Environmental Science

Prof. Jacqueline E. Hilario

What is Environmental Science?

The 4 Spheres of the Earth

1. Atmosphere
2. Lithosphere
3. Hydrosphere
4. Biosphere
COMPOSITION, STRUCTURE
AND TEMPERATURE
 only minute
amounts
(0.037%) is
nevertheless
an important
constituent
of air.

Nitrogen Oxygen -99% of the

volume of
clean , dry
air.

GASES IN THE
ATMOSPHERE
Composition of the Lower Atmosphere
Gas Symbol or Percent by
Formula Volume
Nitrogen N2 78.08
Oxygen O2 20.94
Argon Ar 0.934
Carbon Dioxide CO2 0.035
Neon Ne 0.00182
Helium He 0.00052
Methane CH4 0.00015
Krypton Kr 0.00011
Hydrogen H2 0.00005
Nitrous oxide N 2O 0.00005
Xenon Xe 0.000009
 Variable Components
1. Water Vapor – water in the atmosphere
Significance:
a. is the source of all clouds and precipitation
b. it absorbs heat or releases heat, thus this energy is termed latent
heat.
2. Aerosols – tiny solid and liquid particles
Significance:
a. Many act as surfaces on which water vapor can condense, an
important function in the formation of clouds and fog
b. They can absorb, reflect and scatter incoming solar radiation
c. Contribute to an optical phenomenon – the varied hues of red and
orange at sunrise and sunset
3. Ozone – a form of oxygen that combines three oxygen atoms into each
molecule
Significance:
a. Absorbs the potential harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation
 VERTICAL STRUCTURE
OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Atmospheric Pressure – is
simply the weight of the air
above :
Seal Level – more than
1,000 millibars
Higher altitudes - less

No sharp boundary marks the end of the atmosphere.

Pressure and density decrease with distance from the
earth until they become indistinguishable from the
near vacuum of intersellar space.
 FOUR ZONES (LAYERS) OF THE ATMOSPHERE
1. Troposphere – the layer of air immediately adjacent to the
earth’s surface
- Depth – 18 km (11 mi) over the equator to about 8 km
(5 mi) over the poles where air is cold and dense
- More dense than other layers
- 75% of the total mass of the atmosphere
- A sudden reversal of this temperature gradient creates
a sharp boundary called tropopause, which limits
mixing between the troposphere and upper zones
2. Stratosphere – extends from the tropopause up to about 50
km (31 mi); more dilute than troposphere
- Ozone – absorbs ultraviolet (UV) radiation,
producing warmer temperatures toward the top of the
stratosphere
- Relatively calm

3. Mesosphere - middle layer

- Temperature diminishes in this layer
4. Thermosphere – (heated layer) begins at about 50 km
- Lower part – intense pulses of high-energy radiation
cause electrically charged particles to glow, the
phenomenon called aurora borealis and aurora
australis or northern or southern lights
Stratosphere - more dilute but has similar composition except that it has
almost no water vapor and nearly 1,000 x more ozone (O3). Ozone absorbs
ultraviolet (UV) radiation, producing warmer temperatures toward the top
of the stratosphere.
 EARTH AND SUN RELATIONSHIPS
Earth Motions Seasons
Two Principal Motion of Earth Two Ways that Affect the seasonal variation in
1. Rotation – the the altitude of the Sun
spinning of Earth about 1. When the Sun is high in the sky, the
its axis solar rays are most concentrated
2. Revolution – the Principle: The lower the angle,
movement of the Earth the more spread out and less intense
in its orbit around the is the solar radiation reaching the
Sun surface
2. The angle of the Sun determines the
Circle of Illumination – the line amount of atmosphere the rays must
separating the dark half of Earth penetrate
from the lighted half Principle: The longer the path,
the greater the chances for
absorption, reflection and scattering
by the atmosphere, all of which
reduce the intensity at the surface
Earth-Sun Relationships
 EARTH AND SUN RELATIONSHIPS
Earth’s Orientation
Inclination of the Axis – Earth’s axis is not perpendicular to the plane
of its orbit around the Sun but it is tilted 23 ½ o from the
perpendicular

Solstices
1. Tropic of Cancer – vertical rays of the Sun strike 23 ½ o north
latitude (23 ½ o north of the equator; thus June 21 or 22 is known as
the summer solstice, the 1st “official” day of summer; the length of
day is greater in the Northern Hemisphere
2. Tropic of Capricorn – Earth is in an opposite position, with the Sun’s
vertical rays striking at 23 1/2 o south latitude; thus December 21 or
22 is the winter solstice, the first day of winter; nights are longer than
the days.
 June Solstice December Solstice
(Northern Hemisphere summer) (Northern Hemisphere winter)

Spring/Autumnal Equinox
 EARTH AND SUN RELATIONSHIPS

Equinoxes – (equal nights) , the length of daylight is 12 hours

everywhere on Earth, because the circle of illumination passes
directly through the poles, dividing the latitudes in half

Types of Equinoxes
1. Autumnal Equinox – occur midway between the
solstices; thus September 22 or 23 is the autumnal equinox
in the Northern Hemisphere
2. Spring Equinox – March 21 or 22. Vertical rays of the Sun
strike the equator (0o latitude)
 ENERGY , HEAT AND
TEMPERATURE

Energy – capacity to do work

Heat – is energy possessed by a material arising

from the internal motions of its atoms or
molecules; the quantity of energy present

Temperature – is related to the average kinetic

energy of a material’s atoms or molecules; refers to
the intensity , that is, the degree of hotness
 MECHANISMS OF HEAT
TRANSFER

1. Conduction – the transfer of heat through matter

by molecular activity; through collision

2. Convection – the transfer of heat by mass

movement or circulation within a substance

3. Radiation – heat- transfer mechanism by which

solar energy reaches our planet
 THE FATE OF INCOMING SOLAR
RADIATION
Three Different Results when Radiation strikes an
object

1. Absorbed by the object – then it will be converted to

heat which causes an increase in temperature

2. Transmitted by substances (water and air) – it does not

contribute energy

3. “Bounce off” (redirected) – responsible for this are the

reflection and scattering
 Redirected Radiation
1. Reflection - is the process whereby light bounces
back from an object at the same angle at which it
encounters a surface and with the same intensity
Reflection and Earth’s Albedo. Energy is returned to
space from Earth in two ways:
1. Reflection
2. Emission of radiant energy
2. Scattering – produces a larger number of weaker rays
that travel in different directions
Albedo (reflectivity) of
Surfaces
SURFACE ALBEDO (%)
Fresh Snow 80-85
Dense Clouds 70-90
Water (low sun) 50-80
Sand 20-30
Water (sun overhead) 5
Forest 5-10
Black soil 3
Earth/atmosphere 30
 ENERGY AND “GREENHOUSE EFFECT”
Incoming solar energy (insolation) - is
much stronger near the equator than at
high altitudes; it warms the atmosphere
slightly; about ½ reaches the earth’s
surface in the form of light or infrared
(heat) energy
Albedo (reflectivity) –bright surfaces
like snow, ice, and sand have high
albedo because they reflect light as well
as other forms of radiative energy;
Dark surfaces that absorb energy have
a low albedos such as black soil, asphalt
pavement and dark green vegetation
Greenhouse Effect – is trapping of heat by the earth’s atmosphere, which is transparent
to incoming visible light waves but absorbs outgoing long-wave infrared radiation.
HEATING THE ATMOSPHERE: THE GREENHOUSE
EFFECT
Water (H2O) and Carbon dioxide (CO2) – are the principal absorbing gases
-absorbs five times more
terrestrial radiation than do all
gases combined and accounts for
the warm temperatures found in
the lower troposphere where it
is most highly concentrated
- Because the atmosphere is
quite transparent to shorter-
wavelength solar radiation and
more readily absorbs longer-
wavelength terrestrial radiation,
the atmosphere is heated from
the ground up rather than vice
versa. The farther
from the “radiator”, the colder it
becomes.
ENERGY AND “GREENHOUSE EFFECT”
MOISTURE, CLOUDS AND
PRECIPITATION
 WATER’S CHANGES OF STATE
Evaporation – the process of converting a liquid to a gas
(vapor)

Condensation – the reverse process, occurs when vapor

changes to the liquid state, resulting in the formation of
fog or clouds

Sublimation – is the conversion of a solid directly to a

gas without passing through the liquid state (frozen
CO2)

Deposition – refers to the reverse process, the

conversion of a vapor directly to a solid (Frost)
HUMIDITY: WATER VAPOR IN THE AIR

Humidity - the amount of water vapor in air

Vapor Pressure – part of the total atmospheric pressure

that can be attributed to the water-vapor content

Relative Humidity – is the ratio of the air’s actual water-

vapor content compared with the amount of water vapor
required for saturation at that temperature (and
pressure)

Dew Point – is the temperature to which a parcel of air

would need to be cooled to reach saturation
THE BASIS OF CLOUD FORMATION: ADIABATIC
COOLING
Adiabatic Temperature Changes –drop in temperature occurs even
though heat is neither added nor subtracted, hence, when air is allowed
to expand, it cools, and when it is compressed, it warms

Adiabatic Cooling and Condensation

Parcel – a volume of air enclosed in a thin cover

Rising air cools at the dry adiabatic

rate of 10o per 1,000 meters, until the
air reaches the dew point and
condensation (cloud formation)
begins. As air continues to rise , the
latent heat released by condensation
reduces the rate of cooling. The were
adiabatic rate is therefore always less
than the dry adiabatic rate
 PROCESSES THAT LIFT AIR
Four mechanisms that force air to rise:
1. Orographic Lifting –air is forced to rise over a
mountainous barrier
2. Frontal Wedging – warmer, less dense air is forced over
cooler, denser air
3. Convergence – a pileup of horizontal air flow results in
upward movement
4. Localized Convective Lifting – unequal surface heating
causes localized pockets of air to rise because of their
buoyancy
THE WEATHERMAKER: ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY

Stable Air
- a parcel were forced to rise, its temperature will decrease because of
expansion; if the parcel’s temperature is lower than that of the surrounding
environment, it will be denser; and if allowed to move freely , it will sink to its
original position

Unstable Air
- if rising parcel is warmer and hence less dense than the
surrounding air, it will continue to rise until it reaches an altitude
where its temperature equals that of its surroundings

Therefore, STABILITY is a property of air that

describes its tendency to remain in its original
position (stable) or rise (unstable)
 TYPES OF STABILITY
1. Absolute Stability – prevails when the environmental lapse rate is
less than the wet adiabatic rate

2. Absolute Instability – when the environmental lapse rate is greater

than the dry adiabatic rate

3. Conditional Instability – when moist air has an environmental lapse

rate between the dry and wet adiabatic rates (between 5 and 10 o C per
1,000 meters

Difference between:
Environmental Lapse Rate – the temperature of the atmosphere as
determined from observations made by radiosondes and aircraft
Adiabatic Temperature Changes – are changes in the temperature caused
by expansion or compression as a parcel of air rises or descends
CONDENSATION AND CLOUD FORMATION

Condensation Nuclei
– are tiny bits of particulate matter formed when
condensation occurs in the air above the ground;
- serve as surfaces for water-vapor condensation
- very important , for in their absence a relative
humidity well in excess of 100% is needed to
produce clouds.
Ex: microscopic dust, smoke and salt particles ,
ocean salt (are good nuclei because they absorb
water)
 TYPES OF CLOUDS
Clouds
- are a form of condensation that best describe d as visible aggregates of
minute droplets of water or tiny crystals of ice;
- they provide a visible indication of what is going on in the
atmosphere

Classification of
clouds according to
height and form
 TYPES OF CLOUDS
Classification of Clouds on the basis of their form and height
A. Three Basic Forms of Clouds
1. Cirrus (a curl of hair) - clouds are high, white and thin; occur as
patches or as delicate veil-like sheets or extended wispy fibers that
often have a feathery appearance
2. Cumulus (a pile) – clouds consist of globular individual cloud
masses; exhibit a flat base and have the appearance of rising domes
or towers; having a cauliflower structure
3. Stratus (a layer) – clouds are sheets or layers that cover much or all of
the sky; while there may be minor breaks, there are no distinct individual
cloud units
B. Three Levels of Cloud Heights:
1. High Clouds – 6,000 m (20,000 ft)
2. Middle Clouds – 2,000 – 6,000 m (6,500 – 20,000 ft)
3. Low Clouds – 2,000 m (6,500 ft)
 CLOUD TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS
CLOUD FAMILY AND CLOUD TYPE CHARACTERISTICS
HEIGHT
HIGH CLOUDS – Cirrus Thin, delicate, fibrous, ice-crystal clouds. Sometimes appear as hooked
above 6,000 m filaments called “mares’ tails.”
(20,000 ft) Cirrocumulus Thin, white, ice-crystal clouds in the form of ripples, waves, or globular
masses all in a row. May produce a mackerel sky.” Least common of the
high clouds.
Cirrostratus This sheet of white, ice-crystal clouds that may give the sky a milky look.
Sometimes produce halos around the Sun or Moon.
MIDDLE CLOUDS – Altocumulus White to gray clouds often composed of separate globules; “sheep-back”
2,000 – 6,000 m clouds.
(6,500 – 20,000 ft) Altostratus Stratified veil of clouds that are generally thin and may produce very light
precipitation. When thin, the Sun or Moon may be visible as a bright
spot, but no halos are produced.
LOW CLOUDS – Stratocumulus Soft, gray clouds in globular patches or rolls. Rolls may join together to
Below 2,000 m make a continuous cloud.
(6,500 ft) Stratus Low uniform layer resembling fog but not resting on the ground. May
produce drizzle.
Nimbostratus Amorphous layer of dark gray clouds. One of the chief precipitation-
producing clouds.
Clouds of vertical Cumulus Dense, billowy clouds often characterized by flat bases. May occur as
development – 500 – isolated clouds or closely packed.
18,000 m Cumulonimbus Towering cloud sometimes spreading out on top to form an “anvil head.”
(1,600 – 60,000 ft) Associated with heavy rainfall, thunder, lightning, hail and tornadoes
 Altocumulus
Cirrostratus

TYPES OF CLOUDS

Cirrus
Altostratus

Cirrocumulus
Stratocumulus Nimbostratus

TYPES OF CLOUDS
Cumulus

Cumulonimbus

Stratus
FOG
- a cloud with its base at
or very near the ground ;
same with could as to
structure and appearance but
differ in method and place of
formation
A. Fog caused by
Cooling
1. Advection Fog – is a
blanket of fog that result
when warm, moist air
moves over a cool surface
2. Radiation Fog – are “pockets” of fog that forms a cool, clear, calm nights, when
Earth’s surface cools rapidly by radiation; occurs around sunset

3. Upslope Fog – is created when relatively humid air moves up a gradually sloping
plain or up the steep slopes of a mountain
FOG
- a cloud with its base at
or very near the ground ;
same with could as to
structure and appearance but
differ in method and place of
formation
B. Evaporation Fog
– is when the saturation of
air occurs primarily
because of the addition of
water vapor

Two Types of Evaporation Fog

1. Steam Fog – when cool air moves over warm water, enough moisture may
evaporate from the water surface to produce saturation; common over lakes and
rivers in the fall and early winter; often shallow

3. Frontal or Precipitation Fog – when frontal wedging occurs, warm air is lifted
over colder air; if the resulting clouds yield rain, and the cold air below is near the
dew point, enough rain will evaporate to produce fog
 WHY DOES IT RAIN?
Two things to remember: water
condenses as air cools and air cools as
it rises.
Cooling occurs because of changes in
pressure with altitude: air cools as it rises
(as pressure decreases); air warms as it sinks
(as pressure increases).
If the air is moist (if it has recently
come from over an ocean or an
evaporating forest region, for example),
condensation and rainfall are likely as
the air is lifted.
Regions with intense solar heating, Convection currents and latent energy cause
frequent colliding air masses, or atmospheric circulation and redistribution heat and
water around the globe.
mountains tend to receive a great deal
of precipitation.
 HOW PRECIPITATION FORMS
Two Mechanisms that Generate Precipitation
A. Precipitation from Cold Clouds: The Bergeron Process – is the process that
generates much of the precipitation in the middle latitudes; discovered by Tor
Bergeron, a Swedish meteorologist

Two Phenomena of Bergeron Process

1. Supercooling – water in the liquid state below 0o C
2. Supersaturation – when air is saturation (100% relative humidity) with
respect to water, it is supersaturated (relative humidity is greater than 100%)
with respect to ice
In summary, the Bergeron process can produce precipitation
throughout the year in the middle latitudes, provided at least the
upper portion of cloud are cold enough to generate ice crystals.
Snow, sleet, rain or freezing rain ( types of precipitation) that reaches
the ground depends on the temperature profile in the lower few
kilometers of the atmosphere. When the surface temperature is
above 4oC (39o F), snowflakes usually melt before they reach the
ground and continue their descent as rain.
 HOW PRECIPITATION FORMS
Two Mechanisms that Generate Precipitation
B. Precipitation from Warm Clouds: The Collision-Coalescence Process – copious
rainfall can be associated with clouds located well below the freezing level (warm
clouds), particularly in the tropics

In summary, the Bergeron process is dominant in the middle-

latitudes where cold clouds (or cold cloud tops) are the rule. In the
tropics, abundant water vapor and comparatively few condensation
nuclei are the norm. This leads to the formation of fewer, larger
drops with fast fall velocities that grow by collision and coalescence
 FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
TYPE APPROPRIATE STATE OF DESCRIPTION
SIZE MATTER

Mist 0.005 – 0.05 mm Liquid Droplets large enough to be felt on the face when air is moving 1 m/s -1 . Associated with
stratus clouds

Drizzle Less than 0.5 mm Liquid Small uniform drops that fall from stratus clouds, generally by several hours

Rain 0.5 – 5 mm Liquid Generally produced by nimbostratus or cumulonimbus clouds. When heavy, it can show
high variability from one place to another

Sleet 0.5 – 5 mm Solid Small, spherical to lumpy ice particles that form when raindrops freeze while falling
through a layer of subfreezing air. Because the ice particles are small, damage, if any, is
generally minor. Sleet can make travel hazardous
Glaze Layers 1 mm – 2 cm Solid Produced when supercooled raindrops freeze on contact with solid objects. Glaze can
Thick form a thick coating of ice having sufficient weight to seriously damage trees and power
lines
Rime Variable Solid Deposits usually consisting of ice feathers that point into the wind. These delicate,
Accumulations frostlike accumulations form as supercooled cloud of fog droplets encounter objects and
freeze on contact
Snow 1 mm – 2 mm Solid The Crystalline nature of snow allows it to assume many shapes including six-sided
crystals, plates and needles. Produced in supercooled clouds where water vapor is
deposited as ice crystals that remain frozen during their descent
Hail 5 mm – 10 cm Solid Precipitation in the form of hard, rounded pellets or irregular lumps of ice. Produced in
Or larger large cumulonimbus clouds, where frozen ice particles and supercooled water coexist

Graupel 2 – 5 mm Solid Sometimes called soft hail, graupel forms when trime collects on snow crystals to
produce irregular masses of “soft” ice. Because these particles are softer that hailstones,
they normally flatten out upon impact
 Sleet

Mist

Snow

Hail

Glaze

Drizzle

Rain Graupel

Rime
AIR PRESSURE
AND WIND
 WIND
Wind – horizontal movements of air; it is the result of horizontal differences in air
pressure; air flows from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure

Factors affecting Wind

1. The pressure-gradient – closely spaced isobars indicate a steep pressure
gradient and high winds, whereas widely spaced isobars indicate a weak
pressure gradient and light winds

2. The Coriolis Effect - the tendency for air above the earth to appear to be
deflected to the right (in the northern hemisphere) or the left ( in the south
because of the earth’s rotation

3. Friction – the effect of friction causes the surface winds to move more slowly
and cross the isobars at an angle

Solar Radiation – is the ultimate energy source for most wind

 CORIOLIS EFFECT, JET STREAMS AND OCEAN CURRENTS

Coriolis Effect – the tendency for

air above the earth to appear to
be deflected to the right (in the
northern hemisphere) or the left
( in the south because of the
earth’s rotation.

Jet Streams – powerful winds or

currents of air that circulate in
shifting flows; similar to oceanic
currents in extent and effect on
climate.

Ocean currents – warm and cold ocean currents strongly influence climate conditions
on land. Surface ocean currents result from wind pushing on the ocean surface. As
surface water moves, deep water wells up to replace it, creating deeper ocean
currents. Differences in water density-depending on the temperature and saltiness of
the water- also drive ocean circulation.
 CONVECTION AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Evaporating water absorbs 580 cal of
energy as it transforms from liquid to gas.
Latent heat - is the amount of stored energy
in evaporated water.
Vertical convection currents - wherein air
nearest the surface warms and expands
becoming less dense than the air above it;
warm air must then rise above the denser
air, circulate air from warm latitudes to cool
latitudes and vice versa.
- can be small and localized as a narrow
column of hot air rising over a sun-heated
rock or they can cover a huge regions of the
earth
Principles: Where air rises in General Circulation patterns redistributed heat and moisture
convection currents, air pressure at around the globe. The approximate locations of vertical
the surface is low; where air is convection currents, generally referred to as Hadley cells. Low
pressure belts (L) occur at altitudes where air rises. High pressure
sinking or subsiding, air pressure is
belts (H) occur where air sinks. Dominant winds, such as trade
high winds and westerlies, also occur in latitudinal bands
 CONVECTION AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Rising air tends to cool with altitude,

releasing latent heat that causes
further rising.

Very warm and humid air can rise

very vigorously, especially if it is rising
over a mass of very cold air.

Cyclonic Storms - are associated

with low pressure and rising air such
as violent storms like hurricanes,
tornadoes, and intense rain and hail.

Pressure differences are an important cause of wind. There is always someplace with
sinking (high pressure) air and someplace with low pressure (rising) air. Air moves from
high pressure centers toward low pressure areas and referred to as movement wind.
 SEASONAL WINDS AND MONSOONS

Monsoons – a seasonal reversal of wind

patterns caused by the different heating and
cooling rates of the oceans and continents;
regular seasonal winds and rains
Main reason for the variable climate is that
the region of most intense solar heating and
evaporation shifts through the year.
Remember that the earth’s axis of rotation is
at an angle. Sometimes the sun hits the
surface just south the equator and
sometimes it hits just north of the equator.
Wherever the sun shines most directly,
evaporation and convection currents – and
rainfall and thunderstorms – are very strong.
As the earth orbits the sun, different regions
fall below the sun, and different regions
receive seasonal rain and winds
WEATHER PATTERNS AND
SEVERE STORMS
 AIR MASSES
Air Mass – is an immense body of air , usually 1,600 km (1,000 miles) or more across
and perhaps several kilometers thick, that is characterized by a similarity of
temperature and moisture at any given altitude
Classification of Air Mass according to their source region
1. Polar (P) and
2. Arctic (A) air masses – both originate in high altitudes toward Earth’s poles;
3. Tropical (T) air mass – form in low latitudes
Classification of Air Masses according to the nature of the surface in the
source region
1. Continental (c) air mass – form over land
2. Maritime (m) air mass – originate over water
Basic Types of Air Masses According to this scheme of classification
1. Continental Polar (cP)
2. Continental Arctic (cA)
3. Continental Tropical (cT)
4. Maritime Polar (mP)
5. Maritime Tropical (mT)
 FRONTS
Fronts – are boundaries that separate air masses of different densities; they can
form between any two contrasting air masses
No matter which air mass is
advancing, it is always the warmer,
Overrunning – is applied to warm air less dense that is forced aloft,
gliding up along a cold air mass whereas the cooler, denser air acts
as the wedge upon which lifting
Types of Fronts takes place

1. Warm Fronts – is when the surface (ground) position of a front moves so that
warm air occupies territory formerly covered by cooler air
2. Cold Fronts – is when cold air actively advances into a region occupied by
warmer air
3. Stationary Front – is when the flow on both sides of a front is neither toward
the cold air mass not toward the warm air mass, but almost parallel to the line
of the front, thus the surface position of the front does not move
4. Occluded Front – is when an active cold front overtakes a warm front
 CYCLONES
Cyclones – refers to the circulation around any low pressure center, no
matter how large or intense it is
1. Thunderstorms – a storm that generates lightning and thunder;
• frequently produces gusty winds, heavy rain and hail;
• may be produced by a single cumulonimbus cloud and influence only
a small area or it may be associated with clusters of cumulonimbus
clouds covering a large area;
• require warm, moist air, which when lifted, will release sufficient
latent heat to provide the buoyancy necessary to maintain it upward
flight
• Common in the afternoon and early evening
2. Tornadoes – are local storms of short duration that must be ranked high
among nature’s most destructive forces
• Their sporadic occurrence and violent winds cause many deaths each
year
• They are violent windstorms that take the form of a rotating column of
air or vortex that extends downward from a cumulonimbus cloud
 CYCLONES
Cyclones – refers to the circulation around any low pressure center, no
matter how large or intense it is
3. Hurricanes – is the whirling tropical cyclones that on occasion have wind
speeds attaining 300 km (185 mi) per hour; the greatest storms on Earth
• Eye Wall – a doughnut-shaped wall of intense convective activity
surrounding the center of the storm
• Eye - is the very center of the storm
• Tropical Depression – is when a cyclone’s strongest winds do not exceed
61 km (38 mi) per hour
• Tropical Storm – is when winds are between 61 – 119 km (38 and 74 mi)
per hour
Three Categories of Damages caused by Hurricanes
1. Storm Surge – is a dome of water 65 – 80 km (40-50 mi) wide that
sweeps across coasts near the point where the eye makes landfall
2. Wind Damage – not as catastrophic as storm-surge damage
3. Inland Flooding - torrential rains that accompany most hurricanes
 Thunderstorm

Tornado Hurricane

The Eye
 References
• BUDY P. RESOSUDARMO, IDA AJU PRADNJA RESOSUDARMO, WIJAYONO SAROSA, AND NINA L. SUBIMAN,
2008. “Socioeconomic Conflicts in Indonesia’s Mining Industry,” in Exploiting Natural
Resources: Growth, Instability, and Conflict in the Middle East and Asia, Richard Cronin and
Amit Pandya, eds., pp. 33–46 (Washington, DC: The Henry L. Stimson Center,).
• CONGRESSIONAL COMMISSION ON SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY AND ENGINEERING (COMSTE). 2010.
Technical Primer on Climate Change in the Philippines By the Manila Observatory
• CRONIN, R AND PANDYA, A. Exploiting Natural Resources: Growth, Instability, and Conflict in the
Middle East and Asia. The Henry L. Stimson Center, 2009).
• CUNNINGHAM, W.P. & CUNNINGHAM, M.A. 2002. Principles of Environmental Science: Inquiry and
Application. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
• KELLER, E.A. 2000. Environmental Geology. 8th Ed.by Prentic-Hall, Inc. Upper Saddle River, NJ.
• MADER, S.S. 2010. Essentials of Biology. 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Inc. Asia.
• MONROE, J.S. AND WILANDER, R. 2009. 5th ed., The Changing Earth: Exploring Geology and
Evolution. Brooks/Cole, Cemgage Learning, Belmont, Ca. USA.
• SMITH, R. L. 1996. ECOLOGY AND FIELD BIOLOGY. Concept of the Ecosystem. Harper Collins College
Publishers, NY. U.S.A.
• TARBUCK, EJ, LUTGENS, FK AND TASA, D. 2012. Earth Science. 13th Ed. Pearson Education, Inc ,
New Jersey 07548