Chapter 3: Minerals

3.1. Introduction
(Sources: S. Gangopadhyay, (2013). Engineering Geology, 1st Edition, Oxford University Press, Delhi India +
Wikipedia)

A mineral is a naturally occurring solid chemical substance that is formed through

geological processes and that has a characteristic chemical composition, a highly ordered atomic
structure, and specific physical properties. By comparison, a rock is an aggregate of minerals and/or
mineraloids and does not have a specific chemical composition. Minerals may occur in rock
formations in various forms such as metallic ores, industrial minerals, gemstones, and rare minerals.
An ore is a material or natural rock that contains a valuable material (metal or mineral) in such
quantities that it can be mined and worked commercially to extract that metal. The metal is usually
contained in chemical combination with some other element in addition to various impurities.
Minerals range in composition from pure elements and simple salts to very complex silicates
with thousands of known forms. The chemical composition may vary between end members of a
mineral system. For example the plagioclase feldspars comprise a continuous series from sodium and
silicon-rich albite (NaAlSi3O8) to calcium and aluminium-rich anorthite (CaAl2Si2O8) with four
recognized intermediate compositions between. Mineral-like substances that don't strictly meet the
definition are sometimes classified as mineraloids. Other natural-occurring substances are
nonminerals.
A crystal structure is the orderly geometric spatial arrangement of atoms in the internal
structure of a mineral. There are 14 basic crystal lattice arrangements of atoms in three dimensions,
and these are referred to as the 14 "Bravais lattices" (Figure 3.1). Each of these lattices can be
classified into one of the seven crystal systems, and all crystal structures currently recognized fit in
one Bravais lattice and one crystal system. This crystal structure can be determined by X-ray
diffraction. Chemistry and crystal structure together define a mineral. In fact, two or more minerals
may have the same chemical composition, but differ in crystal structure (these are known as
polymorphs). For example, pyrite and marcasite are both iron sulfide, but their arrangement of atoms
differs. Similarly, some minerals have different chemical compositions, but the same crystal
structure: for example, halite (made from sodium and chlorine), galena (made from lead and sulfur)
and periclase (made from magnesium and oxygen) all share the same cubic crystal structure.
Crystal structure greatly influences a mineral's physical properties. For example, though
diamond and graphite have the same composition (both are pure carbon), graphite is very soft, while
diamond is the hardest of all known minerals. This happens because the carbon atoms in graphite are
arranged into sheets which can slide easily past each other, while the carbon atoms in diamond form
a strong, interlocking three-dimensional network.
The International Mineralogical Association (IMA) is the generally recognized standard body
for the definition and nomenclature of mineral species. As of July 2023, the IMA recognizes 5,955
official mineral species. Of these, perhaps 100 can be called "common", 50 are "occasional", and the
rest are "rare" to "extremely rare". The silicate minerals compose over 90% of the Earth's crust.
Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties. Differences in chemical
composition and crystal structure distinguish various species, and these properties in turn are
influenced by the mineral's geological environment of formation. Changes in the temperature,
pressure, and bulk composition of a rock mass cause changes in its mineralogy.
 Figure 3.1: 14 Bravais Lattices
These minerals are formed under varied environments and in different ranges of chemical and
physical conditions such as pressure and temperature. The main group of mineral formations is found
in igneous rocks, in which minerals occur as crystalline products formed from magmatic melt. In
sedimentary rocks, the occurrence of minerals is the result of weathering, erosion, and sedimentation
processes. In metamorphic rocks, new minerals are formed at the expense of the existing ones as a
result of increasing temperature and pressure or both on some pre-existing rock types. Minerals are
also formed by hydrothermal process in which they are chemically precipitated from solution. In the
first three types, the minerals are interwoven with rocks as interlocking fabrics. Hydrothermal
solutions tend to follow fracture zones with open spaces in which minerals are developed with good
crystal forms.

3.2. Properties of Minerals

(Sources: Frederick K. Lutgens, Edward J. Tarbuck, Dennis Tasa, 2017. Essentials of Geology, 13th ed. Pearson
Education, New Jersey, USA.)

Minerals have definite crystalline structures and chemical compositions that give them
unique sets of physical and chemical properties shared by all specimens of that mineral, regardless of
when or where they formed. For example, two samples of the mineral quartz will be equally hard and
equally dense, and they will break in a similar manner. However, the physical properties of
individual samples may vary within specific limits due to ionic substitutions, inclusions of foreign
elements (impurities), and defects in the crystalline structure.
 Some mineral properties, called diagnostic properties, are particularly useful in identifying
an unknown mineral. The mineral halite, for example, has a salty taste. Because so few minerals
share this property, a salty taste is considered a diagnostic property of halite. Other properties of
certain minerals, particularly color, vary among different specimens of the same mineral. These
properties are referred to as ambiguous properties.
3.2.1. Optical Properties
Of the many diagnostic properties of minerals, their optical characteristics such as luster,
color, streak, and ability to transmit light are most frequently used for mineral identification.
3.2.1.1. Luster any mineral, it is considered a diagnostic
Luster The appearance or quality of light property of only a few minerals e.g., the lead
reflected from the surface of a mineral is known grey of galena, the black of magnetite, and
as luster. Minerals that are shiny like a metal, green of chlorite. But in other case such as
regardless of color, are said to have a metallic quartz, the color is variable and cannot be relied
luster (Figure 3.2A). Some metallic minerals, on as a guide to identify minerals. Slight
such as native copper and galena, develop a dull impurities in the common minerals’ fluorite and
coating or tarnish when exposed to the quartz, for example, give them a variety of tints,
atmosphere. Because they are not as shiny as including pink, purple, yellow, white, gray, and
samples with freshly broken surfaces, these even black (Figure 3.3). Thus, the use of color
samples are often said to exhibit a submetallic as a means of identification is often ambiguous
luster (Figure 3.2B). Most minerals have a or even misleading.
nonmetallic luster and are described using
various adjectives. For example, some minerals
are described as being vitreous, or glassy. Other
nonmetallic minerals are described as having a
dull, or earthy, luster (a dull appearance like
soil) or a pearly luster (such as a pearl or the
inside of a clamshell). Still others exhibit a silky
luster (like satin cloth) or a greasy luster (as
though coated in oil).
Figure 3.3: Color variations in minerals (some
minerals, such as fluorite shown here, exhibit a
variety of color)
3.2.1.3. Streak
The color of a mineral in powdered
form, called streak, is often useful in
identification. A mineral’s streak is obtained by
rubbing it across a streak plate (a piece of
unglazed porcelain) and observing the color of
the mark it leaves (Figure 3.4). Although a
Figure 3.2: Metallic versus submetallic luster mineral’s color may vary from sample to
3.2.1.2. Color sample, its streak is usually consistent in color.
Color in minerals is caused by the (Note that not all minerals produce a streak
absorption, or lack of absorption, of various when rubbed across a streak plate. Quartz, for
wavelengths of light. Although color is example, is harder than a porcelain streak plate
generally the most conspicuous characteristic of and therefore leaves no streak.)
 ➢ Tabular --- elongate crystal which is also
flat e.g., feldspar
➢ Prismatic --- crystal is elongated in one
direction e.g. indicolite
➢ Fibrous --- longcrystals-like fibers e.g.,
asbestos, okenite
• Crystal aggregates (amorphous minerals
often assume this form)
➢ Dendritic --- crystal diverge from each
other like branches e.g., denritic deposits
of manganese oxide
➢ Raniform --- kidney-shaped e.g., kidney
iron ore, a variety of hematite
Figure 3.4: Streak of a mineral ➢ Botryoidal --- like a bunch of grapes
e.g., chalcedony
3.2.1.4. Ability to Transmit Light
➢ Amygdaloidal --- infilling of steam
Another optical property used to identify
vesicles or holes in lavas by salts carried
minerals is the ability to transmit light. When no
in solution
light is transmitted through a mineral sample,
that mineral is described as opaque; when light,
but not an image, is transmitted, the mineral is
said to be translucent. When both light and an
image are visible through the sample, the
mineral is described as transparent.

3.2.2. Crystal Shape or Habit

Mineralogists use the term crystal
shape, or habit, to refer to the common or
characteristic shape of individual crystals or
aggregates of crystals. The development of an
individual crystal or an aggregate of crystals, to
produce a particular external shape depends on
the temperature and pressure during their
formation. Some minerals tend to grow equally
in all three dimensions, whereas others tend to
be elongated in one direction or flattened if
growth in one dimension is suppressed.
The shape or crystal habit is of use in
identification of some minerals. Some types of
individual crystals (Figure 3.5) and aggregate
crystals (Figure 3.6) are briefly described
below:
• Individual crystals
➢ Acicular --- in fine needle-like crystals, Figure 3.5: A. Natrolite. B. Wulfenite. C.
e.g., schorl, natrolite Indicolite. D. Asbestos. E. Feldspar
➢ Platy --- broad, flat crystal e.g. wulfenite
 mineral of unknown hardness against one of
known hardness or vice versa. A numerical
value of hardness can be obtained by using the
Mohs scale of hardness, which consists of 10
minerals arranged in order from 1 (softest) to 10
(hardest), as shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Mohs hardness scale and minerals
Mohs Absolute
Mineral Image
Hardness Hardness

Talc
1 1
(Mg3Si4O10(OH)2)

Figure 3.6: A. Manganese oxide. B. Hematite. C.

Chalcedony. D. Amygdaloidal fillings in basalt Gypsum
2 3
Most minerals have just one common (CaSO4.2H2O)

crystal shape, but a few, such as the pyrite

samples shown in Figure 3.7, have two or more
characteristic crystal shapes. 3 Calcite (CaCo3) 9

4 Fluorite (CaF2) 21

Apatite
5 48
(Ca5(PO4)3(OH.Cl.F.))

Orthoclase Feldspar
6 72
(KAlSi3O8)

7 Quartz (SiO2) 100

Figure 3.7: Common crystal shapes of pyrite
3.2.3. Mineral Strength
How easily minerals break or deform Topaz
8 200
under stress is determined by the type and (Al2SiO4(OH.F.)2)
strength of the chemical bonds that hold the
crystals together. Mineralogists use terms
including hardness, cleavage, fracture, and 9 Corundum (Al2O3) 400
tenacity to describe mineral strength and how
minerals break when stress is applied.
3.2.3.1. Hardness 10 Diamond (C) 1600

One of the most useful diagnostic

properties is hardness, a measure of the
resistance of a mineral to abrasion or scratching. In the laboratory, common objects used
This property is determined by rubbing a to determine the hardness of a mineral can
include a human fingernail, which has a
hardness of about 2.5, a copper penny (3.5), and
a piece of glass (5.5) as shown in Figure 3.8.
The mineral gypsum, which has a hardness of 2,
can be easily scratched with a fingernail. On the
other hand, the mineral calcite, which has a
hardness of 3, will scratch a fingernail but will
not scratch glass. Quartz, one of the hardest
common minerals, will easily scratch glass.
Diamonds, hardest of all, scratch anything,
including other diamonds.

Figure 3.9: Micas exhibit perfect cleavage. The thin

sheets shown here exhibit one plane of cleavage.

Figure 3.8: The Mohs hardness scale

3.2.3.2. Cleavage
In the crystal structure of many minerals,
some atomic bonds are weaker than others. It is
along these weak bonds that minerals tend to
break when they are stressed. Cleavage (kleiben
= carve) is the tendency of a mineral to break
(cleave) along planes of weak bonding. Not all
minerals have cleavage, but those that do can be
identified by the relatively smooth, flat surfaces Figure 3.10: Cleavage directions exhibited by
that are produced when the mineral is broken. minerals
The simplest type of cleavage is
Each cleavage surface that has a
exhibited by the micas (Figure 3.9). Micas
different orientation is counted as a different
cleave to form thin, flat sheets. Some minerals
direction of cleavage. For example, some
have excellent cleavage in one, two, three, or
minerals, such as halite, cleave to form six-sided
more directions, whereas others exhibit fair or
cubes. Because cubes are defined by three
poor cleavage, and still others have no cleavage
different sets of parallel planes that intersect at
at all. When minerals break evenly in more than
90-degree angles, cleavage for the mineral halite
one direction, cleavage is described by the
is described as three directions of cleavage that
number of cleavage directions and the angle(s)
meet at 90 degrees.
at which they meet (Figure 3.10).
3.2.3.3. Fracture minerals that are ionically bonded, such as
Minerals having chemical bonds that are fluorite and halite, tend to be brittle and fracture
equally or nearly equally strong in all directions or exhibit cleavage when struck. By contrast,
exhibit a property called fracture (Figure native metals, such as copper and gold, are
3.11A). When minerals fracture, most produce malleable, which means they can be hammered
uneven surfaces and are described as exhibiting without breaking. In addition, minerals that can
irregular fracture. However, some minerals be cut into thin shavings, including gypsum and
break into smooth, curved surfaces resembling talc, are described as sectile.
broken glass. Such breaks are called conchoidal
fractures (Figure 3.11B). Still other minerals
exhibit fractures that produce splinters or fibers
referred to as splintery fracture and fibrous
fracture, respectively.
3.2.3.4. Tenacity
The term tenacity describes a mineral’s
resistance to breaking, bending, cutting, or other Figure 3.11: A. Irregular fracture (Quartz). B.
forms of deformation. As mentioned earlier, Conchoidal fracture (Quartz)
nonmetallic minerals such as quartz and

3.2.4. Density and Specific Gravity

Density, an important property of matter, is defined as mass per unit volume. Mineralogists
often use a related measure called specific gravity to describe the density of minerals. Specific
gravity is a number representing the ratio of a mineral’s weight to the weight of an equal volume of
water.
Most common minerals have a specific gravity between 2 and 3. For example, quartz has a
specific gravity of 2.65. By contrast, some metallic minerals, such as pyrite, native copper, and
magnetite, are more than twice as dense and thus have more than twice the specific gravity of quartz.
Galena, an ore from which lead is extracted, has a specific gravity of roughly 7.5, whereas 24-karat
gold has a specific gravity of approximately 20.
With a little practice, you can estimate the specific gravity of a mineral by hefting it in your
hand. Does this mineral feel about as “heavy” as similarly sized rocks you have handled? If the
answer is “yes,” the specific gravity of the sample will likely be between 2.5 and 3.0.
3.2.5. Other Properties of Minerals
In addition to the properties discussed thus far, some minerals can be recognized by other
distinctive properties. For example, halite is ordinary salt, so it can be quickly identified through
taste. Talc and graphite both have distinctive feels: Talc feels soapy, and graphite feels greasy.
Further, the streaks of many sulfur-bearing minerals smell like rotten eggs. A few minerals, such as
magnetite, have high iron content and can be picked up with a magnet, while some varieties (such as
lodestone) are themselves natural magnets and will pick up small iron-based objects such as pins and
paper clips.
Moreover, some minerals exhibit special optical properties. For example, when a transparent
piece of calcite is placed over printed text, the letters appear twice. This optical property is known as
double refraction. Minerals containing carbonate will effervesce (fizz) as carbon dioxide gas is
released when placing a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid onto a freshly broken surface. This test is
especially useful in identifying calcite, a common carbonate mineral.
3.3. Mineral Groups
(Sources: S. Gangopadhyay, (2013). Engineering Geology, 1st Edition, Oxford University Press, Delhi India +
Frederick K. Lutgens, Edward J. Tarbuck, Dennis Tasa, 2017. Essentials of Geology, 13th ed. Pearson Education, New
Jersey, USA.)

Only eight elements make up the vast

majority of the rock-forming minerals and
represent more than 98 percent (by weight) of
Earth’s continental crust (Figure 3.12). These
elements, in order of most to least abundant, are
oxygen (O), silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), iron
(Fe), calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K),
and magnesium (Mg). As shown in Figure 3.11,
silicon and oxygen are by far the most common
elements in Earth’s crust. Furthermore, these
two elements readily combine to form the basic
“building block” for the most common mineral
group, the silicates. More than 800 silicate
minerals are known, and they account for about Figure 3.12: The eight most abundant elements in
92 percent of Earth’s crust. the continental crust by mass percentage.
Because other mineral groups are far less abundant in Earth’s crust than the silicates, they are
often grouped together under the heading nonsilicates. Although these minerals are not as common
as silicates, some nonsilicates are very important economically. They provide us with iron and
aluminum to build automobiles, gypsum for plaster and drywall for home construction, and copper
wire that carries electricity and connects us to the Internet. Common nonsilicate mineral groups
include the carbonates, sulfates, and halides. In addition to their economic importance, these groups
include minerals that are major constituents in sediments and sedimentary rocks.
Among more than 55000 minerals, a few dozen make up most of the rocks of Earth’s crust
and, as such, they are often referred to as the rock-forming-minerals.
3.3.1. Rock Forming Minerals
Silicates, oxides, and carbonates are the main rock-forming minerals. Minerals that are the
dominant constituents of rocks are called essential rock-forming minerals. Quartz, feldspars,
amphiboles, pyroxenes, micas, chlorite, nepheline, olivine, serpentine, talc, calcite, dolomite,
gypsum, magnetite, and hematite are essential rock-forming minerals. In addition to these minerals,
there are others that occur in rocks in minor proportions. These are known as accessory rock-forming
minerals, which include garnet, tourmaline, epidote, zircon, apatite, rutile, ilmenite, magnetite,
hematite, pyrite, staurolite, kyanite, and sillimanite. Though occurring as accessory minerals, many
of them have an important bearing in identifying the rock. For example, the presence of any of the
minerals such as garnet, tourmaline, staurolite, kyanite, and sillimanite is indicative of the rock being
of metamorphic origin.
The major groups of silicate minerals and common examples are given in Figure 3.13. Most
silicate minerals form when molten rock cools and crystallizes. Cooling can occur at or near Earth’s
surface (low temperature and pressure) or at great depths (high temperature and pressure). The
environment during crystallization and the chemical composition of the molten rock determines, to a
large degree, which minerals are produced. For example, the silicate mineral olivine crystallizes
early, whereas quartz forms much later in the crystallization process.
Figure 3.13: Common silicate minerals. Note that the complexity of the silicate structure increases from the
top of the chart to the bottom.
3.3.1.1. The light silicates
The light (or nonferromagnesian) silicates are generally light in color and have a specific
gravity of about 2.7, less than that of the dark (ferromagnesian) silicates. These differences are
mainly attributable to the presence or absence of iron and magnesium, which are “heavy” elements.
The light silicates contain varying amounts of aluminum, potassium, calcium, and sodium rather than
iron and magnesium.
3.3.1.1.1. Feldspar Group
Feldspar minerals are by far the most
plentiful silicate group in Earth’s crust,
comprising about 51 percent of the crust (Figure
3.14). Their abundance can be partially explained
by the fact that they can form under a wide range
of temperatures and pressures. Two different
feldspar structures exist (Figure 3.15). One group
of feldspar minerals contains potassium ions in
its structure and is therefore termed potassium
feldspar (Figure 3.15A,B) (Orthoclase and
microcline are common members of the
potassium feldspar group.) The other group,
called plagioclase feldspar, contains both
sodium and calcium ions that freely substitute for
one another, depending on the environment
during crystallization (Figure 3.15C,D).
Potassium feldspar is usually light cream, salmon
pink, or occasionally blue-green in color. The
plagioclase feldspars, on the other hand, range in Figure 3.15: Some common feldspar minerals
color from gray to blue-gray or sometimes black.
3.3.1.1.2. Quartz
Despite these differences, all feldspar minerals
Quartz (SiO2) is the second-most-
have similar physical properties. They have two
abundant mineral in the continental crust and the
planes of cleavage meeting at or near 90-degree
only common silicate mineral that consists
angles, are relatively hard (6 on the Mohs scale),
entirely of silicon and oxygen. Quartz is hard,
and have a luster that ranges from glassy to
resists weathering, and does not have cleavage.
pearly. As a component in igneous rocks,
When broken, quartz generally exhibits
feldspar crystals can be identified by their
conchoidal fracture. When pure, quartz is clear
rectangular shape and rather smooth, shiny faces.
and, if allowed to grow without interference, will
develop hexagonal crystals that develop
pyramid-shaped ends. However, like most other
clear minerals, quartz is often colored by
inclusions of various ions (impurities) and often
forms without developing good crystal faces. The
most common varieties of quartz are milky
(white), smoky (gray), rose (pink), amethyst
(purple), citrine (yellow to brown), and rock
crystal (clear) (Figure 3.16).
3.3.1.1.3. Muscovite
Muscovite is a common member of the
mica family. It is light in color and has a pearly
Figure 3.14: Feldspar minerals make up about 51 luster (see Figure 3.9). Like other micas,
percent of Earth’s crust. Also, note from this graph muscovite has excellent cleavage in one
that the silicate minerals make up about 92 percent of direction. In thin sheets, muscovite is clear, a
Earth’s crust. property that accounts for its use as window
“glass” during the Middle Ages. Because and/or magnesium in their structure. Because of
muscovite is very shiny, it can often be identified their iron content, ferromagnesian silicates are
by the sparkle it gives a rock. dark in color and have a greater specific gravity,
between 3.2 and 3.6, than non-ferromagnesian
silicates. The most common dark silicate
minerals are olivine, the pyroxenes, the
amphiboles, dark mica (biotite), and garnet.
3.3.1.2.1. Olivine group
Olivine, a family of high-temperature
silicate minerals, are black to olive green in color
and have a glassy luster and a conchoidal
fracture (see Figure 3.13). Transparent olivine is
occasionally used as a gemstone called peridot.
Rather than developing large crystals, olivine
commonly forms small, rounded crystals that
give olivine-rich rocks a granular appearance
(Figure 3.17). Olivine and related forms are
Figure 3.16: A. Smoky quartz is commonly found in typically found in basalt, a common igneous rock
coarse-grained igneous rocks. B. Rose quartz owes its of the oceanic crust and volcanic areas on the
color to small amounts of titanium. C. Milky quartz continents, and are thought to constitute up to 50
often occurs in veins, which occasionally contain percent of Earth’s upper mantle.
gold. D. Amethyst a purple variety of quartz.
3.3.1.1.4. Clay Minerals
Clay is a term used to describe a category
of complex minerals that, like the micas, have a
sheet structure. Unlike other common silicates,
most clay minerals originate as products of the
chemical breakdown (chemical weathering) of
other silicate minerals. Thus, clay minerals make
up a large percentage of the surface material we
call soil. Because of soil’s importance to
agriculture, and because of its role as a
supporting material for buildings, clay minerals
are extremely important to humans. In addition,
clays account for nearly half the volume of
sedimentary rocks. Clay minerals are generally Figure 3.17: Olivine
very fine grained, which makes them difficult to
identify unless they are studied microscopically. 3.3.1.2.2. Pyroxene group
Their layered structure and the weak bonding The pyroxenes are a group of diverse
between layers give them a characteristic feel minerals that are important components of dark-
when wet. Clays are common in shales, colored igneous rocks. The most common
mudstones, and other sedimentary rocks. member, augite, is a black, opaque mineral with
3.3.1.2. The dark silicates two directions of cleavage that meet at nearly a
The dark (or ferromagnesian) silicates 90-degree angle (Figure 3.18A). Augite is one of
are minerals containing ions of iron (ferro = iron) the dominant minerals in basalt.
 which are about 60 degrees and 120 degrees, it is
very similar in appearance to augite (Figure
3.18B). In a rock, hornblende often forms
elongated crystals. This helps distinguish it from
pyroxene, which forms rather blocky crystals.
Hornblende is found in igneous rocks, where it
often makes up the dark portion of an otherwise
light-colored rock.
3.3.1.2.4. Biotite
Biotite is a dark, iron-rich member of the
mica family (see Figure 3.13). Like other micas,
Figure 3.18: A. Augite B. hornblende biotite possesses a sheet structure that gives it
excellent cleavage in one direction. Biotite also
3.3.1.2.3. Amphibole group
has a shiny black appearance that helps
Hornblende is the most common member distinguish it from the other dark ferromagnesian
of a chemically complex group of minerals called minerals. Like hornblende, biotite is a common
amphiboles. Hornblende is usually dark green to constituent of igneous rocks, including the rock
black in color, and except for its cleavage angles, granite.
3.3.2. Important Non-silicate Minerals
Although the nonsilicates make up only about 8 percent of Earth’s crust, some nonsilicate
minerals, such as gypsum, calcite, and halite, occur as constituents in sedimentary rocks in
significant amounts. Many nonsilicates are also economically important. Nonsilicate minerals are
typically divided into groups based on the negatively charged ion or complex ion that the members
have in common. Figure 3.19 lists some of the major nonsilicate mineral groups and includes a few
examples of each.
Some of the most common nonsilicate minerals belong to one of three groups of minerals: the
carbonates, the sulfates, and the halides. The two most common carbonate minerals are calcite,
CaCO3 (calcium carbonate), and dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2 (calcium/magnesium carbonate) (Figure
3.19A,B). Calcite and dolomite are usually found together as the primary constituents in the
sedimentary rocks e.g., limestone and dolostone, respectively. Limestone is used in road aggregate
and as a building stone, and it is the main ingredient in Portland cement.
Two other nonsilicate minerals frequently found in sedimentary rocks are halite and gypsum
(Figure 3.19C,I). Both of these minerals are commonly found in thick layers that are the last vestiges
of ancient seas that have long since evaporated. Like limestone, both halite and gypsum are
important nonmetallic resources. Halite is the mineral name for common table salt (NaCl). Gypsum
(CaSO4.2H2O) is the mineral from which plaster and other similar building materials are composed.
Most nonsilicate mineral classes contain members that are prized for their economic value.
This includes the oxides, whose members hematite and magnetite are important ores of iron (Figure
3.19E,F). Also significant are the sulfides, which are basically compounds of sulfur (S) and one or
more metals. Important sulfide minerals include galena (lead sulfide), sphalerite (zinc sulfide), and
chalcopyrite (copper sulfide). In addition, native elements—including gold, silver, and carbon
(diamonds)— are economically important, as are a host of other nonsilicate minerals—fluorite (used
as a flux in making steel), corundum (gemstone, abrasive), and uraninite (a uranium source).
 Figure 3.19: Important nonsilicate mineral groups (Photos by Dennis Tasa and E. J. Tarbuck)
3.3.3. Identification of rock-forming minerals
The rock-forming minerals can be identified from their physical characters such as color,
streak color, luster, crystal form, cleavage, hardness, and specific gravity. Though many of the
common rocks can be identified by the naked eye or by use of a lens (.10), some rocks require to be
studied in thin sections under the microscope. Microscopic study of a thin section of a rock helps its
accurate identification from the determination of the constituent minerals, their relative proportions,
and texture. The chemical composition, crystal forms, and other important characteristics of the rock-
forming minerals are shown in Table 3.2.
After disintegration of a rock, many of its constituent minerals including accessory minerals
of high hardness (H > 6) may remain in sediments. For example, quartz, kyanite, sillimanite,
tourmaline, garnet, cordiarite, staurolite, zircon, alusite, beryl, spinel, topaz, chrysoberyl, and
corundum possess hardness between seven and nine in Mohs scale of hardness. Such minerals of
high hardness, if present in the river water used for hydroelectric power generation, may abrade and
damage the turbine of a hydroelectric power plant. The suspended silts of such river water need
petrological studies to determine the hardness of silt particles and its effect on turbine blades.
Table 3.2: Composition and characteristics of rock-forming minerals (Dana and Ford 1948)
Chemical Specific
Name Color Crystal form Luster Fracture Hardness
Composition gravity
Quartz SiO2 White Hexagonal Glassy Conchoidal 7 2.65
Feldspars
NaAlSi3O8,
(Albite, Monoclinic,
CaAl2Si3O8 to White Vitreous Uneven 6 – 6.5 2.54 – 2.74
oligoclase, triclinic
KAlSi3O8
etc.)
Ca, Mg, Fe, Black, Vitreous, Sub-
Amphiboles Monoclinic 5–6 2.9 – 3.4
etc. silicate green pearly conchoidal
Ca, Mg, Fe, Green, Monoclinic, Uneven to
Pyroxene Vitreous 5–6 3.3 – 3.6
etc. silicate black orthorhombic conchoidal
Micas H2KAl3(SiO4)3
White,
(muscovite, H2K(Mg,Fe)3 Monoclinic Pearly Uneven 2.5 – 3 2.76 – 3
black
biotite) Al(SiO8)3
Hydrosilicates
Chlorite Green Monoclinic Pearly Platy 2 – 2.5 2.7
of Al, Fe, Mg
Olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 Green Orthorhombic Glassy Conchoidal 6.5 – 7 3.27 – 3.37
Platy,
Serpentine H4Mg3Si2O9 Green Monoclinic Silky 2–5 2.2 – 2.7
fibrous
Soft, soapy
Talc H2Mg8(SiO3)4 White Monoclinic Silvery 1 2.7 – 2.8
feel
Calcite CaCO3 White Hexagonal Pearly Conchoidal 3 2.71
Sub-
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 White Hexagonal Pearly, dull 3.5 – 4 2.8 – 2.9
conchoidal
Gypsum CaSiO4.2H2O White Monoclinic Pearly Conchoidal 1.5 – 2 2.32 – 2.33
Magnetite Fe3O4 Black Isometric Metallic Uneven 5.5 – 6.5 5.2
Sub-
Hematite Fe2O3 Black Hexagonal Metallic 5.5 – 6.5 4.9 – 5.3
conchoidal
Ca2(Al,Fe)3
Epidote Green Prismatic Glassy Uneven 7 3.4 – 4.5
(SiO4)3(OH)
Fluorite CaF4 Colorless Octahedron Glassy Conchoidal 4 3.0 – 3.3
(Ca,Fe,Mg)3
Garnet Red, brown Dodecahedron Glassy Conchoidal 6 – 7.5 3.5 – 4.3
Al2(SiO4)3
Grey,
Sillimanite Al2SiO5 Orthorhombic Satiny Splintery 6–7 3.2 – 3.3
brown
Bluish 5 prism
Kyanite Al2SiO5 Triclinic Glassy Splintery 3.6 – 3.7
green 7 acroos
Andalusite Al2SiO5 Grey, pink Orthorhombic Glassy Conchoidal 7.5 3.1 – 3.2
Brown,
Zircon ZrSiO4 Prismatic Adamantine Conchoidal 6.5 – 7.5 4.0 – 4.5
grey