so do not preserve native
Effective protection for individuals and species habitat of animals
Limits freedom of animals
CASE STUDY
3N N v e e CTIa R
9 Outline the arguments for preserving biodiversity. (6] You need to be able to evaluate
10 a Name one intergovernmental organisation and one non-governmental different approaches to protecting
organisation involved in conservation. 2] biodiversity.
b Compare the roles and activities of these two organisations. (4]
11 Qutline the general principles behind the World Conservation Strategy. [4]
12 Explain how the shape and size of a protected area can influence its
success in protecting the organisms and ecosystems within it. (4]
13 Describe and evaluate captive breeding and reintroduction programmes
as part of a species-based approach to conservation. (5]
14 Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). (4]
15 Name a protected area that you have studied and suggest five
reasons that might explain why the area was selected for protection. (5]
Water, aquatic food production
Topic systems and societies
Precipitation ; e TR
Wind direction
I Throughflow
Groundwater
"~ Watef — o
flow
storage
~ inoceans
B Storages of water
Fresh water
2%
m Of the main stores of freshwater, over 87% is in the form of ice caps and
glaciers, 12% is groundwater and the rest is made up of lakes, soil water,
atmospheric water vapour, rivers and biota, in decreasing order of storage size.
m Ata local scale the cycle has two main inputs — solar energy and precipitation
(PPT) — and two major losses (outputs) — evapotranspiration (EVT) and runoff
(Figure 4.3). A third output, leakage, can also occur from the deeper subsurface
to other basins.
precipitation b Charme.l
precipitation
Interception
|
1. VEGETATION
A Infiltration
lood
Floods
o2
§ >
1 Capillary
.
¥ o 2
m m
2 "'Sl_e___ 3. SOIL Interflow . o
m r
a MOISTURE Percolation % :
c ‘ I
E . 1
= 5 Capillary rise :
B ! 4. GROUND = Base flow :
o L i
= Recharge
@
l _ Flow — output
Y y
Y Y
precipitation (the movement of water from atmosphere to the land and oceans),
melting (the conversion of solid snow and ice to liquid water), freezing (the change
from a liquid form to a solid form such as ice). Common mistake
Water on the surface may cause flooding (too much water to drain away), surface Not all freshwater is accessible or
runoff (movement of water over the land’s surface), infiltration (the movement renewable. Only freshwater lakes
of water from the surface downwards into the soil), percolation (the movement and rivers are renewable. Many
of water downwards from the soil to the rocks), and stream flow or currents groundwater reserves, such as those
(movement of water in channels such as streams and rivers). under the Sahara, are essentially non-
renewable.
B Human impacts
Human activities such as agriculture, deforestation and urbanisation have a Bl QUICK CHECK QUESTION
significant impact on surface runoff and infiltration. In general, human activities 1 What proportion of the Earth’s
lead to a decline in vegetation cover, leading to reduced interception, more ground freshwater is found in:
compaction and therefore more overland runoff. This increases the likelihood of a groundwater
floods, including flash floods. With urbanisation, permeable surfaces are replaced
b lakes and rivers?
with impermeable surfaces, increasing the risk of flooding.
Access to freshwater
of Cancer
Equator
Tropic of
_______________________________
/ Tuna
% . \\ 1
arnivorous
fish
/ .
3 Carnivorous 10
Zooplankton
/’/
Phytoplankton Grass, rice, corn, 1000
4
4 wheat, potatoes
Aquatic Terrestrial
® Aquaculture
The contribution of aquaculture to total fish production has increased
dramatically in recent decades. It is likely that as yields from capture fisheries
continue to fall, the contribution from aquaculture will increase. China is the
world’s largest aquaculture producer.
Common mistake
The focus of productivity and/or efficiency may be over simplistic. For example,
the increased production of prawns from aquaculture is excellent for feeding
people, but it has led to the destruction of about one-third of the world’s
mangrove forests, and this can have a knock-on effect on fishery production in
nearby ecosystems.
Table 4.1 Typical values of selected indicators for clean water and polluted
water
Thermal pollution lowers the dissolved oxygen content of water. This leads to less
aerobic respiration, increased anaerobic respiration and increased decomposition.
Low river pollution
Stonefly nymph
Y
High river pollution
Figure 4.6 Invertebrate indicators of freshwater pollution
By
2 Population of certain bacteria, fungi 4 By this point in the river, the 5 Pollutant now
and Tubifex increases. These organisms amount of organic matter has much reduced.
feed on and begin to break down the fallen by dispersal and because BOD just above
organic matter it has been broken down. BOD normal
is less than at the point where
pollutant entered Oxygen
BOD
Mayfly
nymphs
Tubifex worms
feed on and
tunnel in the
effluent
A
|
Sewage effluents do not necessarily discharge polluted water. Sometimes the In highly polluted rivers and streams,
water is treated and clean. If the water is polluted, the level of pollution will species diversity is low, although the
depend upon water temperature and how much water is in the stream. population of a certain species may
be high.
Indicator species
Certain species have different levels of tolerance to environmental conditions and
change. The presence or absence and health of these indicator species can be used
to suggest conditions in the environment.
Indicator species can be used as an indirect measure of pollution and/or
environmental degradation. Examples include lichens, nettles, red algae and
freshwater invertebrates such as Tubifex worms, bloodworms and mayfly nymphs.
m Certain lichen species (such as Usnea articulata) indicate very low levels of
sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere.
m Nettles (Urtica dioica) indicate high phosphate levels in the soil.
m Red alga (Corallina officinalis) inhabits saline rock pools and is absent from
brackish pools.
Biotic indices
Biotic indices can be used as an indirect method of measuring pollution levels.
This involves levels of tolerance, diversity and abundance of organisms.
GV l o VANe =
3 Define the term biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and explain how this
indirect method is used to assess pollution levels in water. (5]
Eutrophication
® The process of eutrophication
Natural and human causes of eutrophication:
m There are natural and human causes of eutrophication
®m Both result in an increase in nitrates and/or phosphates, leading to rapid
growth of algae, accumulation of dead organic matter, a high rate of
decomposition and lack of oxygen.
®m Natural cycles can include nutrients added from decomposing biomass,
runoff from surrounding areas and upwelling ocean currents bringing
nutrients to the surface.
® Human causes include runoff of fertilisers or manure from agricultural
land. Similarly, domestic wastewater may contain phosphates from
detergents, and non-treated sewage can also lead to eutrophication.
Positive feedback occurs in the process of Negative feedback can also occur during the process
eutrophication of eutrophication
e As more nutrients are added to the system, the biomass of e Theincrease in nutrients promotes growth of plants that store
algae increases due to the availability of nutrients. them in biomass.
e Decomposition of the increased biomass leads to further e This leads to a reduction in nutrients, so balance is restored,
nutrient load and so further deviation from the long-term i.e. negative feedback.
equilibrium. e The increase in algae will lead to increases in species that feed
e Hence positive feedback occurs. on algae.
e The growth of algae blocks light, so causing underwater plants e This may lead to subsequent decrease in algal populations, so
to die and create more nutrients as they decompose. balance is restored.
e More nutrients lead to further growth of algae so further e Theincrease in dead organic matter provides more food for
deviation from the equilibrium, thus there is increased positive decomposers, which increase in number.
feedback. e Increased rate of decomposition leads to a decrease in dead
e Anincrease in bacteria causes increased BOD, hence oxygen- organic matter, so balance is restored, i.e. negative feedback
dependent organisms to die. occurs.
e This increase in dissolved organic matter leads to even further
increase in BOD/bacteria, so further deviation from equilibrium,
reinforcing positive feedback.
4.4 Water pollution 101
B Impacts on society
Eutrophication has impacts on human populations. One is financial — the loss of
fertilisers from fields may reduce crop productivity and therefore farm yield and
profit. Moreover, the cost of treating nitrate-enriched water is expensive — in the
UK this is estimated to cost between £50 million and £300 million each year.
Nitrate-enriched water is associated with higher rates of stomach cancer and
‘blue baby syndrome’ (methaemoglobanaemia — insufficient oxygen in pregnant
women’s blood). However, correlation does not equate with causation and many
other factors are likely to be involved.
Eutrophication leads to a change in species composition rather than removing all Most lakes are naturally oligotrophic
species. Surface-dwelling organisms are favoured rather than bottom-dwelling (nutrient poor) — once eutrophication
organisms, with the exception of the bacteria that decompose the dead organic starts to occur, productivity increases
matter. as nutrient enrichment occurs.
® Dead zones
Dead zones can occur in oceans and freshwater when there is not enough oxygen
to support aquatic and marine life. They can be the result of eutrophication.
102 Topic 4 Water, aquatic food production systems and societies
Human activity
producing
pollutant
Y
Release of
pollutant into
environment
Y
Long-term
impact of
pollutant on
ecosystem
There are many pollution management strategies (Figure 4.9), some of which are
outlined below.
Remove biomass (e.g. water hyacinth or reed) and use it for biofuel or for
S TIg o]
thatching.
Reintroduce plant and animal species. In some cases the same response
Use barley bales to lock up nitrates in the water (Figure 4.10). can be classified as technocentric
Treat with a solution of aluminium or ferrous salt to precipitate phosphates. or ecocentric. Barley bales are an
ecocentric approach (using nature),
although the research into the best
forms of material to absorb nitrates
can be a technocentric approach.
I luilu_l LG
Although there are many potential
solutions to the problem of
eutrophication, it is not always
possible to solve it. This is because
it is non-point-source pollution and
there are many different causes.
Moreover, not every country has
the resources to implement the
strategies.
Expert tip
Using Figure 4.9, you should be able
to show the value and limitations
of each of the three different levels
Figure 4.10 The use of barley bales to lock up nitrates in the water of intervention. In addition, you
should appreciate the advantages of
EXAM PRACTICE employing the earlier strategies over
the later ones and the importance
4 Describe and evaluate ecocentric and technocentric responses to of collaboration in the effective
eutrophication. [8] management of pollution.
Expert tip
You should be able to:
o, n
Nutrient inputs
Uptake
Carbon Respiration
R
Decomposition
Microorganisms
Nitrogen Organic
Calcium
matter
Nutrient
Weathered losses
bedrock
Figure 5.1 Soil systems, lithosphere
systems and atmospheric systems
» Transfers
Soil processes are directly affected by atmospheric process. The amounts of heat,
evaporation and precipitation determine the main movements of water within
the soil.
Lithospheric systems are also important — the parent material (bedrock)
influences soil drainage and soil fertility
The soil profile (Figure 5.2) is influenced by biotic factors. Earthworms help mix the
soil, while fungi and bacterial activity help break down plant litter and form humus.
5.1 Introduction to soil systems 105
-
o Leaf fall and
nutrient recycling
A
Eluviation \_/
Soil horizons
B Salinisation| ~ Gleying
(in arid areas)
C
Gleying
Weathering of bedrock (waterlogging)
The soil profile shows distinct soil horizons — these include O (organic
horizon), A (mixed mineral/organic horizon), E (eluvial or leached horizon),
B (illuvial or deposited horizon) and C (bedrock or parent material).
Transfers of material (including deposition) result in reorganisation of the soil.
Leaching generally refers to the removal of material down a soil through
solution and suspension. (Leaching, illuviation and eluviation are often used Keyword definition
interchangeably but they have precise definitions.) Soil profile — A vertical section
through a soil, from the surface
Inputs and outputs down to the parent material,
There are inputs of organic and parent material, precipitation, infiltration and revealing the soil layers or
horizons.
energy.
Outputs include leaching, uptake by plants and mass movement.
» Transformations
Transformations include decomposition, weathering and nutrient cycling.
Humification degradation and mineralisation form the process whereby
organic matter is broken down and the nutrients are returned to the soil. The
breakdown releases organic acids — chelating agents — which break down clay
to silica and soluble iron and aluminium.
Illuviation is the redeposition of material in the lower horizons.
/N /N
silt
o A,
s b
) .
4
4 \
N \\
Read / A
clay /
§ 60 / . Clay 40 g
& A . ©
<
é /
\ 7£
< /f \\ ;\.
/Sand Silt
b
100
100 80 60 40 20
Per cent sand
Read
sand
50 0
B Soil textural groups are often shown by the use of triangular graphs (Figure 5.3).
__ Micropores
Saturation Field . ,n“:lfig, s Wilting
capacity |° 5\~ Macropores
* all pore spaces filled with water e small micropores filled with water and e water present only in small quantities,
e some water drains as a result of gravity held by suction held by soil hygroscopically
¢ macropores (large pores) filled with air
* water available to plants
Figure 5.4 Soil moisture
5.2 Terrestrial food production systems and food choices 107
A loam soil is often considered to be the best soil for cultivation as it has the
optimum combination of sand, silt and clay. It is therefore easily workable, drains
well, retains moisture and nutrients and is well aerated. As a result, it has the
highest plant productivity.
Table 5.1 Storage capacity of soils (cm water per 30cm depth)
a 60% sand, 30% clay and 10% silt * compare and contrast the
structure and properties of
b 40% sand, 40% silt and 20% clay
sand, clay and loam soils, with
5 Which of the soils in Table 5.1 is more likely to require irrigation to help reference to a soil texture diagram,
plant productivity? including their effect on primary
productivity.
Sustainability
The sustainability of terrestrial food production systems is influenced by many
factors including:
scale
industrialisation/mechanisation
use of fossil fuel for transport, fertilisers and for machinery
use of genetically modified organisms versus organic farming
water use
fertilisers
pest control
pollinators
antibiotics
government policy
commercial versus subsistence food production.
108 Topic 5 Soil systems and terrestrial food production systems and societies
Inequalities
There are many differences in food production and distribution around the
world, which are affected by a range of socio-political, economic and ecological
influences.
m The world is growing by over 80 million people each year, hence more food is
needed.
® In addition, a larger proportion of people in the world will become middle- and
high-income earners, and there will be a corresponding change in diet from
grain-based to meat- and dairy-based.
During the latter part of the twentieth century, the growth in food production
out-paced the growth of population. This was largely due to the Green Revolution
(the application of science and technology to agriculture, leading to high-yielding
varieties, breeding programmes, widespread use of chemical fertilisers and
pesticides, irrigation and so on).
However, between 2001 and 2008 world food prices rose dramatically. Although
there was an increase in food production, there was an even greater increase in
demand for food. A rise in oil prices led to higher costs in transport and fertiliser
production.
Food distribution
Revised [l
Once food is produced it needs to be brought to the market to be sold. Sometimes
food is collected from the farmer whereas at other times the farmer has to get
it to the market. This transportation uses fossil fuels. The distance that a food m
travels to its destination is known as food miles. Some foods are transported huge
distances. You must : have an, example of one
commercial farming system and one
In addition, all of the inputs, such as fertilisers, machinery and equipment, need to subsistence system.
be transported to the farmer. These are expensive and also use up fossil fuels.
W Land availability
The amount of land that is available for farming is decreasing in many places.
This is partly due to population growth and urbanisation, using up productive
land for human settlement. In addition, industrial development, mining and the
building of dams and roads reduces the amount of land available for farming. Soil
erosion and degradation reduce the quality of soil. This makes the amount of
land available per person much lower now than in the past, and therefore has a
potential impact on food production.
Another cause is the use of land for the production of biofuels rather than food
crops. Approximately 100 million tonnes of grain are used for biofuels. As more
grain is used for biofuel, less grain (and land) is used for the production of food for
human use.
Common mistake
The focus on productivity and/or efficiency may be over-simplistic. For example,
prawn farming has led to the destruction of about one-third of the world’s
mangrove forests and this can have a knock-on effect on fishery production in
nearby ecosystems.
Cultural choices
Many people choose to eat from higher up the food chain, i.e. meat products and
dairy products, and this requires a greater amount of land and inputs. This is
associated with increasing levels of wealth and rising standards of living. In many
cases, increasing intake of meat and dairy products represents a higher standard of
living than one based on staples such as maize or rice.
m arable (the cultivation of crops, e.g. the corn belt in the USA) or pastoral (the
rearing of animals, e.g. the Maasai herdsmen of Kenya)
110 Topic 5 Soil systems and terrestrial food production systems and societies
commercial (products are sold to make a profit, e.g. market gardening S LIa i)
in the Netherlands) or subsistence/peasant (products are consumed by
The classification of farming into four
the cultivators, e.g. shifting cultivation by the Kayapo of the Amazonian
dichotomous (‘either/or’) categories is
rainforest)
an over-simplification. A subsistence
intensive (high inputs or yields per unit area, e.g. cattle feed lots in California) farmer may sell a small amount
or extensive (low inputs or yields per unit area, e.g. reindeer herding in Siberia) of produce whereas a commercial
nomadic (farmers move seasonally with their herds, e.g. the Pokot pastoralists farmer may keep some farm produce
in Kenya) or sedentary (farmers remain in the same place throughout the year, for home consumption. Each pair
e.g. rice farmers in Southeast Asia). should be seen as a sliding scale from
one to the other.
Precipitation: type, frequency, intensity, amount Land tenure/ownership: ownership, rental, share-cropping, state-
Temperature: growing season (>6°C), ground frozen (0°C), range control
of temperatures Organisation: collective, cooperative, agribusiness, family farm
Soil: fertility (pH, cation exchange capacity), nutrient status, Government policies: subsidies, guaranteed prices, ESAs
structure, texture, depth (environmentally sensitive areas), quotas, set-aside
Pests: vermin, locusts, disease War, disease, famine
Location: slope gradient, relief, altitude, aspect — ubac (shady) or Farm size: field size and shape
adret (sunny) Demand: size and type of market
Capital: equipment, machinery, seed, money, ‘inputs’
Technology: HYVs, fertilisers, irrigation
Infrastructure: roads, communications, storage
Advertising
Cultural and traditional influences
Education and training
Behavioural influences
Chance
5.2 Terrestrial food production systems and food choices 111
PROCESSES
Milking,
weeding,
applying
fertilisers,
irrigating,
selective
breeding,
harvesting
Profits/reinvestment
CASE STUDY
SHIFTING CULTIVATION IN MEXICO
The Popoluca Indians of Santa Rosa, Mexico practise a form of shifting cultivation. This farming system is intensive,
subsistence, largely arable and semi-nomadic (they change plots every few years). Most of the labour is done by hand, with
men doing the cutting, burning and hunting and women doing most of the farming.
The plots are quite small, typically 3—4 ha. These are cleared for farming by cutting down and burning trees, which enriches
the soil with nutrients. However, most trees and shrubs are not burned, but are harvested for their fruits and seeds. The
system produces over 250 different types of crop (polyculture). Those cultivated include coffee, oregano, squash and yams.
The only input that is bought in is maize seed; the rest is from natural forest that is allowed to seed itself.
The men hunt for game, fish and turtles. There is some trading of surplus game. Fruit and insects are also gathered from the
forest.
The system uses natural fertiliser (animal manure) as well as the burning of trees to enrich the soil. No irrigation water or
pesticides are used, so no fossil fuels are needed. Energy ratios (energy outputs/energy inputs) may be as high as 65.
There are some environmental impacts — for example, the cutting down and burning of vegetation is believed to have
long-term effects on the quality of the soil (see Figure 5.10).
CASE STUDY
INTENSIVE COMMERCIAL PIG PRODUCTION IN DENMARK
Pig farming in Denmark, an MEDC, is commercial, pastoral, intensive and sedentary. The system, based on the selective
breeding, rearing and selling of stall-fed pigs, is heavily mechanised, with extensive use of food concentrates, machinery
for feeding and transport services. Inputs also include veterinary services, the use of hormones to increase productivity and
antibiotics to reduce the spread of disease.
Farms are generally between 10ha and 30ha in size. The work structure is increasingly based on a farm manager and hired
labour. Many farms will also produce cereals and keep a dairy herd — skimmed milk and whey are fed to the pigs. The system
is still classified as a monoculture because it is not diverse.
Energy ratios (outputs/inputs) are only around 0.4.
The system is a commercial one — over nine million pigs are produced annually. Up to 75% of Danish bacon is exported and
this accounts for 43% of Danish agricultural export.
The environmental impacts of this system are high:
B There is much use of fossil fuel in the distribution of pig products around the world and in the running of machines.
Fossil fuels are also used in the production of feed concentrates.
B A large amount of manure is produced, the smell of which can impact on the local population of humans. It also
produces methane as it decomposes.
m Fertilisers, pesticides and irrigation water are used to improve crop yields.
112 Topic 5 Soil systems and terrestrial food production systems and societies
® Nomadic pastoralism
m Traditional nomadic pastoralists, such as the Pokot of Kenya, live out their lives
in relative harmony with the natural environment. For example, the energy flow
in the nomadic system is similar to that of the savannah ecosystem.
Herdsmen use the savannah grasslands to feed their herds.
Cattle replace wild herbivores as the main herbivores.
There is limited killing of wild predators.
The nutrient cycling system can be altered.
True nomadic movement returns and distributes nutrients over a wide area
although some concentrations of nutrients, in dung, can occur if herds remain
in one place for a length of time, such as at a borehole.
Biological productivity in savannah grasslands is low and variable.
NPP varies from about 150gm™yr in drier areas, rising to 600gm yr in
wetter margins.
Secondary productivity is low — hence farmers use milk, milk products and
blood rather than meat.
Their animals are their source of wealth, so they only kill the very old or very sick.
Environmental impacts might be unsustainable.
Over-exploitation of grass or over-concentration of herds removes vegetation,
especially sweeter species, causing ponding of the surface, gulleying and
desertification — the spread of desert conditions (Figure 5.9 on page 116).
In traditional pastoral societies desertification has been due to climatic
deterioration. Now, however, economic, social and political reasons are
increasingly to blame. These have led to larger herds, shorter nomadic routes
and greater pressure around water sources such as boreholes.
UK
Sprouts
200 km
Thailand
Poultry
17000 km
Zambia
Figure 5.6 The wastefulness of a
Runner beans 8000 km Christmas dinner - the ingredients
of a traditional Christmas meal
Zimbabwe bought from a supermarket may
Mangetout 3000 km have cumulatively travelled 24000
miles
CASE STUDY
WATER PROBLEMS AND GLOBAL FARMING IN KENYA
The shores of Lake Naivasha in the ‘Happy Valley’ area of Kenya have been seriously polluted. Environmentalists blame the
problems on pollution from pesticides, excessive use of water on farms and deforestation caused by migrant workers in the
growing shantytowns foraging for fuel.
British and European-owned flower companies in the area grow vast quantities of flowers and vegetables for export. Much
water is used to produce flowers. The export of these flowers (a flower is 90% water) is effectively exporting Kenyan water.
This is known as ‘virtual water’.
The greatest impact is being felt by the nomadic pastoralists in the semi-arid areas to the north and east of Mt Kenya. The
flower farms have taken over land that the pastoralists used and there is now less water.
114 Topic 5 Soil systems and terrestrial food production systems and societies
It is easy to see nomadic pastoralists as the victims of flower cultivation in Kenya. A useful approach when comparing
However, the pressures they face are much more diverse and complex (see two contrasting systems is to try
Figure 5.10 on page 118). In addition, there are benefits of modern agricultural to link them — the effects of flower
systems, such as the mass production of food for urban areas, although the cultivation in Kenya and the impacts
benefits are mainly for urbanites, and for those living in MEDCs and NICs (newly on nomadic pastoralists is a good
industrialising countries). example.
Food sustainability
Increased food sustainability can be achieved in many ways:
®m reduce the consumption of meat
B increase consumption of organically grown food
B increase consumption of locally produced goods
. . ) . n ICK CHECK ESTION
®m improve food labelling to improve food choices QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS
® monitor and control the standards and activities of multinational companies 12 Outline one way in which
and food corporations modern commercial farming has
m introduce buffer zones around areas used for food production to absorb farm affected traditional subsistence-
waste (e.g nutrient runoff). type farming.
13 How many food miles might
a traditional Christmas meal
(D TTa o) account for?
You should be able to:
» analyse tables and graphs that illustrate the differences in inputs and outputs DN\ BV
N as
associated with food production systems g s
1 Discuss the energy efficiency
* compare and contrast the inputs, outputs and system characteristics for two of terrestrial and aquatic food
given food production systems production systems. [3]
» evaluate the relative environmental impacts of two given food production 2 Explain the relationships
systems between population growth,
* discuss the links that exist between socio-cultural systems and food social systems and food
production systems production technologies. Refer
* evaluate strategies to increase sustainability in terrestrial food production to named contrasting countries
systems. in your answer. [9]
SIGNIFICANT IDEAS
e Fertile soils require significant time to develop through the process of
succession.
e Human activities may reduce soil fertility and increase soil erosion.
¢ Soil conservation strategies exist and may be used to preserve soil fertility
and reduce soil erosion.
Soil degradation
Human activities such as overgrazing, deforestation, urbanisation, unsustainable
agriculture such as monoculture and irrigation cause processes of soil degradation
(Figure 5.7). These processes include:
m erosion by wind and water. There are many types of water erosion including
surface, gully, rill and runnel erosion. g
m Dbiological degradation (the loss of humus and plant/animal life) Make sure you study the textural
m physical degradation (loss of structure and changes in permeability). groups. A ‘clay’ soil might only have
Groundwater over-abstraction, for example, may lead to dry soils, leading to 40% clay, and a mixed soil (loam)
physical degradation. might only have as little as 10%
B chemical degradation (acidification, declining fertility, changes in pH, clay. Some of the textural classes
salinisation and chemical toxicity). Acidification is a change in the chemical (groups) contain a wide variation of
composition of the soil that can trigger the circulation of toxic metals. percentages.
W Desertification
Desertification (Figure 5.9) can be natural, but increasingly it is the result of Overgrazing
human activities: 35%
® It occurs in rich countries such as the USA, Australia and Spain, as well as Figure 5.8 Types of land degradation
poor countries such as Burkina Faso, Mali and Ethiopia.
m Changes in agriculture, such as the concentration of livestock herds near
boreholes, are partly responsible for desertification.
m It has major social, economic and environmental impacts. Keyword definition
B Social impacts can include increased hunger, reduced performance at school
Desertification — The spread
and increased illness.
of desert-like conditions into
®m Economic impacts include reduced crop yields, falling incomes and reduced
previously green areas, causing a
ability to work.
long-term decline in biological
® Environmental impacts include reduced soil cover, decreased soil organic content,
productivity.
reductions in soil moisture availability and increased potential for soil erosion.
116 Topic 5 Soil systems and terrestrial food production systems and societies
ek e / / | o " 7 vd Y M
¥ ¥y / Y 4 < y ¥ ‘ . A
Insufficient ~ / Sedentary / Insufficient Insufficient Insufficient Boreholes ~ Lowsale Veterinary ~ Medical ~ Famine
appropriate | education | security range livestock and dams price of facilities care relief
education for | facilities | against managementand marketing Fé| animal / . /)
nomadic life | raiding grazing control facilities 7 ". products ¢ o 2/
Brain drain Traditional land tenure — Increased 5 /' Reduced Increased Intrinsic
through ~ communal ownership of sedentarisation TRl N mfanlt adult capacity
urban drift ~ land, private ownership of nomads mortality survival for increase
of animals R e " T T ' ‘ A
A . ' ™ .
7N hczwgsr;t;zt:)nnrggl Increasing livestock herds for . Expanding
e uim act aro rlld subsistence and fora herds for “.__ human
g 'MP y insurance against drought mortality populations
’ settlements i
Drought Overgrazing . i ¥y
i More livestock More fuel and
\ night enclosures % o .
\ - building materials
B Mechanical methods
® Mechanical methods include bunding, terracing, contour ploughing and
shelterbelts such as trees or hedgerows.
m The key is to prevent or slow the movement of rainwater downslope.
m Contour ploughing forms at right angles to the slope to prevent or slow the
downward accretion of soil and water.
m On steep slopes and in areas with heavy rainfall, such as the monsoon
in Southeast Asia, contour ploughing is insufficient and terracing is
undertaken. The slope is broken up into a series of flat steps, with bunds Common mistake
(raised levées) at the edge. Some students make statements such
m The use of terracing allows areas to be cultivated that would not otherwise be as ‘desertification occurs in LEDCs
suitable. due to poor farming techniques’. This
m In areas where wind erosion is a problem shelterbelts of trees or hedgerows may be true but desertification also
are used. occurs in MEDCs, and may be the
®m The trees act as a barrier to the wind and disturb its flow. Wind speeds are result of natural factors, such as long-
lowered, which reduces its ability to disturb the topsoil and erode particles. term climate change.
W Salt-affected soils
There are three main approaches in the management of salt-affected soils:
B QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS
m flushing the soil and leaching the salt away
16 Identify four types of soll
m application of chemicals, for example gypsum (calcium sulfate) to replace the conservation.
sodium ions on the clay and colloids with calcium ions
17 Briefly explain how afforestation
M areduction in evaporation losses to reduce the upward movement of water in
acts as a measure of soil
the soil. conservation.
Equally specialist methods are needed to decontaminate land made toxic by 18 State two soil conservation
chemical degradation (see also eutrophication on pages 100-103). measures that could be taken to
prevent desertification.
= Soil management strategies in subsistence and
commercial farming systems
Shifting agriculture in tropical rainforest is an example of subsistence farming.
Soils in the tropical rainforest are very infertile. The high temperatures and Expert tip
high rainfall produce deeply weathered and leached soils that are lacking in
Attempts to achieve soil conservation
nutrients.
can be affected by population
The long growing season and intense competition among plants mean that most growth and the need to produce
of the available nutrients are held by the biomass (trees). To increase the fertility more food, climate change and
of the soil, cultivators cut down (‘slash’) the vegetation and burn it, thereby poverty-reduction schemes.
releasing some of the nutrients into the soil. This increases the soil fertility in the
short-term and allows agriculture to take place.
Common mistake
Over the following few years, these nutrients are washed away and the soil fertility
drops. This forces the cultivators to abandon the plot they are farming and move Many students seem to think that soil
to another plot — hence the term ‘shifting cultivation’. degradation only occurs in LEDCs.
It occurs in MEDCs too. A classic
Some researchers believe that shifting cultivation may lead to long-term decline in example from the USA is the Dust
soil fertility rather than being sustainable (Figure 5.10). Bowl of the 1930s.
118 Topic 5 Soil systems and terrestrial food production systems and societies
a
) SC SC
Soil fertility
PA PA
Tim
Common mistake
The tropical rainforest has been described as ‘a desert covered by trees’. There is
a paradox in that some of the world’s most luxuriant vegetation is found on some
of the world'’s least fertile soils. This is explained by the way in which most of the
nutrients are held by the trees.
CASE STUDY
SOIL CONSERVATION ON THE GREAT PLAINS OF THE USA
The Great Plains of the USA experienced severe droughts in the 1930s, and the soils suffered severe wind erosion. Soil
conservation techniques included:
contour ploughing
strip cultivation with an alternation of cultivated and fallow (crop-free) land
EXAM PRACTICE
3 Explain the importance of soil organisms in ecosystems. (5]
B Atmospheric composition
Up to a height of around 80km the atmosphere is fairly similar, consisting of
nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon (0.9%) and a variety of other trace gases such
as carbon dioxide, helium and ozone. In addition it contains water vapour and
solids (aerosols), such as dust, ash and soot.
There is no outer limit for the atmosphere, but most ‘weather’ occurs in the lowest
15km — the troposphere.
B Atmospheric reactions
Most reactions connected to living systems occur in the inner layers of the
atmosphere (Figure 6.1), which are the troposphere (around 0-15km above sea
level) and the stratosphere (around 10-50km above sea level).
— 100
Thermosphere
0.001+ ~ 90
Y . -
0.014 — Mesopause — Noctilucent clouds - 80
A
= - 70
£ 0.1 - T
= Mesosphere Q
2 P L60 =
@a =
g@ [ 23
Y e - 50
] —— Stratopause —
4 ao‘&\g\ i
e
< ) - 40
Ozone region
10+
Stratosphere - 30
Ozone maximum [
100 - :
Cumulonimbus . - 20
Trop‘E)pause Cirrus I
10
Troposphere A_
1000 0
-100 -80 _6|O =40 -20 0 20
(0
Temperature
The generalised vertical distribution of temperature and pressure up
to about 110 km. Note particularly the tropopause and the zone of
maximum ozone concentration with the warm layer above. Figure 6.2 Stratus clouds
Expert tip
You should be able to:
* discuss the role of the albedo effect from clouds in regulating global average
temperature
» outline the role of the greenhouse effect in regulating temperature on Earth.
The intense cold allows the formation of clouds of ice particles, upon which
chemical reactions involving chlorine can take place. In spring the chlorine
atoms destroy ozone but by summer the ice clouds have disappeared and there is
less destruction of ozone.
® Ozone formation can take a number of hours, hence the polluted air may have
drifted into suburban and surrounding areas.
B Smog is more likely under high-pressure (calm) conditions. Rain cleans the air
and winds disperse the smog — these effects are associated with low-pressure
conditions.
m The frequency and severity of photochemical smog in an area depend on local
topography, climate, population density and fossil fuel use.
Tropospheric ozone
m When fossil fuels are burned, two of the pollutants emitted are hydrocarbons
(from unburned fuel) and nitrogen monoxide (NO).
® Nitrogen monoxide reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide (NO,), a
brown gas that contributes to urban haze.
m Nitrogen dioxide can also absorb sunlight and break up to release oxygen
atoms that combine with oxygen in the air to form ozone.
B The main source of NOXx is road transport.
- Inverted temperature
\ Ry S Co Convection of Penetration of
\ £ gradient increased by Lo . . :
S P . i polluted air due to the inversion layer
\ [ pollutants absorbing Lot ;
N o, o e heat island effect only by tall stacks
\ . g solar radiation . o
\ - -
I\" (.7 J/ \W
"-. Valley
Urban area
Temperature
Deforestation and burning can also contribute to smog. The forest fires of
Southeast Asia in the late 1990s and in 2012-2014 produced the Asian ‘brown
haze’, throughout much of Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore.
® Economic losses
Economic losses include the cost of clean-up strategies, loss of tourism, decreased
worker productivity, increased cost of health care, decreased crop productivity
and the cost of replacing materials. The World Bank indicates that the cost of air
pollution in China is worth approximately 4% of its GDP annually.
Turbulence limited
Top of mixing layer
Zone of turbulence
= R Uptake of aerosols, )
Wind direction uDiffusion and dilution gases and particles Oxidation
I ™~
|—> Plume Natural air > S J
b turbulence T TN N o
LA . . 1-2 km
Dissolution
\J_I/
Dry deposition -
A
LA
Common mistake
Many students suggest that catalytic convertors are an example of how to tackle
emissions of NOx, which is correct, but they fail to mention that they increase
CO, emissions and reduce fuel efficiency.
You should consider measures to reduce fossil fuel combustion — for example, Knowledge of chemical equations is
reducing demand for electricity and private cars and switching to renewable not required.
energy. Refer also to clean-up measures such as catalytic converters.
6.4 Acid deposition 127
Acid
deposition
Gas, aerosol
Thinning of crown and particles
(crown die-back)
Decreased resistance
“- -~ todrought, disease,
frost etc.
’l
Shedding of leaves
Direct damage & b and needles
to needles, :
leaves and bark Tree weakened by:
il
e |ack of nutrients ‘
J_° excess of poisons s
Loss of nutrients
from leaves B QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS
(leaching) 13 Identify the two chemicals
e.g.Ca,Mg
associated with acid deposition.
14 Describe one impact of
acidification on coniferous trees
and one impact on soils, as
shown in Figure 6.5.
Failure of
seedlings
Common mistake
Many students forget about
Soil
Damage to fine root hairs Nutrlents dry deposition when referring to
acidification «
washed away acid deposition. Both wet and dry
(e.g. Mg, Ca) deposition are important — dry
Poisonous heavy Reduced intake of
metals mobilised water and nutrients deposition tends to be local, whereas
wet deposition is more regional in
Figure 6.5 The impact of acid rain on coniferous trees scale.
EXAM PRACTICE
B QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS 3 Evaluate the role of reducing,
reusing and recycling strategies
15 Identify the rocks that offer the best buffering against acidification.
in the management of
16 Explain how adding powdered lime can combat acidification. atmospheric pollutants. [9]
Climate change and
Topic energy production
Energy sources
Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and natural gas, make up the majority of our energy
supply; their use is expected to increase to meet global energy demand. Figure 7.1
shows how energy resources have changed over much of the twentieth century
and how they are predicted to change up until 2050.
9|qeuleisns Ajabue|
salbojouydal ,MaN
1004 [ m Biofuels
1 Hydroelectric
© Solar, wind, geothermal Expert tip
B Nuclear electric
equivalent per year
B Coal
Billion barrels of oil
0]
o
1
= Oil
Table 7.1 Advantages and disadvantages of oil
Advantages Disadvantages
0il has been a relatively cheap and efficient form of ~ The importance of oil as the world's leading fuel has had many negative effects on
energy, and a versatile raw material the natural environment. For example:
It is relatively easy to transport by tanker or pipeline e oil slicks from tankers (e.g. Torrey Canyon (1967), Exxon Valdez (1987) and
Oil reserves are generally found in geological Braer (1993)) and drilling rigs (e.g. Deepwater Horizon (2010))
structures such as anticlines, fault traps and salt e damage to coastlines, fish stocks and communities dependent upon the sea
domes e water pollution caused by tankers illegally washing/cleaning out tanks in the
At present rates of production and consumption North Sea
reserves could last for another 40 years e Gulf War damage — storage of oil and oil wells can be targets for destruction,
Nearly two-thirds of the world's reserves are found causing immeasurable environmental damage
in the Middle East It is a finite resource and will eventually run out — indeed we may already have
The Arctic is believed to have about 35% of the experienced ‘peak oil’
world’s oil reserves The burning of oil contributes to global warming through the release of CO,
Advantages Disadvantages
Hydroelectric power (HEP) is a renewable form of energy HEP plants are very costly to build
that harnesses fast-flowing water with a sufficient volume Only a small number of places have a sufficient head of water
Itis considered to be a clean form of energy as it does not pjarkets are critical — the plant needs to run at full capacity to be economic
emit greenhouse gases (although many are released during
Migratory fish and mammals may have their routes affected
the construction of the dam)
There may be increased evaporation behind the dam and the deposition
HEP stations are often associated with aluminium smelters
of silt
to use up excess energy
Diseases such as schistosomiasis can be spread by the stagnant water
Fish yields downstream can be adversely affected by the trapping of
sediments behind the dam
™ Nuclear power
Table 7.3 Advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power
Advantages Disadvantages
D TTa e
Nuclear power accounted for about 9% of ~ Nuclear power stations are very expensive : :
energy production in 2005 to build and have nearly always overrun on It is not just the non-renewable forms
Nuclear energy has received support from Costs and time needed for completion e e s
warming. Renewable forms such as
the environmental movement in recent The decommissioning costs of obsolete .
o . ) biomass (fuelwood and dung) release
years; this has occurred for two reasons: nuclear power stations are enormous : .
_ S o CO . Many other forms, including
e the prospect of global warming There are serious risks related to radiation HEP tidal and nuclear. contribute to
e nuclear power does not emit (e.g. Chernobyl, Fukushima); the 2011 global warming in the construction
greenhouse gases Fukushima disaster in Japan led to Japan of, in this case, dams, barrages and
turning its back on nuclear power power stations.
7.1 Energy choices and security 131
= Coal
Table 7.4 Advantages and disadvantages of coal
Advantages Disadvantages
Coal is mostly found in the mid-latitudes of the northern Coal is dirty, bulky, costly and difficult to transport
hemisphere
_ and _ has been responsible for the development of Due to inefficiencies in early forms of transport and machinery,
western industrial growth industries had to be located on the coalfields
Thick, level, continuous seams are the most competitive and Coal has a negative impact upon the environment in a number of
facilitate the use of machinery ways:
The two principal users of coal as a fuel are production of electricity e open-cast mining causes serious visual and noise pollution
in thermal power stations and the smelting industry (e.g. iron and
e burning coal contributes to acid rain and to global warming
steel)
Coal is also important in the chemicals industry and provides a
range of products from aspirin to nylon
Coal is sometimes divided into two main types, coking coal and
steam coal:
e coking coal is used in the manufacture of iron and steel
e steam coal, however, is used to generate electricity; the
demand for steam coal is rising rapidly
= Solar power
Table 7.5 Advantages and disadvantages of solar power
Advantages Disadvantages
= Wind power
Table 7.6 Advantages and disadvantages of wind power
Advantages Disadvantages
Wind power is suitable for small-scale production Visual impact — although some people like the appearance of wind
The only requirement is an exposed site, such as a hillside, flat turbines, many dislike them
land or close to the coast, where winds are strong and reliable They are noisy
There is no pollution of air, ground or water They can injure migrating birds
No finite resources are involved Winds may be unreliable
It reduces environmental damage elsewhere Large-scale development is hampered by the high cost of development,
the large number of turbines needed, and the high cost of new
transmission grids
Suitable locations for wind farms are normally quite distant from centres
of demand
132 Topic 7 Climate change and energy production
™ Tidal power
Table 7.7 Advantages and disadvantages of tidal power
Advantages Disadvantages
Tidal power is a renewable, clean energy source Large-scale production of tidal energy is limited for a number of reasons:
It requires a funnel-shaped estuary, free of other e high cost of development
developments, with a large tidal range e limited number of suitable sites
The River Rance in Brittany, France and the Bay of Fundy in e environmental damage to estuarine sites
Canada are good examples of where tidal power has been .
e long period of development
developed
e possible effects on ports and industries upstream
™ Fuelwood
Table 7.8 Advantages and disadvantages of fuelwood
Advantages Disadvantages
Fuelwood refers to the use of trees and vegetation as an energy In many areas fuelwood availability is decreasing fast
source As fuelwood becomes more scarce, women and children travel
Fuelwood is the most important source of energy in rural Africa, further to collect it and round trips of 10km are not uncommon;
due to its availability — for example, in Tanzania it accounts for 90% this imposes an extra burden upon their health
of energy consumption, and in Zimbabwe 50%
Try to make sure that your answers are balanced. If you have to answer a In the exams, you only have to
guestion on the advantages and disadvantages of a form of energy, make sure consider one non-renewable resource
that you cover both sides and try to give as many advantages as disadvantages. (fossil fuels or nuclear) and one
You can still form a conclusion and give your views, while also recognising that renewable energy source. Revise the
others may have different views. ones you have studied in class.
A decline in fuelwood does not just mean pressure on time and labour. Trees are a
multipurpose resource. They: B QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS
are used to build houses 4 What are the advantages of
fossil fuels?
provide fencing
contribute to food supply 5 What are the disadvantages of
renewable forms of energy, such
supply drugs and medicines
as HEP and wind?
prevent wind and water erosion
act as a habitat for wild animals.
Energy security
Energy security is uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable
price that provides countries with a degree of independence (Figure 7.2). Keyword definition
However, there are wide variations in access to energy at a national level down
Energy security — Having an
to a household level (e.g. through poverty). A lack of energy can have a negative
impact on social and economic development, and in extreme cases may lead to
adequate, reliable and affordable
conflict. supply of energy.
Affordable/
competitive
supply
Reliable/
uninterrup-
tible
Energy choices
There are many important factors to consider in the use of energy, relating to
availability as well as economic, cultural, environmental and technological issues:
B Availability and reliability of supply — the UK used to have coal, then it had
oil, but it has limited potential for solar or geothermal energy.
m Suitability and efficiency of supply — many poor countries are limited in their
choice of energy source.
m Costs of production, distribution and use — is nuclear power or tidal energy too
expensive!
m Type of market — industrial, agricultural or residential — energy demand soars
as a country industrialises.
m Political factors — in 1973 OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting
Countries) raised the price of oil, causing other countries to develop their own,
cheaper resources.
® Demand for energy — this depends on a country’s population size, wealth and
level of industrialisation.
m Population growth — rapid population growth leads to more energy being used.
® Economic growth — rapid economic growth leads to more energy being used.
m Stage of development — less developed countries use a smaller amount
of energy per head and more basic sources such as fuelwood, whereas developed
countries use more energy and more expensive forms such as nuclear and oil.
m Climate factors — certain climates allow certain types of energy such as solar or
wind power; colder climates require more heating.
Low levels of energy consumption per head in poor countries are explained by:
m lack of suitable resources
m lack of economic development to finance the rapid development of energy
resoutces or imports of energy
rapid growth of population (demand exceeds supply)
lack of capital to develop alternative forms of energy
debt
lack of technological resources
lack of trust, especially with regard to nuclear power
lack of fuelwood.
100
- Renewables [ Natural gas
Consumption (MMBOE/day)
80 - Nuclear B Coal
M Oil M Hydro
60 -
40
20
Agriculture
2%
4
i
¥
Residential
1%
Transportation
0,
8% Construction
1%
Mining
6%
the term weather refers to the state of the atmosphere at any given instant.
Normally, we refer to the weather as being short-term, i.e. over a few days. Like
climate, it includes temperature, rainfall (all forms of precipitation), humidity,
cloud cover, wind speed and direction, and air pressure.
Keyword definitions
Maritime — Relating to areas that are close to the coast.
Continental — Relating to areas that are distant from the coast.
N
Equator
Figure 7.3 The deep ocean thermohaline circulation leading to the oceanic conveyor belt
Winds have a similar impact. The prevailing wind refers to the most frequent
wind that an area receives. Winds from low latitudes tend to be warm and winds
from high latitudes are cold. Winds that blow over oceans are moist whereas
those that blow over land are dry. Some winds have a seasonal influence, such as
the monsoon winds of Asia.
below rather than from above (Figure 7.4). In this way greenhouse gases raise the T s
Earth’s temperature by about 33°C and make life on Earth possible.
The greenhouse effect and global
warming are often considered to
be the same. They are not but they
are related. The greenhouse effect
6.Som lon - a n
ap o pa .
is a natural process that traps some
outgoing longwave radiation and
enables life on Earth. Global warming
— or the enhanced greenhouse effect
5. on - a n
— is the process in which human
i aila o activities have led to an increase in
na al o in the amount of greenhouse gases in
amo“p" the atmosphere, and an increased
a ondioid i trapping of greenhouse gases,
; mo a ndan. leading to an increase in global
3. nl alil 0o- a . .
adiaioni a o din temperatures, i.e. global warming.
amo p
B w w N N —_ —_ o
o ul o Ul o ul o o
o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o o o
e} o o o o o] o
Years BP
Figure 7.5 Carbon dioxide levels in geological time
Figure 7.6 The main greenhouse gas emissions related to human activity
Keyword definition
Sources of carbon dioxide include respiration by living organisms, breakdown Global warming — An increase in
of organic material, volcanic vents, burning of fossil fuels and organic average temperature of the Earth’s
materials, and forest fires. atmosphere.
There are many ditferent sources of methane, including wetlands, bogs,
stagnant water bodies, rice paddies, tundra soils, the breakdown of organic
material, volcanic vents, livestock, landfill sites, melting of permafrost and Common mistake
manure Or sewage. Many people forget that water
Sources of CFCs include refrigeration and air conditioning systems, plastic vapour is a greenhouse gas, although
foams, aerosol cans and solvents used in the electronics industry. it is not considered to be a human-
related greenhouse gas. Its exact role
is unclear.
M Energy
(gl
" Industrial processes
Although there are some sources of
M Land use changes
carbon dioxide and methane that are
W Agriculture
the same, such as volcanic vents and
- Waste the breakdown of organic matter,
you need to give different sources
rather than the same one for carbon
dioxide and methane.
Figure 7.7 Sources of human-related greenhouse gases
e Biomes shift to higher latitudes/altitudes as climate e Shifting biomes mean crop-growing areas will shift
changes e Some areas will change in terms of productivity
e Expansion of areas inhabited by tropical disease vectors A shortage of resources could lead to increased conflict, for example
such as mosquitoes over water or food
Loss of species diversity as species are unable to adapt or e Impact on human health as more areas become affected by tropical
have limited scope for shifting, and become extinct diseases
Animals can migrate but plants shift their range more e Loss of economic, aesthetic and/or medical benefits of species
slowly diversity
Increased rates of primary productivity
138 Topic 7 Climate change and energy production
= Coastal inundation
Coastal inundation (flooding) will occur as global warming will lead to thermal
expansion of water and melting of (land-based) glaciers and ice caps, leading to a
sea-level rise. This could have many impacts:
increased coastal erosion
intrusion of salty water
reduction of mangrove forests
coral reefs unable to obtain sufficient light
wading birds struggling to obtain food
contamination of soils and a decline in agricultural production.
CASE STUDY
THE POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON THE UK
Positive impacts might include:
B anincrease in timber yields (up to 25% by the 2050s), especially in the north of the UK (with perhaps some decrease
in the south)
® anorthward shift of farming zones by about 200-300km per degree centigrade of warming, or 50-80km per
decade, which would improve some forms of agriculture, especially pastoral farming in the northwest
B enhanced potential for tourism and recreation as a result of
increased temperatures and reduced precipitation in
the summer, especially in the south.
B damage from increased storminess, flooding and erosion to natural and human resources and other assets in coastal
areas
B increased incidents of certain infectious diseases in humans and of the health effects of episodes of extreme
temperature.
Table 7.10 What would be a significant climate change for the UK?
Annual runoff in the southern UK Annual runoff in the southern UK Annual runoff in the southern UK
decreases by 5% decreases by 10% decreases by 15%
Frequency of 1995 type summer (drought) ~ Frequency of 1995 type summer increases Frequency of 1995 type summer increases
increases from 1:90 to 1:25 from 1:90 to 1:10 from 1:90 to 1:3
Disappearance from the British Isles of a Disappearance from the British Isles of Further disappearance from the British Isles
few niche species, for example alpine wood certain species, for example ptarmigan and of several species
fern and oak fern mountain hare
In-migration of some continental species Expansion of range of most butterflies, In-migration of several species
and expansion of some native species, e.g. moths and birds, such as goldeneye and
red admiral and painted lady butterflies, redwing
Dartford warbler
Increase in overall UK timber productivity Increase in overall UK timber productivity Increase in overall UK timber productivity
by 3% by 7% by 15%
Increase in demand for irrigation water Increase in demand for irrigation water Increase in demand for irrigation water
by 21% over the increase without climate by 42% over the increase without climate by 63% over the increase without climate
change, and in domestic demand by an change, and in domestic demand by an change, and in domestic demand by an
additional 2% additional 5% additional 7%
Decrease in heating demand by 6% Decrease in heating demand by 11% Decrease in heating demand by 16%
NEE|
N
e LTa Al
Experts do not know what will
actually happen — they can only
make ‘educated guesses’. However,
=
as Table 7.10 shows, the impacts
are likely to increase as the rate of
temperature change increases.
Figure 7.9 Positive feedback in global warming
=]
I
Figure 7.10 Negative feedback in global warming
argue that it was only the effects of Hurricane Katrina (and later Superstorm
Sandy) that awoke many Americans to the idea that global warming was
having an impact on the USA.
®m In asimilar way, some climate experts believe that the 2013 Australian
heatwave will prove a turning point in how Australians respond to warnings
about human-induced climate change. In a country that relies on fossil fuels for
much of its wealth (coal is its second largest export and produces about 80% of B QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS
its electricity), climate-change sceptics have often swayed political action. 15 Identify the type of feedback
® In The Skeptical Envivonmentalist, Bjorn Lomborg argues that there are too that is self-regulating.
many uncertainties regarding global warming, although he accepts that R a—
human activity is adding to it. that leads to instability and
m In The Great Global Warming Swindle, Martin Durkin argues that global warming change.
is more likely to be caused by natural variations such as sunspot activity.
Some students assume that negative feedback has a negative impact on the Be prepared to draw a diagram of
environment — this is not so, as negative feedback can be self-regulating and positive and/or negative feedback in
reduce the amount of change in an environment. relation to global warming.
They claim that human activities and/or fossil fuel combustion are known to
increase carbon dioxide/greenhouse gas levels, and insist that carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gases are known to affect global temperatures. Therefore it is
likely that human activities are resulting in global climate change. Moreover, the
rapid rate of increase in carbon dioxide levels implies a human link.
Some claim that natural fluctuations occur, so changes in climate could still be
a short-term trend. They argue that the only technologically verifiable data have
been collected from a short period of time.
They also state that other aspects of climate change are not all fully understood
and that climate has changed in the past. This is in part due to natural fluctuations
such as Milankovitch cycles (variations in the Earth’s orbit around the Sun, in the
length of seasons and in the orientation of the poles towards or away from the Sun).
Moreover, current carbon dioxide levels and global temperature fluctuations
are moderate compared with geologic history (Figure 7.4). Therefore it is not
conclusive that humans are causing global climate change.
Global dimming
Global dimming refers to a reduction in global temperatures as a result of pollution.
In the 3 days after the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center, daily temperatures
increased by an average of 1.1°C. The cause of this increase was the grounding
of airlines in the interests of national security. The absence of vapour trails left
behind by high-flying aircraft (Figure 7.11), and the absence of small droplets
(aerosols) they form, caused this effect.
142 Topic 7 Climate change and energy production
Common mistake
There are natural causes of climate
change as well as human-induced
causes. Just because the natural ones
exist this does not mean that there is
no human impact on climate change.
SR
Figure 7.11 Contrails — the vapour trails that form behind aircraft i D
You should appreciate the variety of
Aerosols are highly reflective and reflect solar energy, thereby blocking it from conflicting arguments surrounding
entering the lower atmosphere, which has a cooling effect. Air pollution has a similar this issue. You should also note the
impact. Scientists who discovered the phenomenon called it ‘global dimming’ complexity of the problem and the
uncertainty of global climate models.
It is possible that global dimming has slowed down global warming. Ironically,
therefore, by cleaning up air pollution, climate change may be accelerated. You should be aware of the concept
of global dimming due to increased
Scientists showed that from the 1950s to the early 1990s, the level of solar energy levels of atmospheric pollution.
reaching the Earth’s surface dropped 9% in Antarctica, 10% in the USA, and
almost 30% in Russia due to high levels of pollution at that time. -
Expert tip
Natural particles in clean air provide points of attachment for water. Polluted air
contains far more particles than clean air (e.g. ash, soot, sulfur dioxide etc.) and You should be able to:
therefore provides many sites for water to bind to. These tend to be smaller than » discuss the feedback mechanisms
natural droplets. The many small water droplets reflect more sunlight than a few that would be associated
larger ones, so polluted clouds reflect far more light back into space, preventing with a change in mean global
the Sun’s heat from getting through. temperature
* evaluate contrasting viewpoints
The mechanism of global dimming works because not only are the particles over e ey oe g
polluted areas themselves reflecting more sunlight, but also the water droplets
formed around these particles reflect more light.
Mitigation strategies
Mitigation involves reduction and/or stabilisation of greenhouse gas emissions and
their removal from the atmosphere.
Mitigation strategies to reduce greenhouse gases in general may include:
®m reduction of energy consumption, for example through public transport and
energy conservation measures
® reduction of emissions of oxides of nitrogen and methane from agriculture, for
example using less chemical fertilisers and consuming more vegetables
B using alternatives to fossil fuels, for example more HEP, wind- and solar-energy
® geo-engineering, for example CO, capture from air, cloud seeding, space-based
reflectors, land-based reflectors and ocean fertilisation.
7.3 Climate change — mitigation and adaptation 143
B introducing carbon taxes to make the use of fossil fuels more expensive relative
to other forms of energy
B carbon trading, in an attempt to manage the amount of carbon dioxide
released by different sectors/industries; this places a limit on total trading
B carbon offset schemes, in an attempt to reduce the overall impact of carbon
emissions by investing in projects that cut emissions elsewhere
Mitigation strategies for carbon dioxide removal (CDR) include:
B conserving, protecting and enhancing carbon sinks through land management,
for example through the UN Initiative on Reducing Emissions from
Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (UN-REDD)
® using biomass as a fuel source, although this may take up valuable land for
farming and drive up food prices
B using carbon capture and storage (CCS) either at the plant where it is produced
and then storing it in a geological deposit underground, or removing it from the
atmosphere with chemical sorbents, a process known as air capture. However,
CSS technologies are costly and unproven.
® enhancing carbon dioxide absorption by the oceans through either
fertilising oceans with compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus and iron to
encourage the biological pump, or increasing upwellings to release nutrients
to the surface. This increases marine food production, and removes carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere.
Even if mitigation strategies drastically reduce future emissions of greenhouse
gases, past emissions will continue to have an effect for decades to come.
Adaptation strategies
Adaptation strategies can be used to reduce adverse affects and maximise any
positive effects. Examples of adaptations include flood defences, vaccination
programmes, desalinisation plants and planting of crops in previously unsuitable
climates. Adaptive capacity varies from place to place and can be dependent on
financial and technological resources. Rich countries can provide economic and
technological support to low-income countries.
International agreements
There are international efforts and conferences to address mitigation and
adaptation strategies for climate change — for example, the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), National Adaptation Programmes of Action
(NAPASs) and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCCQ). The IPCC believes that carbon capture and storage are extremely
important. NAPAs are a list of ranked priority adaptation activities and projects.
They focus on urgent and immediate needs.
Even if greenhouse gas production is cut by between 60% and 80%, there is still Expert tip
enough greenhouse gas in the atmosphere to raise temperatures by 5°C.
You should consider the following
The Kyoto Protocol deadline was the end of 2012 (Figure 7.11). However, it was pollution management strategies
only meant to be the beginning of a long-term process, not the end of one. when answering exam questions:
* global — intergovernmental and
™ Paris Conference, 2015 international agreements (for
The 2015 UN Climate Change Conference was held in Paris. Paris was taken example, the Kyoto Agreement
and subsequent updates), carbon
as an example of a HIC that had decarbonised its energy production — France
tax and carbon trading, alternative
generates over 90% of its energy from nuclear power, hydroelectric power and energy sources
wind energy. The conference resulted in the Paris Agreement on the reduction of
* local — explore your lifestyle
climate change. 174 countries signed the agreement. The key objective is to limit
with respect to greenhouse gas
global warming to 2°C compared with pre-industrial levels. It also seeks for zero emissions.
net anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions between 2050 and 2100. To achieve a
Consider both preventive and reactive
1.5°C goal would require zero net emissions by 2030-50.
strategies.
Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, there are no country-specific goals or a detailed timetable
for achieving the goals. Countries are expected to reduce their carbon usage ‘as soon
as possible’. However, there is no mechanism to force a country to set a specific target,
nor is there any measure to penalise countries if their targets are not made.
Gore releases |- 20
u entary about
s a worldwide
best
and he shares
with the IPCC
15 — 15
10 =10
=5
1980 85 90 95 2000 05 10 15 20
Forecast
S TTg R[]
B QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS
You should be able to:
21 Distinguish between mitigation and adaptation.
» discuss mitigation and adaptation
22 Qutline the range of geo-engineering techniques.
strategies to deal with impacts of
climate change
EXAM PRACTICE ¢ evaluate the effectiveness of
international climate change talks.
3 Describe ecocentric and technocentric responses to global warming and
justify which may be more effective in reducing the impacts of global
warming. [7]
4 Justify the argument that changes need to be made in individual lifestyles
to effectively address the issues of global warming. (6]
Topic 8 Human systems and resource use
8.1 Human population dynamics
SIGNIFICANT IDEAS
¢ A variety of models and indicators are employed to quantify human
population dynamics.
e Human population growth rates are impacted by a complex range of
changing factors.
Demographic indicators
Keyword definitions
Crude birth rate (CBR) — The number of live births per 1000 people in a
population per year.
Crude death rate (CDR) — The number of deaths per 1000 people in a
population per year.
Infant mortality rate (IMR) — The number of deaths of children less than
1 year old per 1000 live births per year.
Total fertility rate (TFR) — The average number of births per woman of
childbearing age.
Natural increase (annual growth rate) — Found by subtracting the crude
death rate (%o — per thousand) from the crude birth rate (%o) and is then
expressed as a percentage (%):
_ birth rate per 1000 - death rate per 1000
natural increase (%)
10
Highest growth rates are found in Africa, while lowest growth rates are in
North America and Europe.
Doubling time — The length of time it takes for a population to double in
size, assuming its natural growth rate remains constant. Approximate values
for it can be obtained by using the formula:
o 70
doubl
oubling time (years) =
growth rate (%)
Life expectancy (EO) — The average number of years that a person can
be expected to live, usually from birth, if demographic factors remain
unchanged.
2
2
3 6
c
2
& 4
=
2
o
o.
Keyword definition
RD 3N Ro &a SN 3o 2o &o &o go Ro Exponential
] .
growth — . An
- - - - = ~ N ~ ~ ~ ~ increasing or accelerating rate of
Year growth, sometimes referred to as a
Figure 8.1 Exponential growth of the world’s population, 1950-2050 J-shaped or J-population curve.
Afghanistan USA
GBI 38.57 12.49 Common mistake
i The world’s population is not
bbbtk G 13.89 8.15 currently undergoing exponential
Natural increase (%) growth — it is slowing down — more
of an S-population curve than a
Doubling time (years) J-population curve.
148 Topic 8 Human systems and resource use
Germany: 2000
MALE FEMALE
100+
Very high death rate 95-99 High birth rate in
in over 80 yr old men 90-94
85-89 expansionist Germany
due to Second
Knock-on 80-84
World War 75-79 (pre war) Low birth
effect of large 70-74 rates after
65-69
60-64 war due to
55-59 p high male
50-54
45-49 mortality in
40-44 war
35-39
30-34
25-29
Large 20-24
15-19
decline in 10-14
birth rate 5-9
0-4
|
4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Germany: 2050
MALE FEMALE
100+
95-99 Large imbalance
Increasingly 90-94 between female
elderly 85-89
80-84 and male
population 75-79 especially over 85 yrs
70-74
65-69
60-64
55-59
Steep sides 50-54
45-49
indicates 40-44
low death rate 35-39
30-34
25-29
20-24
15-19 Declining
10-14
5-9 birth rate
0-4 /
I [ | | | | | I
4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 35 4.0
Population (in millions)
—
Bo'fswana: 20_00
FEMALE
High proportion of
young <20 yrs Low proportion of over 60 yr olds
Falling
birth rate
120 100 &0 60 40 20 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
y D_eclimng
birth rate
+ . p
5= 40 7‘2%___/—\\ Birth rate
2= 30
N Death rate
g Keyword definition
% 20 /\ \ Demographic transition model —
© T \ N ] A model that shows the change
gs opulation ; : g
<10 grcE)vL\J/th © - in a population from one that has
2 high birth rates and high death
@ rates to a country that has low
o
0o 2 4 6 8 10
Percent of population
Common mistake
When describing a map of global variations in birth rates or fertility rates, look Crude birth rates and crude death
out for the highest, lowest, trends and exceptions. Also, make sure you use the rates are called crude because they
key, and give some examples of each. do not take into account the age
structure of a population.
W Patterns of mortality
At the global scale, the pattern of mortality in rich countries differs from that
in poor countries.
In rich countries, as a result of better nutrition, health care and environmental
conditions (housing safe water, proper sanitation), the death rate has fallen
steadily, with very high life expectancies (75+ years).
In many of the very poor countries, high death rates and low life expectancies
are still common, although both have shown steady improvement over the past
few decades. This trend, unfortunately, has been reversed as a consequence of
AIDS in some parts of the world, especially sub-Saharan Africa and Russia.
Some populations, such as those in retirement towns and especially in the
older industrialised countries, have very high life expectancies and this in turn
results in a rise in the CDR. Countries with a large proportion of young people
will have much lower death rates.
8.1 Human population dynamics 151
CASE STUDY
CONTRASTING POPULATION POLICIES IN CHINA AND SINGAPORE
The most famous anti-natalist policy is China’s one-child policy, which was introduced in 1979. It limited the majority of
Chinese families to just one child. Without it, China’s population would now be 400 million larger.
Some critics believe that China’s fertility would have come down regardless, as a result of urbanisation, industrialisation,
improved female education and more working women. Policies directed towards the education of women, enabling women
to have greater personal and economic independence, may be the most effective method for reducing population pressure.
China’s one-child policy lasted between 1979 and 2015, when it was replaced by a two-child policy.
Singapore also followed an anti-natalist policy, but changed during the 1980s to a pro-natalist policy. Its fertility rate had
dropped to below 1.25, and the workforce was decreasing in size. The government offered incentives to families to have
three or more children if they could afford them.
Despite the incentives, Singapore's fertility rate has remained low, as women continue to play an active role in the
workforce, and are choosing jobs ahead of having children.
Common mistake
Some students state that the one-child policy is the reason for the fall in the
birth rate in China. It is just one factor among many — female education, female
participation in the workforce, rising material ambitions and industrialisation are
also important.
152 Topic 8 Human systems and resource use
EXAM PRACTICE
Describe the population growth in Europe, as shown in Figure 8.1. (3]
Explain the implications of exponential growth in human populations. (4]
WN
Examine how socio-cultural and economic factors affect birth rates. (8]
Analyse the demographic transition model as a way of showing
a2
Haiti: 2010
MALE FEMALE
700 600 500 400 300 200 100 O 0O 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Population (in thousands)
SIGNIFICANT IDEAS
* The renewability of natural capital has implications for its sustainable use.
e The status and economic value of natural capital is dynamic.
8.2 Resource use in society 153
DT Ia ]
Deforestation can be used to illustrate the concept of sustainability and
unsustainability.
* If the rate of forest removal is less than the annual growth of the forest, then
the forest removal is sustainable.
* |f the rate of forest removal is greater than the annual growth of the forest,
then the forest removal is unsustainable.
Common mistake
Some students think that nuclear energy is a renewable form of energy — it is
non-renewable. It is, however, considered to be an alternative form of energy
(alternative to the carbon-rich fuels such as oil, natural gas and coal). Politically,
some countries have considered nuclear energy alongside renewables, such as
HEP and wind energy. However, uranium will run out just as fossil fuels will.
154 Topic 8 Human systems and resource use
Direct use value Indirect use value Optional value Existence valu Natural income — The portion
e consumptive e option of natural capital (resources) that
® non-consumptive ¢ bequest
is produced as ‘interest’, i.e. the
Figure 8.5 Methods of assessing natural capital sustainable income produced by
natural capital.
m Direct use values are ecosystem goods and services that are directly used by
humans — most often by people visiting or residing in the ecosystem.
m Consumptive use values include harvesting food products, timber for fuel or
housing, medicinal products and hunting animals for food and clothing.
m Non-consumptive use values include recreational and cultural activities that
do not require harvesting of products.
® Indirect use values are derived from ecosystem services that provide benefits
outside the ecosystem itself (e.g. natural water filtration, which may benefit
people downstream).
m Optional values are derived from the potential future use of ecosystem goods
and services not currently used — either by yourself (option value) or your
future offspring (bequest value).
® Non-use values include aesthetic and intrinsic values, and are sometimes
called existence values. They have no market price.
Ecosystems that are valued on aesthetic or intrinsic grounds may not provide
identifiable goods or services, and so remain unpriced or undervalued from an
economic viewpoint.
There are many examples of places or ecosystems that have an important national
identity — for example, Mount Fuji in Japan or Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania.
Uluru (Ayers Rock) in Australia has great spiritual value for the Aboriginal
population. Such areas or ecosystems have intrinsic value from an ethical,
spiritual or philosophical perspective, and are valued regardless of their potential
use to humans.
There are many attempts to value nature — for example, biodiversity and rate
of depletion of natural resources — so that they can be weighed more rigorously
against more common economic values (for example, gross national income
(GNI)). However, to a large extent these valuations are impossible to quantify
realistically. Not surprisingly, much of the sustainability debate centres on the
problem of how to weigh conflicting values in our treatment of natural capital.
Use Non-use
m Supporting services are the essentials for life and include primary
productivity, soil formation and the cycling of nutrients.
®m Regulating services are a diverse set of services and include pollination,
regulation of pests and diseases and production of goods such as food, fibres
and wood. Other services include climate and hazard regulation and water
quality regulation. Expert tip
m Provisioning services are the services people obtain from ecosystems such as The supporting services, including
food, fibre, fuel (peat, wood and non-woody biomass) and water from aquifers, primary production and nutrient
rivers and lakes. Goods can be from heavily managed ecosystems (intensive cycling, are not listed for the
farms and fish farms) or from semi-natural ones (such as by hunting and individual habitats as they are
fishing). considered necessary for the
® Cultural services are derived from places where people’s interaction with production of all other ecosystem
nature provides cultural goods and benefits. Open spaces — such as gardens, services.
parks, rivers, forests, lakes, the sea-shore and wilderness areas — provide
opportunity for outdoor recreation, learning, spiritual wellbeing and
improvements to human health. B QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS
8 Identify two forms of natural
income that might be derived
from the damming of rivers.
The terms natural resources and natural capital are often substituted for each 9 Suggest another way of valuing
other. However, 'natural resources’ suggests that resources are there to be used, the temperate deciduous
whereas ‘natural capital’ suggests something to be managed to produce an woodland ecosystem other than
income or a return on the investment. for its economic value.
Common mistake
It is quite common to think of energy resources when thinking of the dynamic
nature of resources. However, other resources — such as ecosystems — can change
in importance over time.
Expert tip
You should be able to:
SIGNIFICANT IDEAS
¢ Solid domestic waste (SDW) is increasing as a result of growing human
populations and consumption.
* Both the production and management of SDW can have significant
influence on sustainability.
The amount will vary from place to place (Figure 8.7), and over time. The total
volume of waste generated can be over 800kg per person per year.
Metals
Other
349
Paper/cardboard
7.1% 9.9%
Other plastic
4.4%
Plastic
2.9% A
Glass
6.8%
Other organic
Food/kitchen
waste
38.1%
Figure 8.7 The WEEE man at the
Eden Project, Cornwall, UK, by
sculptor Paul Bonomini, standing
Green waste
17.8% 7m tall and weighing 3.3 tonnes
Non-biodegradable waste
The abundance and prevalence of non-biodegradable pollution, such as plastics,
batteries and e-waste, has become a major environmental issue. China receives
about 70% of the world’s electronic waste. Processing and recycling electronic waste B QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS
has come at a high cost for many living in and around the factories. In Guiyu, the 12 Identify the type of waste that
so-called e-waste capital of the world, workers suffer from lead poisoning, cancer we might expect to increase
and elevated risk of miscarriage. Soil, water and air have all become polluted. around Christmas time.
13 Explain how the volume of
waste is likely to vary for a
Keyword definition household in Tokyo (Japan) and
Biodegradable — Capable of being broken down by natural biological one in Kabul (Afghanistan).
processes — for example, through the activities of decomposer organisms.
You should consider your own and your community’s generation of waste.
Common mistake
Consider the different types of material — for example, paper, glass, metal,
plastics, organic waste (kitchen or garden), packaging — as well as their total Nappies are a form of solid domestic
volume. Keep a record of your waste for a week. waste, but faeces are not.
Advantages Disadvantages
M Reuse
Table 8.3 Advantages and disadvantages of reuse
Advantages Disadvantages
e Little energy is used e It can require energy to clean the products being reused (e.g. milk bottles)
e It provides cheap resources for people of limited e The products may be heavy to transport (e.g. milk bottles)
means e The products will eventually wear out and must be disposed of
m Composting
Table 8.4 Advantages and disadvantages of composting
Advantages Disadvantages
e It produces fertiliser e It produces unpleasant smells
e Itreduces the volume of waste e It can attract vermin if not done properly
e It reduces the use of chemical fertilisers e It requires effort and space
o |[ttakes time
M Incineration
Table 8.5 Advantages and disadvantages of incineration
Advantages Disadvantages
e It reduces the volume of waste, thereby reducing the need for e It releases toxic chemicals
landfill e It produces greenhouse gases
e The heat produced can be used in place of burning fossil fuels o Ash still needs disposal
e Itproduces ash for construction e There may be considerable community resistance to the
e Itis a way of producing energy from waste building of new incinerators
® Landfill
Table 8.6 Advantages and disadvantages of landfill
Advantages Disadvantages
e Itis a cheap and easy way to dispose of waste Leachate can pollute watercourses and groundwater.
e Itis a way of producing energy (in the form of It gives off unpleasant odours
methane) from waste It increases vermin, which can cause disease to spread
e Relatively limited amounts of time and labour are It produces methane, which is a greenhouse gas
required
_ It takes up land area, and in many places (e.g. New York, USA) there is a
e Itcan create land (e.g. in Hong Kong) limited amount of space available for landfill
e There is potential of subsidence and/or contamination of future building land
Human activity
producing
pollutant
y
Release of
pollutant into
environ ment
\J
Long-t erm
mpact of
pollutant on
ecosystem
R L
materials.
You should be able to:
Carrying capacity
By examining carefully the requirements of a given species and the resources available,
it might be possible to estimate the carrying capacity of that environment for the
species. This is problematic in the case of human populations for a number of reasons: Keyword definitions
Carrying capacity — The
®m The range of resources used by humans is usually much greater than for any
maximum number of a species
other species.
or ‘load’ that can be sustainably
m Furthermore, when one resource becomes limiting, humans show great
supported by a given environment.
ingenuity in substituting one resource for another, for example plastic for glass,
or shale gas for coal and oil.
m Resource requirements vary according to lifestyles, which differ over time and
from population to population. For example, a Maasai herdsman uses far fewer
resources than an urban dweller in a rich country.
m Technological developments give rise to continual changes in the resources
required and available for consumption, for example the increase in nuclear
power since the 1950s.
® Human populations regularly import resources from outside their immediate
environment, which enables them to grow beyond the boundaries set by their
local resources and increases their carrying capacity. The import of food (and
even cut flowers) from countries such as Kenya and Zimbabwe in Africa into
Europe is a good example. China’s purchase of land in Ethiopia and Sudan is
another. In this case food is grown and exported to China.
m While importing resources in this way increases the carrying capacity for the
local population, it has no influence on global carrying capacity.
m All these variables make it practically impossible to make reliable estimates of
carrying capacities for human populations.
Certain areas can ‘carry’ more people than others. For example, areas with warm,
wet climates and fertile soils can support large population densities. By contrast,
areas that are too hot, too dry, too cold or too wet will be unable to support many
people because they cannot produce sufficient food. B QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS
However, in the globalised world, with increased trade, it is possible to get goods 16 Define the term carrying
to cold areas or hot and dry regions, so that these areas can now support a larger capacity
resident population through the import of food and water. Examples include 17 Explain why it is difficult to give
Dubai in the Middle East and the research stations in Antarctica. a precise value for a country’s
carrying capacity for a human
M Increasing carrying capacity population.
Human carrying capacity is determined by the rate of resource consumption, the
level of pollution and also the extent of recycling, reuse and reduction in the use Common mistake
of resources.
Students commonly confuse carrying
The limits to growth model (Figure 8.11) was developed in the early 1970s. It capacity with ecological footprint.
predicted that the limits to the growth of the human population would be reached The carrying capacity is the maximum
by 2100. This is sometimes called a neo-Malthusian view after Thomas Malthus, number of a species (people) that
who suggested in 1798 that the growth of the human population would outstrip can be sustainably supported by a
the ability of the Earth to provide sufficient food resources for the population. given environment. In contrast, the
ecological footprint refers to the area
However, it also suggested that it would be possible to change these projections.
of land and water required to support
The optimistic view was championed by Esther Boserup, whose views have often a defined human population at a
been summarised by the phrase ‘necessity is the mother of invention’. There are a given standard of living.
number of ways in which food production, for example, could be increased:
m growing crops in nutrient-enriched water — hydroponics S LTa o)
m use of high-yielding varieties (HY Vs) of plants and selective breeding of animals Carrying capacities are not static
W greater use of irrigation and fertilisers —they can increase or decrease
®m land reclamation — from the sea, draining of wetlands and terracing of steep slopes over time. The optimistic point of
m growing crops in greenhouses. view is that carrying capacity will
be increased through technological
In terms of energy, there has been: improvements (e.qg. irrigation,
m use of new resources, such as shale gas fertilisers, GM food). Pessimists state
m greater development of alternative energy, such as HEP, solar and wind energy that the Earth is a finite resource that
can only sustain a certain level of
B increased energy conservation — in the home, in public buildings, in industry
population.
and in transport.
8.4 Human population carrying capacity 161
As awareness of the problem of resource depletion increases, measures are being Expert tip
taken to tackle the issue. On the other hand, as once poorer countries industrialise, -
for example Korea, China, India and Vietnam, and standards of living rise, there is The limits to growth model treats
increased demand for resources, including food, water and energy. the world a5a single entity: However,
some regions are resource rich, some
resource poor. Some areas have rapid
Resources T . & A ;l population growth, while others have
ey o7 \'{' slowed down their growth. Thus, the
Nt /. Industrial model is an over-simplification — not
2 _ B £ N output all areas of the world will behave as
g Population / . J\ ~ indicated in Figure 8.11.
2 N\ - g, S %
° N 5
5 o
5 SNo \ v
\
\ B QUICK CHECK QUESTIONS
—//// g //’/ Y3 | 18 Describe the population curve
i | | " Mt ] shown in Figure 8.11.
_______ ~ | __—===""1 Pollution Food . 19 Comment on the nature of the
resources curve shown in
1900 2000 2100 Figure 8.11.
Common mistake
DN\ MV es
Some students accept the changes
7 'Earth provides enough to satisfy every man’s need, but not every man’s suggested by the limits to growth
greed.’ (Mahatma Gandhi) model. Many of these changes
"We do not inherit the Earth from our ancestors: we borrow it from our might not happen, depending
children.’ (traditional Kenyan proverb and Native American saying) on the choices that people make.
With reference to the concepts of carrying capacity and environmental With increased recycling and reuse
value systems, discuss the two quotations above. [7] of resources, for example, human
8 Justify your response to the claim that the human population has e R
exceeded the Earth’s carrying capacity. [7]
Ecological footprints
The ecological footprint of a population is the area of land, in the same vicinity
as the population, that would be required to provide all the population’s resources
and assimilate its wastes. The EF is a useful model for assessing the demands Keyword definition
that human populations make on their environment. It consists of eight main Ecological footprint — The
categories, as outlined in Table 8.7. area of land and water required
to support a defined human
Table 8.7 Categories contributing to the EF population at a given standard of
living. The measure takes account
Land category Land use Land use category
of the area required to provide
Energy land Land ‘appropriated" by Energy or CO, all the resources needed by the
fossil fuel energy use population, and the assimilation of
Consumed land Built environment Degraded land all wastes.
Currently used land Gardens Reversibly built environments
Crop land Cultivated systems
Pasture Modified systems
Managed forest Modified systems
Land of limited availability ~ Untouched forest Productive natural ecosystems
Non-productive areas Ice caps, deserts
162 Topic 8 Human systems and resource use
Advantages Disadvantages
It is a useful snapshot of the sustainability of a population’s It does not include all information on the environmental impacts of human
lifestyle activities
It provides a means for individuals or governments to It is only a model so it is a simplification and lacks precision
measure their impact and to identify potential changes in It uses approximations of actual figures that cannot be accurately
lifestyle calculated
Itis a popular symbol for raising awareness of environmental |t does not show the types of resource used — it shows only total resources
issues
It is negative in approach, so could be perceived as demotivating
per capita CO _emission (kgC yr™) National EFs hide variations in use.
net carbon fixation per hectare of local vegetation (kg Cha yr Some people in a society have a very
large EF, whereas others have a small
The total land requirement (EF) can then be calculated as the sum of these two
EF.
per capita requirements, multiplied by the total population.
This calculation clearly ignores the land or water required to: provide any aquatic LR
and atmospheric resources; assimilate wastes other than carbon dioxide; produce
the energy and material subsidies imported to arable land for increasing yields; There are different approaches
replace loss of productive land through urbanisation; and so on. However, as a to the study of EFs. For example,
ecocentrists suggest that the only
model, it is able to provide a quantitative estimate of human carrying capacity.
way we can reduce our EF is by
It is, in fact, the inverse of carrying capacity as it refers to the area required to working with nature. In contrast,
sustainably support a given population rather than the population that a given T e
area can sustainably support. can reduce our EF with the use of
technology.
Worked example
Per capita food (grain) Mean food (grain) Per capita Net carbon fixation per
consumption (kgyr') production per hectare CO, emission hectare (kgCha'yr)
of local arable land (kgCyr-’
(kgha-'yr )
Brazil 210 2919 1900 10000
Canada 710 3031 16900 4000
Common mistake
Some students forget to give any units — ecological footprints refer to the size
of land/water needed to support a population. The units should be given as
hectares (ha) or global hectares (gha).
Expert tip
Be aware of some of the differences in the size of ecological footprint for contrasting
countries, as well as differences in the structure (make-up) of the footprint, as shown
in Figure 8.12.
B -6
W 459
W 2-39
W19
[70-0.9
|| Data not available 4000 6000
4000 6000 8000 km km
UK 60 million 6.29
DR Ve e Common mistake
9 Explain why some people believe that the EFs of some countries need to Reducing population growth does
be reduced. Justify whether an ecocentric or a technocentric approach to not necessarily lead to lower resource
reducing the EF is more likely to be successful. 9] consumption — usually it coincides
10 Discuss how development policies and cultural influences can affect with increased consumption.
human population dynamics and growth. (8]
Expert tip
As countries develop, their ecological footprint generally increases, and the need
for sustainable forms of development increases. The world could support many
more people living at the EF of the ‘average’ Indian or Afghan citizen, compared
with the ‘average’ American citizen.
Expert tip
You should be able to:
7
=] Exam ready
Topic 1 Foundations of environmental systems
and societies
Social systems
Intrinsic value
Models
Tipping points
Resilience of a system
-
Are you ready? 167
( %
Revised Tested S ET N
1.4 Sustainability
Sustainable development
Ecological footprints
Population interactions
%
168 Are you ready?
Biomes
Succession
Climax communities
Zonation
%
Are you ready? 169
Biodiversity ||
Diversity indices H
Evolution B || B
Plate activity B || N
% S
170 Are you ready?
( Revised Tested S ET N
Strengths and weaknesses of the species-based
approach to conservation n o N
Access to freshwater
Indicator species
Biotic indices
Eutrophication
%
Are you ready? 171
/ %
Revised S ET N
5.2 Terrestrial food production systems
and food choices
Sustainability
Inequalities
Food distribution
Cultural choices
Food sustainability
Soil degradation
T Tested S ET N
6.4 Acid deposition
Energy sources
Energy security
Energy choices
Global dimming
Mitigation strategies
Adaptation strategies
International agreements
%
Are you ready? 173
/ i
AL Exam ready
Topic 8 Human systems and resource use
Demographic indicators
Non-biodegradable waste
Carrying capacity
Ecological footprints
e
Glossary
Abiotic factor A non-living, physical factor that can Competition A common demand by two or more
influence an organism or ecosystem — for example, organisms for a limited supply of a resource such as food,
temperature, sunlight, pH, salinity or precipitation. water, light, space, mates and nesting sites.
Acute pollution Pollution that produces its effects Continental Relating to areas that are distant from the coast.
through a short, intense exposure. Symptoms are usually Crude birth rate (CBR) The number of live births per
experienced within hours. 1000 people in a population per year.
Adaptive radiation Where an ancestral species evolves to Crude death rate (CDR) The number of deaths per 1000
fill different ecological niches, leading to new species. people in a population per year.
Age—sex pyramid A bar graph that shows the relative or Demographic transition model A model that shows the
absolute amount of people in a population at different change in a population from one that has high birth
ages and of different sexes. rates and high death rates to a country that has low
Albedo A measure of the reflecting power of a surface in birth rates and low death rates.
relation to the amount of short-wave radiation received. Desertification The spread of desert-like conditions into
The amount of light reflected by a surface. previously green areas, causing a long-term decline in
Aquifer Water-bearing rock. biological productivity.
Bacteria Very small, single-celled organisms that do not Diversity A generic term for heterogeneity (i.e. variation
have a true nucleus. or variety). The scientific meaning of diversity becomes
Bioaccumulation The build-up of persistent or non- clear from the context in which it is used; it can refer
biodegradable pollutants within an organism or trophic to heterogeneity of species or habitat, or to genetic
level because they cannot be broken down. heterogeneity.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) A measure of the Doubling time The length of time it takes for a
amount of dissolved oxygen required to break down the population to double in size, assuming its natural growth
organic material in a given volume of water through rate remains constant. Approximate values for it can be
aerobic biological activity. obtained by using the formula:
Biodegradable Capable of being broken down by natural 70
biological processes — for example, through the activities doubling time (years) orowth rate (%)
of decomposer organisms.
Ecological footprint (EF) The area of land and water
Biodiversity The amount of biological or living diversity
required to support a defined human population at a
per unit area. It includes the concepts of species diversity, given standard of living. The measure takes account of
habitat diversity and genetic diversity.
the area required to provide all the resources needed by
Biomagnification The increase in concentration of
the population, and the assimilation of wastes.
persistent or non-biodegradable pollutants along a food Ecological value Resources with no formal market price:
chain.
soil erosion control, nitrogen fixation and photosynthesis
Biomass The mass of organic material in organisms or
are all essential for human existence but have no direct
ecosystems, usually stated per unit area.
monetary value, although some estimates have been made.
Biome A collection of ecosystems sharing similar climatic
Economic value The market price of the goods and
conditions — for example, tundra, tropical rainforest and
services a resource produces.
desert.
Economic water scarcity Where water is available locally,
Biosphere That part of the Earth inhabited by organisms.
but not accessible for human, institutional or financial
Biotic factor A living part of an ecosystem (i.e. part of
capital reasons.
the community) that can influence an organism or
Ecosystem A community and the physical environment
eCOSYStem.
with which it interacts.
Carrying capacity The maximum number of a species
Eluviation The removal of material down a soil through
or ‘load’ that can be sustainably supported by a given
solution and suspension.
environment.
Energy security Having an adequate, reliable and
Chronic pollution Pollution that produces its effects affordable supply of energy.
through low-level, long-term exposure. Disease
Entropy A measure of the amount of disorder, chaos or
symptoms develop up to several decades later. randomness in a system; the greater the disorder, the
Climax community A community of organisms that higher the level of entropy.
is more or less stable, and that is in equilibrium with
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) A method of
natural environmental conditions such as climate. It is
detailed survey required, in many countries, before a
the end point of ecological succession. major development. Ideally it should be independent
Closed system A system that exchanges only energy but of, but paid for by, the developer. It should include a
not matter with its surroundings (e.g. the Earth).
baseline study, and monitoring should continue after
Community A group of populations living and interacting
completion of the project.
with each other in a common habitat.
Glossary 175
Environmental impact statement Report produced by an Halogenated organic gases Usually known as halocarbons,
environmental impact assessment these were first identified as depleting the ozone layer in the
Environmental value system A particular worldview stratosphere. They are now known to be potent greenhouse
that shapes the way an individual or group of people gases. The best-known are the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
perceives and evaluates environmental issues, influenced Humus Partially decomposed organic matter derived from
by cultural, religious, economic and sociopolitical the decay of dead plants and animals in soils.
contexts. Hydrological cycle The cycle of water between the
Equilibrium A state of balance among the components of atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere.
a system. [lluviation The redeposition of material in the lower
Eutrophication The natural or artificial enrichment of a horizons.
body of water, particularly with respect to nitrates and Indicator species A species whose presence, absence or
phosphates, that results in depletion of oxygen levels abundance can be used as an indication of pollution.
in the water. Eutrophication is accelerated by human Infant mortality rate (IMR) The number of deaths of
activities that add detergents, sewage or agricultural children less than 1 year old per 1000 live births per year.
fertilisers to bodies of water. Intrinsic value A characteristic of a natural system
Evolution The cumulative, gradual change in the genetic that has an inherent worth, irrespective of economic
characteristics of successive generations of a species or considerations, such as the belief that all life on Earth
race of an organism, ultimately giving rise to species or has a right to exist.
races different from the common ancestor. Evolution Invasive species Introduction of non-native species.
reflects changes in the genetic composition of a Isolated system A system that does not exchange
population over time. either matter or energy with its surroundings (e.g. the
Exponential growth An increasing or accelerating Universe).
rate of growth, sometimes referred to as a J-shaped or Isolation The process by which two populations become
J-population curve. separated by geographical, behavioural, genetic or
Extrapolation technique Estimating values beyond reproductive factors. If gene flow between the two
measured values, using graphs or other techniques. subpopulations is prevented, new species may evolve. See
Feedback When part of the output from a system returns also evolution
as an input, so as to affect subsequent outputs. J-population curve Population growth curve which shows
Fossil fuels Non-renewable resources including oil, coal, exponential growth. Growth is initially slow, then
natural gas and shale gas. increasingly rapid, and does not slow down.
Fundamental niche The full range of conditions K-strategists Species that usually concentrate their
and resources in which a species could survive and reproductive investment in a small number of offspring,
reproduce. thus increasing their survival rate and adapting them for
Fungi Organisms that are heterotrophic and have cell walls living in long-term climax communities.
made of chitin. Latitude The angular distance from the equator (north
Genetic diversity The range of genetic material present in a or south of it) as measured from the centre of the Earth
population of a species. (usually in degrees).
Global warming An increase in average temperature of Leaching The removal of soluble material in solution.
the Earth’s atmosphere. Life expectancy (EO) The average number of years that
Greenhouse gases Atmospheric gases that absorb infrared a person can be expected to live, usually from birth, if
radiation, causing world temperatures to be warmer than demographic factors remain unchanged.
they would otherwise be. This process is sometimes Maritime Relating to areas that are close to the coast.
known as ‘radiation trapping’. The natural greenhouse Mass extinction Events in which 75% of the species on Earth
effect is caused mainly by water and carbon dioxide. disappear within a geologically short time period, usually
Gross primary productivity (GPP) The total gain in between a few hundred thousand to a few million years.
energy or biomass per unit area per unit time fixed by Maximum sustainable yield The rate of increase in natural
photosynthesis in green plants. capital, i.e. that which can be exploited without depleting
Gross productivity (GP) The total gain in energy or the original stock or its potential from replenishment.
biomass per unit area per unit time, which could Model A simplified version of a system. It shows the flows
be through photosynthesis in primary producers or and storages as well as the structure and workings.
absorption in consumers. Motile organism One that can actively move under its
Gross secondary productivity (GSP) The total gain by own power from place to place.
consumers in energy or biomass per unit area per unit Natural capital Natural resources that are managed to
time through absorption. provide a sustainable natural income from goods or services.
Groundwater Water that is found beneath the Earth’s Natural income The portion of natural capital (resources)
surface in water-bearing rocks. that is produced as ‘interest’, i.e. the sustainable income
Habitat The environment in which a species normally lives. produced by natural capital.
Habitat diversity The range of different habitats in an Natural increase (annual growth rate) Found by
ecosystem or biome. Conservation of habitat diversity subtracting the crude death rate (%o — per thousand)
usually leads to the conservation of species and genetic from the crude birth rate (%o) and is then expressed as a
diversity. percentage (%):
176 Glossary
Negative feedback Feedback that tends to counteract any Primary productivity The gain by producers in energy
deviation from equilibrium and promotes stability. or biomass per unit area per unit time. This term could
Net primary productivity (NPP) The gain by producers refer to either gross or net primary productivity.
in energy or biomass per unit area per unit time Pro-natalist population policy A policy that is in favour
remaining after allowing for respiratory losses (R). This of more births.
is potentially available to consumers in an ecosystem. Realised niche The actual conditions and resources in
Net productivity (NP) The gain in energy or biomass which a species exists due to biotic interactions.
per unit area per unit time remaining after allowing for Regolith The irregular cover of loose rock debris that
respiratory losses (R). covers the Earth.
Net secondary productivity (NSP) The gain by Renewable Natural resources that have a sustainable
consumers in energy or biomass per unit area per unit yield or harvest equal to, or less than, their natural
time remaining after allowing for respiratory losses (R). productivity — for example, timber.
Niche A species’ share of a habitat and the resources in Resilience The tendency of a system to avoid tipping points
it. An organism’s ecological niche depends not only on and maintain stability through steady-state equilibrium
where it lives but also on what it does. r-strategists Species that tend to spread their reproductive
Non-motile organism One that cannot move or, for the investment among a large number of offspring so that
purposes of sampling, can only move very slowly (such as they are well adapted to colonise new habitats rapidly
limpets on the rocky shore). and make opportunistic use of short-lived resources.
Non-point-source pollution The release of pollutants from Secondary pollutant A pollutant that arises from a
numerous, widely dispersed origins — for example, gases primary pollutant that has undergone physical or
from the exhaust systems of vehicles or power plants. chemical change.
Non-renewable Natural resources that cannot be Secondary productivity The biomass gained by consumers
replenished within a timescale of the same order as that (heterotrophic organisms), through feeding and
at which they are taken from the environment and used absorption, measured in units of mass or energy per unit
— for example, fossil fuels. area per unit time.
Ocean conveyor belt The deep, large-scale circulation Sere The set of communities that succeeds another over
of the ocean’s waters that is largely responsible for the the course of succession at a given location.
transfer of heat from the tropics to colder regions. Smog The term now used for any haziness in the atmosphere
Omnivore An organism that eats both plants and animals. caused by air pollutants. Photochemical smog is produced
Open system A system that exchanges both matter and through the effect of ultraviolet light on the products of
energy with its surroundings (e.g. an ecosystem). internal combustion engines. It may contain ozone and is
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) Chemical substances damaging to the human respiratory system and eyes.
that persist in the environment, bioaccumulate through Social system People, groups and institutions that work
the food web, and pose a risk of causing adverse effects together, forming distinct patterns and relationships that
to human health and the environment. define the society.
Physical water scarcity Where water resource Society An arbitrary group of individuals who share some
development is approaching, or has exceeded, common characteristic such as geographical location,
unsustainable levels. It relates water availability to water cultural background, historical timeframe, religious
demand and implies that arid areas are not necessarily perspective, value system and so on.
water scarce. Soil A mixture of mineral particles and organic material
Pioneer community The first stage of an ecological that covers the land, and in which terrestrial plants grow.
succession that contains hardy species able to withstand Soil profile A vertical section through a soil, from the
difficult conditions. surface down to the parent material, revealing the soil
Plate tectonics The movement of the eight major and layers or horizons.
several minor internally rigid plates of the Earth’s Speciation The formation of new species when populations
lithosphere in relation to each other and to the partially of a species become isolated and evolve differently from
mobile asthenosphere below. other populations. See also evolution
Point-source pollution The release of pollutants from a Species A group of organisms that interbreed and are
single, clearly identifiable site — for example, a factory capable of producing fertile offspring.
chimney or the waste disposal pipe of a factory into a river. Species diversity The variety of species per unit area. This
Pollution The addition of a substance or an agent to an includes both the number of species present and their
environment through human activity, at a rate greater relative abundance.
than that at which it can be rendered harmless by the Stable equilibrium The tendency in a system for it to
environment, and which has an appreciable effect on return to a previous equilibrium condition following
the organisms in the environment. disturbance. This is in contrast to unstable equilibrium,
Population A group of organisms of the same species which forms a new equilibrium following disturbance.
living in the same area at the same time, and which are Steady-state equilibrium The condition of an open system
capable of interbreeding. in which there are no changes over the longer term, but
Positive feedback Feedback that increases change; it in which there may be oscillations in the very short term.
promotes deviation away from an equilibrium. Succession The orderly process of change over time in a
Primary pollutant A pollutant that is active on emission. community.
Glossary 177
Sustainability The use of global resources at a rate that Total fertility rate (TFR) The average number of births
allows natural regeneration and minimises damage to per woman of childbearing age.
the environment. Trophic level The position that an organism occupies in a
Sustainable development Development that meets current food chain, or a group of organisms in a community that
needs without compromising the ability of future occupy the same position in food chains.
generations to meet their own needs. Virtual water Water that is used to produce crops or
Sustainable yield When a natural resource can be flowers, and then the product is exported (often from
harvested at a rate equal to or less than its natural LEDCs to MEDC:s).
productivity so that the natural capital is not diminished. Zonation The arrangement or patterning of plant
System An assemblage of parts and the relationships between communities or ecosystems into parallel or sub-parallel
them, which together constitute an entity or whole. bands in response to change, over a distance, in some
Tipping point A critical threshold when even a environmental factor.
small change can have dramatic effects and cause a
disproportionately large response in the overall system.