Building Construction
Building Construction
Building Construction
Authors
Dr. Rinku Kumar, Dr. Sandeep Panchal,
Assistant Professor, Lecturer, Lecturer, Government Polytechnic
Government Polytechnic Mankeda, Mankeda,
Agra, Uttar Pradesh Agra, Uttar Pradesh
Reviewer
Mrs. S. Santhi,
Lecturer (Sr. Grade),
A.M.K. Technological Polytechnic College,
Thiruvallur, Tamil Nadu
December, 2022
© All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE)
ISBN : 978-81-960386-8-7
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or
any other means, without permission in writing from the All India Council for Technical
Education (AICTE).
Further information about All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) courses may be
obtained from the Council Office at Nelson Mandela Marg, Vasant Kunj, New Delhi-110070.
Printed and published by All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi.
Laser Typeset by:
Printed at:
Disclaimer: The website links provided by the author in this book are placed for informational,
educational & reference purpose only. The Publisher do not endorse these website links or the
views of the speaker / content of the said weblinks. In case of any dispute, all legal matters to be
settled under Delhi Jurisdiction, only
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to the authorities of AICTE, particularly Prof. M. Jagadesh Kumar,
Chairman; Prof. M. P. Poonia, Vice-Chairman; Prof. Rajive Kumar, Member-Secretary
and Dr Amit Kumar Srivastava, Director, Faculty Development Cell for their planning to
publish the books on Building Construction. We sincerely acknowledge the valuable
contributions of the reviewer of the book Mrs. S. Santhi, Lecturer (Sr. Grade), Civil
Engineering, A. M. K. Technological Polytechnic College, Thiruvallur, Tamil Nadu for
making it students’ friendly and giving a better shape in an artistic manner.
We would like to offer special thanks to Mr. Anil Kumar, Mrs. Poonam Kumari,
Mr. Vishwnath Pratap Singh, Dr. Sudhanshu Singh, Dr. Apoorva Saxena, Shri Krishna,
Mr. Aman Singh Bhadouria, Mr. Chander Pal, Mr. Alaxender Panchal, Mrs. Kiran,
Mrs. Kareena, Ms. Shivani, and Mr. Dharmendra Singh to provide moral support,
encouragement and helped us in every possible way.
Last, but definitely not the least, we would like to express our deepest thanks to ours parents
and wives (Dr. Rinku Kumar-Mrs. Sandhya Singh; Dr. Sandeep Panchal-Mrs. Anjali) who
helped us in every possible way. They have always taken all the pains to provide us with
the best throughout our lives. We have reached this position today only because of them.
Their unconditional love, care, support and constant encouragement allowed us to finish
our book successfully.
This book is an outcome of various suggestions of AICTE members, experts, and authors
who shared their opinion and thought to further develop engineering education in our
country. Acknowledgements are due to the contributors and different workers in this field
whose published books, review articles, papers, photographs, footnotes, references and
other valuable information enriched us at the time of writing the book.
(v)
Preface
The book titled “Building Construction” is an outcome of the experience of our teaching
of building construction and building materials and research work carried out at IIT
Roorkee, NIT Hamirpur, and Delhi Technological University. The book is written to
provide the knowledge of basics of building construction to civil engineering students and
professionals. Keeping in mind the purpose of wide coverage as well as to provide essential
supplementary information, we have included the topics recommended by AICTE, in a
very systematic and orderly manner throughout the book. Efforts have been made to
explain the fundamental concepts of the subject in the simplest possible way.
During the process of preparation of the manuscript, we considered the various
standard textbooks. As the subject is more about visualization, we have included the 2-D
and 3-D diagrams for a better explanation of the concepts. The book covers all types of
details of building construction requires for diploma-level students and these have been
presented in a very logical and systematic manner.
Apart from illustrations and examples as required, we have enriched the book with
numerous unsolved questions in every unit for a proper understanding of the related topics.
We have tried to include questions that will make the students think about the problem. It
will help in boosting the problem-solving skills of the students. The book is written in a
way that the students will find interesting to read. The information provided in the chapters
will build a strong curiosity about the new building construction techniques in the students.
In addition, some interesting historical information for the users is provided under the
heading “Know more”. We have provided some details of Indian standard codes and 3-D
view of building components in the appendix and annexure section.
As far as the present book is concerned, “Building Construction” is meant to provide a
thorough grounding in building construction on the topics covered. This part of the
building construction book will prepare engineering students to apply their knowledge of
building construction to tackle the problems that they will face in the civil engineering
field. The subject matters are presented in a constructive and simple manner so that an
engineering diploma prepares students to work in the field in an efficient and creative
manner. This book will help the civil engineers and professionals in their fieldwork too.
(vi)
We sincerely hope that the book will inspire the students to learn and discuss the ideas
behind basic principles of building construction and will surely contribute to the
development of a solid foundation of the subject. We would be thankful to all beneficial
comments and suggestions which will contribute to the improvement of future editions of
the book. It gives us immense pleasure to place this book in the hands of the teachers,
students, and civil engineering professionals. It was indeed a big pleasure to work on
different aspects covering in the book.
Dr. Rinku Kumar
Dr. Sandeep Panchal
(vii)
Outcome Based Education
For the implementation of an outcome-based education the first requirement is to develop
an outcome based curriculum and incorporate an outcome based assessment in the
education system. By going through outcome based assessments evaluators will be able to
evaluate whether the students have achieved the outlined standard, specific and measurable
outcomes. With the proper incorporation of outcome based education there will be a
definite commitment to achieve a minimum standard for all learners without giving up at
any level. At the end of the programme running with the aid of outcome based education,
a student will be able to arrive at the following outcomes:
(viii)
Course Outcomes
After By the end of the course the students are expected to learn:
(ix)
Guidelines for Teachers
To implement Outcome Based Education (OBE) knowledge level and skill set of the
students should be enhanced. Teachers should take a major responsibility for the proper
implementation of OBE. Some of the responsibilities (not limited to) for the teachers in
OBE system may be as follows:
Within reasonable constraint, they should manoeuvre time to the best advantage of
all students.
They should assess the students only upon certain defined criterion without
considering any other potential ineligibility to discriminate them.
They should try to grow the learning abilities of the students to a certain level before
they leave the institute.
They should try to ensure that all the students are equipped with the quality
knowledge as well as competence after they finish their education.
They should always encourage the students to develop their ultimate performance
capabilities.
They should facilitate and encourage group work and team work to consolidate
newer approach.
They should follow Blooms taxonomy in every part of the assessment.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Teacher should Student should be Possible Mode of
Level
Check able to Assessment
Students ability to
Create Design or Create Mini project
create
Students ability to
Evaluate Argue or Defend Assignment
justify
Students ability to Differentiate or Project/Lab
Analyse
distinguish Distinguish Methodology
Students ability to Operate or Technical Presentation/
Apply
use information Demonstrate Demonstration
Students ability to
Understand Explain or Classify Presentation/Seminar
explain the ideas
Students ability to
Remember Define or Recall Quiz
recall (or remember)
(x)
Guidelines for Students
Students should take equal responsibility for implementing the OBE. Some of the
responsibilities (not limited to) for the students in OBE system are as follows:
Students should be well aware of each UO before the start of a unit in each and
every course.
Students should be well aware of each CO before the start of the course.
Students should be well aware of each PO before the start of the programme.
Students should think critically and reasonably with proper reflection and action.
Learning of the students should be connected and integrated with practical and real
life consequences.
Students should be well aware of their competency at every level of OBE.
(xi)
Abbreviations and Symbols
List of Abbreviations
General Terms
Abbreviations Full form Abbreviations Full form
SP Special Publication OPC Ordinary Portland cement
3D Three Dimensional GL Ground level
LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas RCC Reinforced cement concrete
2D Two Dimensional ER Excavation line wooden peg
CNG Compressed Natural Gas CL Centre line of foundation
PVC Polyvinyl chloride marking peg
IS Indian Standard CPWD Central public work
department
R Reference wooden peg
GI Galvanized Iron
DPC Damp Proof Course
AC Asbestos Cement RCC Ultraviolet Excavation line
FRP Fiber-reinforced Polymer POP Plaster of Paris
(xii)
Kg Kilogram S Stretcher
H Header Q Queen closer
B1 Three-quarter bat B2 Half bat
N Newton
(xiii)
List of Figures
Unit 1 Overview of Building Components
(xiv)
Fig. 2.13(a) : Combined rectangular footing 43
Fig. 2.13(b) : Plan of rectangular footing 43
Fig. 2.14(a) : Combined trapezoidal footing 44
Fig. 2.14(b) : Plan of trapezoidal footing 44
Fig. 2.15(a) : Rectangular column wall footing 44
Fig. 2.15(b) : Trapezoidal column wall footing 45
Fig. 2.16(a) : Strap footing 46
Fig. 2.16(b) : Plan of strap footing 46
Fig. 2.17(a) : Raft footing 47
Fig. 2.17(b) : Plan of raft footing 47
Fig. 2.18(a) : Pile foundation 48
Fig. 2.18(b) : Mechanism of end bearing piles 48
Fig. 2.19 : Friction piles 49
Fig. 2.20 : Combined action piles 49
Fig. 2.21(a) : Straight shaft pier 51
Fig. 2.21(b) : Bell-shaped pier 51
Fig. 2.22 : Open caissons 52
Fig. 2.23 : Floating caissons 52
Fig. 2.24 : Pneumatic caissons 53
Fig. 2.25 : Well point 54
Fig. 2.26 : Single stage well points 55
Fig. 2.27 : Multi-stage well points 56
Fig. 2.28 : Vacuum well points 56
Fig. 2.29 : Deep well system 57
Fig. 2.30 : Cofferdam 57
Fig. 2.31 : Earth cofferdam 58
Fig. 2.32 : Rockfill cofferdam 58
Fig. 2.33 : Sheet pile cofferdam 59
(xv)
Fig. 3.9 : Ashlar chamfered masonry 73
Fig. 3.10 : Ashlar facing masonry 73
Fig. 3.11(a) : Joints in stone masonry 74
Fig. 3.11(b) : Stone masonry joints 75
Fig. 3.12 : Modular brick 77
Fig. 3.13(a) : King closer 77
Fig. 3.13(b) : Queen closer 77
Fig. 3.14(a) : Bevelled closer 78
Fig. 3.14(b) : Mitred closer 78
Fig. 3.15(a) : Half bat 78
Fig. 3.15(b) : Three-quarter bat 78
Fig. 3.15(c) : Bevelled bat 79
Fig. 3.16 : Term used in brick masonry 79
Fig. 3.17 : Different views of stretcher bond 80
Fig. 3.18 : Header bond 81
Fig. 3.19 : English bond 82
Fig. 3.20(a) : Plan for one brick thick wall in english bond 83
Fig. 3.20(b) : Plan for one and half brick thick wall in english bond 83
Fig. 3.20(c) : Plan for two brick thick wall in english bond 83
Fig. 3.21 : Elevation of double Flemish bond 84
Fig. 3.22(a) : Plan for one brick thick wall in double Flemish bond 85
Fig. 3.22(b) : Plan for one and half brick thick wall in double Flemish bond 85
Fig. 3.22(c) : Plan for two brick thick wall in double Flemish bond 85
Fig. 3.23(a) : Plan for one and half brick thick wall in single Flemish bond 86
Fig. 3.23(b) : Plan for two brick thick wall in single Flemish bond 86
Fig. 3.24(a) : Tee-junction between half brick thick wall and one brick thick wall 88
Fig. 3.24(b) : Tee-junction between one and half brick thick wall and one brick thick wall 88
Fig. 3.24(c) : Tee-junction between two one and half brick thick wall both in English bond 89
Fig. 3.24(d) : Tee-junction between one and a half brick thick wall and two brick thick wall 89
Fig. 3.25(a) : Tee-junction between the one brick thick internal wall and one brick thick wall 90
Fig. 3.25(b) : Tee-junction between the 1.5 brick thick internal wall and 2 brick thick wall 90
Fig. 3.26(a) : Tee-junction between one brick thick wall and half brick thick wall 91
Fig. 3.26(b) : Tee-junction between one and a half brick thick wall and one brick thick wall 92
Fig. 3.26(c) : Tee-junction between one and a half brick thick wall and two brick thick wall 92
Fig. 3.27(a) : Cross junction between one and a half brick thick wall and one brick thick wall 93
Fig. 3.27(b) : Cross junction between two one and a half brick thick walls 93
Fig. 3.27(c) : Cross junction between one and a half brick thick wall and two brick thick wall 94
Fig. 3.28(a) : Squint junction between one brick thick wall and 1.5 brick thick wall 95
Fig. 3.28(b) : Squint junction between one and a half brick thick walls in English bond 95
Fig. 3.29(a) : Squint junction between one brick thick wall and 1.5 brick thick wall 96
Fig. 3.29(b) : Squint junction between two one and a half brick thick walls 96
Fig. 3.30 : Toothing 97
(xvi)
Fig. 3.31 : Tools in masonry work 99
Fig. 3.32 : Hollow concrete block 100
Fig. 3.33 : Representation of composite masonry 101
Fig. 3.34 : Single scaffolding 103
Fig. 3.35 : Double scaffolding 103
Fig. 3.36(a) : Single frame cantilever 104
Fig. 3.36(b) : Double frame cantilever 104
Fig. 3.37 : Suspended scaffolding 104
Fig. 3.38 : Trestle scaffolding 105
Fig. 3.39 : Dead shoring 107
Fig. 3.40 : Raking shoring 108
Fig. 3.41 : Flying shoring 109
(xvii)
Fig. 4.25 : Ramp 145
Fig. 4.26 : Lift or elevator 146
Fig. 4.27 : Parts of staircase 147
Fig. 4.28(a) : Straight staircase 148
Fig. 4.28(b) : Plan of the straight staircase 148
Fig. 4.29 : Details of dog-legged staircase 149
Fig. 4.30 : Open well staircase 149
Fig. 4.31(a) : Spiral staircase 150
Fig. 4.31(b) : Plan of the spiral staircase 150
Fig. 4.32(a) : Quarter-turn staircase 150
Fig. 4.32(b) : Three-quarter turn staircase 150
Fig. 4.33 : Bifurcated staircase 151
Fig. 4.34 : Stone staircase 152
Fig. 4.35 : Brick staircase 152
(xviii)
List of Tables
(xix)
CONTENTS
Foreword iv
Acknowledgement v
Preface vi
Outcome Based Education viii
Course Outcomes ix
Guidelines for Teachers x
Guidelines for Students xi
Abbreviations and Symbols xii
List of Figures xiv
List of Tables xix
Unit specifics 1
Rationale 2
Pre-requisites 2
Unit outcomes 2
1.1 Introduction to building construction 3
1.2 Classification of buildings (as per NBC) 3
1.2.1 Group A: Residential buildings 3
1.2.2 Group B: Education buildings 4
1.2.3 Group C: Institutional buildings 4
1.2.4 Group D: Assembly buildings 4
1.2.5 Group E: Business buildings 5
1.2.6 Group F: Mercantile buildings 5
1.2.7 Group G: Industrial buildings 5
1.2.8 Group H: Storage building 6
1.2.9 Group I: Hazardous buildings 6
1.3 Classification of buildings (as per type of construction) 6
1.3.1 Load bearing structure 6
1.3.2 Framed structure 7
1.3.3 Composite structures 8
1.4 Components of building 8
1.4.1 Substructure 8
1.4.2 Superstructure 10
1.5 Functions of building components 16
Unit summary 16
Exercises 17
(xx)
Know more 18
References and suggested readings 19
Unit specifics 20
Rationale 20
Pre-requisites 21
Unit outcomes 21
2.1 Introduction 22
2.2 Job layout 22
2.2.1 Factors affecting job layout 22
2.2.2 Site clearance 23
2.2.3 Centre line method of job layout 24
2.2.4 Face line method 25
2.2.5 Precautions 26
2.3 Earthwork 27
2.2.1 Excavation of foundation 27
2.2.2 Timbering and strutting 28
2.2.3 Earthwork of embankment 30
2.2.4 Materials of plinth 31
2.2.5 Tools and plants for excavation 31
2.4 Foundation 34
2.5 Functions of foundation 34
2.6 Types of foundation 34
2.7 Shallow foundation 34
2.7.1 Depth of shallow foundation 35
2.7.2 Spread footings 35
2.7.3 Combined footing 43
2.7.4 Strap footing 45
2.7.5 Raft foundation 47
2.8 Deep foundation 48
2.8.1 Pile foundation 48
2.8.2 Pier foundation 50
2.8.3 Caissons 51
2.9 Pumping methods for dewatering 54
2.9.1 Well points 54
2.9.2 Vacuum well point 56
2.9.3 Deep well system 57
2.10 Coffer dam 57
Unit summary 59
Exercises 60
(xxi)
Know more 62
References and suggested readings 63
Unit specifics 64
Rationale 64
Pre-requisites 65
Unit outcomes 65
3.1 Introduction 66
3.2 Stone masonry 66
3.3 Terms used in stone masonry 67
3.4 Types of stone masonry 67
3.4.1 Rubble masonry 67
3.4.2 Ashlar masonry 71
3.5 Joints in stone masonry and their purpose 74
3.6 Selection of stones 75
3.7 Precautions in construction of stone masonry 76
3.8 Brick masonry and terms used in brick masonry 77
3.9 Bonds in brick masonry 79
3.9.1 Stretcher bond 80
3.9.2 Header bond 81
3.9.3 English bond 82
3.9.2 Flemish bond 84
3.10 Requirements of a good brick 87
3.11 Junctions in brick masonry and their procedure 87
3.11.1 Tee junction 87
3.11.2 Intersection or cross-section 93
3.11.3 Squint junction 94
3.12 Purpose of junctions 96
3.13 Precautions in construction of brick masonry 97
3.14 Comparison between stone and brick masonry 98
3.15 Tools and plants for construction of brick and stone masonry 98
3.16 Hollow concrete block masonry 100
3.17 Composite masonry 101
3.18 Scaffolding and its purpose 102
3.19 Types of scaffold 102
3.19.1 Single scaffold 102
3.19.2 Double scaffold 103
3.19.3 Cantilever scaffold 103
3.19.4 Suspended scaffold 104
3.19.5 Trestle scaffold 105
(xxii)
3.19.5 Steel scaffold 105
3.20 Process of erection of scaffolding 105
3.21 Dismantling of scaffolding 106
3.22 Shoring and its purpose 106
3.23 Types of shoring 107
3.23.1 Dead shoring 107
3.23.2 Raking shoring 107
3.23.3 Flying shoring 108
3.24 Underpinning 109
3.25 Definition of formwork 110
3.26 Requirement of formwork 110
3.27 Materials used in formwork 111
3.28 Types of formwork 111
3.28.1 Timber formwork 111
3.28.2 Plywood formwork 112
3.28.3 Steel formwork 112
3.28.4 Plastic formwork 113
3.28.5 Aluminum formwork 113
3.29 Removal of formwork 113
Unit summary 114
Exercises 115
Know more 117
References and suggested readings 117
(xxiii)
4.13 Types of window 132
4.13.1 Full-paneled window 133
4.13.2 Glazed window 134
4.13.3 Partly paneled window 135
4.13.4 Wooden window 136
4.13.5 Steel window 136
4.13.6 Aluminium window 136
4.13.7 Sliding window 137
4.13.8 Louvered window 138
4.13.9 Bay window 138
4.13.10 Corner window 139
4.13.11 Clerestory window 139
4.13.12 Gable and dormer window 140
4.13.13 Skylight window 140
4.14 Sizes of windows 141
4.15 Ventilators 141
4.16 Fixtures and fastening of the doors and windows 142
4.17 Functions and materials of window sill and lintels 144
4.18 Shed/chajja 145
4.19 Means of vertical communication 145
4.20 Terms used in staircase 146
4.21 Types of staircase (based on the shapes) 148
4.21.1 Straight staircase 148
4.21.2 Dog-legged staircase 148
4.21.3 Open well staircase 149
4.21.4 Spiral staircase 149
4.21.5 Quarter turn staircase 150
4.21.6 Bifurcated staircase 151
4.22 Types of staircase (on the basis of materials) 151
4.22.1 Stone staircase 151
4.22.2 Brick staircase 152
4.22.3 RCC staircase 152
4.22.4 Wooden and metal staircase 153
Unit summary 153
Exercises 153
Know more 155
References and suggested readings 155
(xxiv)
Pre-requisites 157
Unit outcomes 157
5.1 Floors and roofs 158
5.2 Types of floor finish and its suitability 158
5.2.1 Kota floor finish 158
5.2.2 Marble floor finish 158
5.2.3 Granite floor finish 159
5.2.4 Ceramic tiles and vitrified tiles 159
5.2.5 Chequered tiles 160
5.2.6 Paver blocks 161
5.2.7 Concrete flooring 161
5.2.8 Wooden flooring 162
5.2.9 Skirting and dado 163
5.3 Process of laying and construction 163
5.4 Finishing and polishing of floors
164
5.5 Roofing materials
164
5.5.1 Reinforced cement concrete (RCC)
165
5.5.2 Mangalore tiles
165
5.5.3 Asbestos cement sheet
166
5.5.4 Galvanized iron sheets
166
5.5.5 Plastic and fiber sheets
166
5.6 Terms used in roofs
167
5.7 Types of roofs
168
5.7.1 Flat roof
5.7.2 Pitched roof 168
5.8 Plastering and its necessity 169
5.9 Procedure of plastering 171
5.10 Double coat plastering 172
5.11 Single coat plastering 172
5.12 Rough finish and neeru finish 172
5.13 Plaster of Paris (POP) 173
5.14 Special plaster 173
5.15 Stucco plaster 173
5.16 Sponge finish 174
5.17 Pebble finish 174
5.18 Plaster board 174
5.19 Wall cladding 175
5.20 Precautions to be taken during plastering 176
5.21 Defects in plastering 176
5.22 Pointing
177
5.22.1 Necessity of pointing
177
5.22.2 Types of pointing
177
5.22.3 Procedure of pointing
178
(xxv)
5.23 Painting and its necessity 179
5.24 Surface preparation for painting 179
5.25 Methods of painting 179
Unit summary 180
Exercises 181
Know more 183
References and suggested readings 183
Appendices
184
Appendix - A : Terminology of National Building Code
185
Appendix - B : Classification of building as per NBC
Annexures
190
Annexure-A : Plan of a house
191
Annexure-B : 3 D view of a house
192
Annexure-C: 3 Dimensional side view of house
193
Annexure-D: 3 Dimensional view without walls
Index 196-198
(xxvi)
Building Construction | 1
1
Overview of Building
d
Components
UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:
Classification of the buildings according to the norms of the National Building Code of
India (SP 7: 2016)
Functions of the components of the building
Overview of the sub-structure and its components
Overview of the superstructure and its components
For helping the students in the visualization of the content and to enhance their practical
knowledge, the figures are provided in 2 D and 3D views.
This unit contains short and long answer-type questions along with multiple choice questions,
a list of references, and suggested reading is given so that one can go through them for practice.
Some QR codes are given which can be scanned for more information on various topics of interest
and to get extra knowledge.
RATIONALE
This unit on overview of building components helps the students to develop an idea about the
classification of the buildings according to the National Building Code of India. It explains the
various components of the buildings. The functions of the components of the buildings are
discussed. A brief discussion about the substructure and superstructure of the building is provided.
The content covered in this unit is important to build a foundation for studying the subject further.
Building construction is an important subject for civil engineers and building planners.
Knowledge of the building components, techniques of construction, the layout of buildings, etc. is
essential for students of civil engineering. The students can apply the knowledge gained from this
subject in the field of quantity surveying, building construction supervision, material testing,
engineering drawing, and building design.
2 | Overview of Building Components
PRE-REQUISITES
No prerequisites are required for studying this unit.
UNIT OUTCOMES
The list of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U1-O1: Identify different types of buildings based on the National building code of India
U1-O2: Differentiate the types of the building based on construction
U1-O3: Explain different components of the buildings
U1-O4: Realize the role of different components of the building
MA
Building Construction | 3
You would have observed many types of buildings in your vicinity. Some are used for storing goods
and others are used as shops. You are also living in a structure called home. Have you ever
thought, how many types of buildings are there? According to the National Building Code (NBC)
of India, a building is classified into nine categories depending on its usage. The buildings as per
NBC criteria are classified into the following categories:
A. Residential Buildings
B. Educational Buildings
C. Institutional Buildings
D. Assembly Buildings
E. Business Buildings
F. Mercantile Buildings
G. Industrial Buildings
H. Storage Buildings
I. Hazardous Buildings
D-6: The buildings which have mixed facilities of shopping, theatre, gaming, etc. lie under the D-6
category of assembly buildings. Modern-day shopping malls and multiplexes are examples of D-
6 assembly buildings.
D-7: Any underground or elevated structure for the gathering of people for different purposes which is
not covered by D-1 to D-6 categories is kept under the D-7 assembly building category.
G-3: The buildings which are used for high hazard industry come in this category. The materials and
products accommodated in such type of building burn rapidly. Toxic fumes and explosions during
the fire can be generated.
CONSTRUCTION)
A building has many components like walls, floor, roof, etc. The load is transferred to the foundation
from the components of the building. The buildings can be classified into the following three categories
based on the construction:
1.3.1 Load Bearing Structures
1.3.2 Framed Structures
1.3.3 Composite Structures
The building components are the structures that serve the purpose of load transfer, supporting, and
protecting the building. A building can be divided into the following two parts:
a. Substructure: Substructures or foundations can be defined as all lower structures of building
below ground level which helps in transmitting loads of superstructures to the soil. A
foundation is that part of the building structure which is in direct contact with the supporting
soil and transfers structural loads.
b. Superstructure: The superstructure can be defined as all the structures that lie above the
ground level both internally and externally.
1.4.1 Substructure
A substructure transfers the load from the various building components to the earth. The substructure
remains beneath the ground. Figure 1.3 shows the substructure and its components. The
substructure of a building consists of the following two parts:
a. Foundation: The basic function of the foundation is to prevent the building from collapsing
by transferring the dead load, live load, wind load, earthquake load, and any other type of load
to the subsoil in such a manner that it doesn’t cause any settlement or shear failure of soil.
Foundation should have sufficient bearing capacity and stability. It is therefore designed very
carefully as the failure of the foundation cannot be noticeable till it affects the building. A
detailed discussion of the foundation types and their functions is explained in Unit II.
b. Plinth: The part of the structure between the surface of the surrounding subsoil and the surface
of the raised floor of the building, immediately above the ground is known as a plinth. The
width of the plinth beam should be equal to the width of the foundation at the ground level. It
should have a minimum depth of 20 cm and the concrete used for construction should have a
minimum of 20 MPa strength. Some of the important advantages of the plinth in building
construction are as follows:
The plinth distributes loads of the superstructure evenly to the foundation.
It acts as a barrier to the dampness and moisture reaching the superstructure.
The plinth protects from water seepage in a framed structure.
Building Construction | 9
It protects the building from cracks at the time of settlement of the foundation.
It provides durability and stability to the superstructure.
It gives a better aesthetic appeal to the structure.
1.4.2 Superstructure
The superstructure is the visible part of a building. The components of the superstructure are visible and
you can see them at your home too. Doors, windows, floor, roof etc. are the parts of the
superstructure. The various components of the superstructure are discussed in the subsequent
sections. Figure 1.4 shows the different components of the superstructure.
1.4.2.1 Walls
Walls are the most important parts of the building’s superstructure. A wall can be used for the transfer
of load or for just partition purposes. The walls which are used to transfer the loads are known as
load-bearing walls while the walls which don’t act as a load-bearing structure are known as non-
load-bearing walls. Some of the salient features of a wall in building construction are given as
follows:
It should be strong to carry its own weight.
It must be capable of carrying and transmitting the load of the roof to the substructure.
It must be strong enough to support the opening of doors and windows.
It helps in the space management of buildings to make them more useful.
It protects the occupants from heat, rain, and cold and provides privacy.
It acts as a sound barrier.
It should be fire-resistant.
Walls are of different types depending on their usage and location such as cavity walls, partition walls,
retaining walls, compartment walls, dwarf walls, parapet walls, and curtain walls. The cavity wall
and partition wall are discussed in the next section. Figure 1.4 shows the walls.
Building Construction | 11
In modern-day buildings, where the construction is carried out as framed structures, the utility of
partition wall has increased. These types of walls provide flexibility as wall positions can be
easily reconfigured and inexpensive without impacting the structure of the building. They can be
easily designed and constructed with openings for doors, windows, sockets, etc. The partition
wall specification depends on the availability of materials, cost, ease of construction, and
finishing. Figure 1.4 shows the partition wall.
1.4.2.4 Sill
Sill a horizontal surface made up of mortar located below the window and having a width equal to the
width of the wall below the window. It provides a smooth finished surface and support to the
window. Materials used for the construction of sill are reinforced cement concrete, plain cement
concrete, wood, steel, etc. Sill helps in preventing the moisture and passage of water to reach up
to the window.
1.4.2.5 Lintel
Lintels are horizontal stripes such as beams or any structural member, which are used to cover the
opening and support the structure above the opening of the doors and windows. Materials used
for constructing lintel are wood plank, bricks, reinforced cement concrete, stone, and rolled steel
section infused in cement concrete.
The width of the lintel is provided equally to the width of the building wall. The vertical load above the
opening of the door and window is carried by the lintel and transmitted to the side wall from its
end. Figure 1.4 shows the lintel.
1.4.2.7 Floor
A floor may be defined as the vertical partition of a building one over the other to increase the
accommodating capacity of the building in a limited area. A floor is a flat and smooth surface
that is designed to support the occupants, furniture, equipment, etc. the floor at the ground is
called ‘ground floor’ and the floor at the first storey is called ‘first floor’. A floor has the following
two components:
a. Sub-floor: A sub-floor provides sufficient support to the floor covering and the load on the
floor covering. A sub-floor imparts the necessary strength to bear the superimposed load.
b. Floor covering: Floor covering is a flat, even, smooth and durable surface that provides the
face of the floor. The floor covering is impervious in nature and aesthetically pleasing.
The floors are classified as ground floor and upper floors. In the ground floor, the floor rests on the
ground while in the case of upper floors the floors are supported by some other means like slab
action, timber framing, etc. Figure 1.6 shows the system of floors in a building.
1.4.2.9 Roof
A roof may be defined as the uppermost part of the building that acts as a structural covering to the
building and protects it from the impact of weather and external impacts. The roofs are
constructed as the floors but the shapes remain different. The roofs can be of the following three
types:
a. Flat roof
b. Sloping roof
c. Curved roof
a. Flat roof
A roof may be defined as the uppermost part of the building that acts as a structural covering
to the building and protects it from the impact of weather and external impacts. The roofs which
have a very gentle slope are known as flat roofs. The flat roofs have a slope gradient of less
than 10º. These types of roofs are suitable for the regions where the rainfall quantity remains
less throughout the year. The flat roof can be used as a terrace. It is necessary to provide some
slope in the flat roofs for the proper drainage during the rainfall season. The flat roofs require
less material for construction. These types of roofs are stable against the action of winds. In
multi-storey buildings, only flat roofs can be constructed as it is easy to construct the upper
floor on flat roofs.
b. Sloping roof
If the slope of the roof is more than 10º, it is known as the sloping roof. The sloping roofs are
more suitable for regions where the quantity of rainfall is high. These roofs are cost-effective
and can be provided for long spans. The regions where snowfall is a common phenomenon,
sloping roofs are mandatory. The snow is easily drained out from the sloping roofs.
Building Construction | 15
c. Curved roofs
Curved roofs are relatively new types of roofs. These types of roofs are relatively durable and
look aesthetically pleasing. The curved roofs have very good drainage properties. These types
of roofs are more suitable for the storage buildings as these increase the accommodating
capacity of the storage buildings. The curved roofs are designed by specialists and require
skilled labour. These types of roofs require less maintenance. The curved roofs require very
sophisticated design capabilities and the cost may be higher due to the specific design
requirements.
Slabs are the flat horizontal members which take the load of the people, goods, equipment, etc.,
and transfer it to the beams. The slabs are used to make flat surfaces like floors and roofs. The
slabs are made of concrete generally and can be prefabricated too.
Beams are the horizontal members which take the load from the slabs and transfer it to the
columns. The beams take the vertical loads.
16 | Overview of Building Components
Columns are the vertical members which take the load from the beams and transfer it to the
foundation. The column is a compression member of the building as it counteracts the
compressive load from the building components.
1.4.2.11 Parapet
A parapet wall may be defined as a wall that is constructed along the perimeter of the roof. These are
short in height. The parapet walls are used to provide safety to roof users. The parapet wall helps
in the prevention of accidents. It is aesthetically pleasing and provides the users with privacy. A
parapet wall can be constructed of masonry, steel, stones, etc. The parapet walls can be provided
in the form of railing too.
UNIT SUMMARY
According to the National Building Code of India, 2016, Part IV, buildings can be classified
into nine categories from Group A to Group I
Group A: Residential Buildings are used for sleeping and accommodation purposes.
Group B: Educational Buildings are used for schooling and training purposes.
Group C: Institutional Buildings are used for care and restriction purposes.
Group D: Assembly Buildings are used for the gathering of the people.
Group E: Business Buildings are used for the transactions of the business.
Group F: Mercantile Buildings are used as shops and marketplaces.
Group G: Industrial Buildings are used for the production and fabrication of products.
Group H: Storage Buildings are used for storing non-hazardous material and goods.
Group I: Hazardous Buildings are used to store highly inflammable materials.
The load-bearing structures are the structures that transfer the load to the foundation through
the walls.
Framed structures are a combination of various components like beams, columns, and slabs for
transferring the load.
A building has two components which are substructure and superstructure.
A substructure consists of the invisible part of the building. Foundation and plinth are the
components of the substructure.
Building Construction | 17
The superstructure consists of the visible components in the building like doors, windows, sill,
floors, etc.
Slabs, beams, and columns are the structural members of the building which provide strength
and stability to the structure.
EXERCISES
Multiple Choice Questions
1. According to NBC, industrial buildings lie in which group of buildings?
(a) Group A (b) Group G (c) Group C (d) Group I
5. Black soil is a highly sensitive soil that changes its volume with moisture. As a civil engineer,
for a three-floor building, what kind of structure will you suggest?
(a) Load-bearing (b) Framed (c) Composite (d) None of the above
7. The non-load-bearing wall that is constructed for the separation of portions in a house is known
as:
(a) Partition wall (b) Curtain wall (c) a and b both (d) None of the above
18 | Overview of Building Components
8. What is the minimum strength of concrete used for the construction of the plinth?
(a) 10 MPa (b) 15 MPa (c) 20 MPa (d) 30 MPa
10. Which one of the following is not the function of the parapet wall?
(a) Safety (b) Aesthetics (c) Privacy (d) Strength to building
KNOW MORE
The curved roofs are introduced in the year 1920. The people who used
to store the grains and grass for the animals wanted to increase the
accommodating capacity of their storage building. So, for this purpose,
curved roofs are introduced. At present, curved roofs have become a
symbol of aesthetics and are used in various famous structures
worldwide. To see some famous structures with curved roofs, you can
scan the QR code given on the side of this text.
Building Construction | 19
2
Construction of
d
Substructure
UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:
To understand the layout of load-bearing structure and framed structure
Process of excavation of foundation
Overview of tools and plants used for earthwork
Overview of functions and types of foundation
Discussion on dewatering techniques
Introduction of cofferdam
For helping the students in the visualization of the content and to enhance their practical
knowledge, the figures are provided in 2D and 3D. The content in this unit provides practical
knowledge and will help the students in decision-making during the fieldwork.
This unit contains short and long answer-type questions along with multiple choice questions,
a list of references, and suggested reading is given so that one can go through them for practice.
Some QR codes are given which can be scanned for more information on various topics of interest
and to get extra knowledge. Some interesting facts are given under ‘Know more’.
RATIONALE
This unit on the construction of substructure helps the students to develop an idea about the layout
of the structures. It explains the process of the excavation of the foundation. The various tools and
plants used for the earthwork are discussed. A brief discussion of the foundations and their types
is provided. The various methods of dewatering are also discussed and an introduction about the
cofferdams is given. The content covered in this unit is important to understand the process of
construction of the substructure.
The knowledge of layout, excavation techniques, and construction of the foundation is essential
for civil engineering students. The students can apply the knowledge of the construction of
substructures during their fieldwork. The knowledge gained in this unit will help the students to
identify the suitable foundation for different field conditions. The students can apply their
Building Construction | 21
knowledge in the selection and implementation of suitable dewatering techniques during the
construction work. The concepts in this unit will help the student in effective supervision of
construction works of the substructure.
PRE-REQUISITES
A basic knowledge of building components is required.
UNIT OUTCOMES
The list of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U2-O1: To explain the process of the layout of the structure
U2-O2: To understand the process of excavation of the foundation
U2-O3: To realize the suitability of different tools for the different excavation operation
U2-O4: To determine the function and suitability of different types of foundation
U2-O5: To propose a suitable pumping method for dewatering
MA
22 | Construction of substructure
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you got an idea about the various components of the building. We know that the
foundation is constructed into two parts which are the substructure and superstructure. A
substructure is a part that is below the ground. In this unit, we will learn about the construction
of the substructure. The first step in the construction of the substructure is to plan the whole
process of construction. The job layouts help in effective planning of the construction of the
substructure.
(2) Method of construction: The construction at the site may require a pre-cast structure or cast-
in-situ or both. So, the job layout varies according to the requirements of the construction. For
example, if there is a requirement for pre-cast structures, then a casting yard should also be
present in the job layout otherwise there is no need of providing a casting yard.
(3) Availability of resources: Various resources such as manpower, machinery, material, etc. are
required at the construction site. So, the job layout should have the provision for the different
Building Construction | 23
resources. The temporary arrangement of housing, food, or any other facility required should
be given in the job layout. The location of the temporary facilities should be such that it remains
safe from the adverse the impact of atmosphere.
(4) Temporary road: Roads are important to transfer material and equipment from one place to
another place inside the construction site. It also provide access to the entry and the exit point
from nearby road. The transportation facility should be given consideration in the job layout.
(5) Miscellaneous facilities: There may be other facilities that need to be shown in the job layout.
The necessary provision for facilities such as electricity, water supply, material storage yard,
and telephone connection should be there in the site job layout.
hazardous materials is present on site, then an expert for the disposal of this type of material
should be consulted before the disposal of hazardous material.
The following recommendations are considered during the process of the site clearance:
(1) The area to be cleared is marked properly.
(2) The trees and vegetation on the site are to be cleared off. The
details of the trees to be cut should be listed and the trees and
vegetation are removed manually or mechanically.
(3) The topsoil is excavated using the excavating equipment. The
excavators are used for the removal of the soil.
(4) All the depressions and pits created during the process of clearing
the trees and during the removal of the vegetation must be filled
and compacted properly. The excavated soil is used for this
purpose.
(5) The water can be used during the compaction of the pits. The density of the compacted pits
should be near the surrounding area.
(6) If the structures exist in the area, these should be demolished mechanically. The demolition
waste is dumped at the approved dumping sites, and the useful waste is stored properly. The
soil that is excavated must be stored properly. These materials can be removed using tractors
and dumpers.
(7) The ground can be leveled using the dozers if required.
The following steps are followed during the layout using the center line method:
First corner of the building is fixed by measuring the distance of one corner from the border of
the plot and fixing it by using wooden pegs.
From this wooden peg, the center line of the foundation is marked.
Then half the width of the layout foundation is marked on either side of the center line by a
wooden peg.
Considering the orientation of the building, the center line of the foundation is matched with
the baseline string.
The perpendicular line is set using the first corner center line wooden peg
Building Construction | 25
Lime sand powder is used to mark the excavation line on either side of the center line.
Step 6: Diagonal check such as distance between AC, BD, EG, FH, and so on must be checked
for the proper rectangular shape of the rooms.
2.2.5 Precautions
The workers should care about some points while transferring the layout to the ground. The following
precautions should be considered while making a layout on the ground:
The steel tape used for the measurement should be free from any type of error. The steel tape
should be checked for errors at regular intervals. As time passes, the steel tape can get elongated
or shortened during the measurements. If there are errors in the tape, these should be corrected
mathematically.
The sketches of the location should be used with great care while fixing the boundaries of the
plot.
The dumpy level or the auto level should be used for the purpose of leveling. The level should
be error-free and should be calibrated properly.
The locations where the wooden pegs are to be installed must be properly marked. Any
confusion can lead to errors in the job layout. The wooden pegs are kept on the same level and
the markings on the wooden pegs should be clearly visible.
The distance should be checked by at least two independent measurements.
The rooms and the whole building should be checked for a diagonal check.
Building Construction | 27
The plumb bob should be straight while transferring the marking point on the ground. The
inclination of the plum bob induces errors.
The measurements of the distance, angles and elevations must be precise.
The lime powder used for marking should visible clearly and distinct for proper excavation to
avoid any confusion.
2.3 EARTHWORK
The process of the excavation and deposition of excavated material is known as earthwork. The
earthwork includes the excavation, loading, transportation, deposition, compaction, and
improvement of the soil. After the clearance of the site, the earthwork begins. Earthwork can be
defined as engineering work that involves moving the soil or processing the soil from the earth’s
surface. In this process, the soil moves from one part to other parts and help in achieving the
desired shape required for construction purpose. Earthworks mainly required heavy machinery
equipment for the excavation of soil and backfill. Heavy machinery is generally used due to the
involvement of large quantities of the material which has to be moved
The excavated material should be placed at least 1 m away from the place of the excavation.
The bottom of the trench should be perfectly leveled.
The bed of the foundation should be rammed before pouring concrete for better stability.
The soft soils or the rocks should be removed and the bed of the trench should be leveled and
filled with stabilized soil.
The wires should be placed around excavation work so that no person or any stray animal from
the outside area falls inside the excavated region.
Underground water pipelines, gas pipelines, communication cables, etc. should be protected
while digging a trench.
During excavation, if any archeological item is found, it is considered government’s property
and should be deposited at the government office.
Special care is required while digging adjacent to old buildings so no damage is done to
adjacent property
Permission from the forest department is required to cut or transfer live trees from the
excavation site, whose circumference is more than 30 cm and height is more than 1 m from the
ground.
The surplus soil left after filling the trench site should be disposed of properly.
(2) Ranger or wale: Rangers are placed behind the polling board in a horizontal position to support
and keep the board in a straight standing position. Wales are the planks having a width of
200mm to 250 mm and a thickness of around 400 mm.
(3) Strut: Strut is timber plank that joins wale of either side to each other and kept wale intact in
their position. Strut is sometimes directly attached to the polling board. Strut is placed
horizontally across the trench. The dimension of the strut is 100 × 100 mm up to 2 m width
trench and 200 × 200 mm for trench having 4 m width.
(4) Bracing: Bracing is provided diagonally to strengthen the timbering on either side of the
trench.
Building Construction | 29
The deep trenches require timbering and strutting generally. The process followed for timbering and
strutting of the deep foundation is explained as follows:
(1) Stay bracing: This method is used when the soil is firm or hard to support the trench side. In
this case, the depth of the foundation is not exceeding more than 2 m. In this method, the
wooden planks are placed in the vertical position on both sides of the trench and connected
with the help of two or more rows of the strut. An interval of 2 to 4 m is kept between the
polling boards, extending to the depth of the trench. Figure 2.4 (a) shows the stay bracing for
general soil.
(2) Box Sheeting: When there is loose soil present at the site of the trench, the box sheeting method
is adopted. Box sheeting can only be used for depth of excavation up to 4 m. In this method,
the vertical or longitudinal wooden planks are placed next to each other, and wales are provided
in vertical or longitudinal rows to keep them in position. These wales are connected across with
the help of struts. If the height of depth is more than 4 m bracings are provided along with
struts. Figure 2.4 (b) shows the box sheeting.
Fig 2.4 (a): Stray bracings Fig 2.4 (b): Box sheeting
(3) Runner System: This system is used when there is very loose and soft soil and required urgent
support to the side of the trench as excavation progressed. This system is similar to box
sheeting, except in this system long wooden planks are used in place of vertical sheets. Figure
2.4 (c) shows the runner system.
(4) Vertical sheeting: Vertical sheeting is done for trench having deep excavation up to 10 m in
soft soil. In this method excavation is carried out in stages and timbering is done similar to the
box sheeting. The width of the trench of the foundation decrease as the depth increases and
offsets are provided at each stage.
Each stage is kept about 3 m the height and offset may vary from 250 to 500 mm per stage.
Separate vertical sheeting is done for each stage supported by horizontal and vertical wale and
struts. Figure 2.4 (d) shows the vertical sheeting.
30 | Construction of substructure
Fig 2.4 (c): Runner system Fig 2.4 (d): Vertical sheeting
Plinth that has to be filled should be cleared from all type of timbering and shuttering or any formwork.
Space between foundation and side of trench filled up to the plinth level in layer. The thickness
of layer should be kept 250 mm. Each layer should be watered and compacted by using rammers
of weight 7-10 kg. The following materials can be used for the plinth filling:
(1) Soil: It should be free from any type of salts/chemicals and harmful organic matter. Black
cotton soil is not used in filling trenches as this soil has expansion properties. Lump of earth
soil of size more than 50 mm shall be broken or removed. Double handling of soil should be
avoided and borrowed soil should be used directly to the fill excavated trench.
(2) Murrum Soil: Murrum is defined as fragments of rock but not rock. Murrum soil is red in
color to the presence of iron oxide and is found in humid tropical or equatorial zones. It comes
under laterite soil. The size of murrum soil used varies from finely powdered to 40 mm. its
specific density is around 1.8 gm/cc.
(3) Sand: Sand used for filling the foundation up to the plinth level should be free from dust,
organic matter, etc. Clay/silt quantity should be less than 5% in the sand filling.
Fig 2.5: Hand tools for excavation (a) Rake, (b) Basket, (c) Hoe or phaorah, (d) Rammer, (e)
Shovel
Rammer: It is made up of heavy metal piece attached with wooden handle having flat surface
at the end. It is used for compacting the filling material in the trench.
Crow Bar: It is made up of iron. It is used to plug the bricks from the ground.
Basket: They are made up of plastics and galvanized iron. It is used to lift the loosen soil from
small trench.
Rake: it consists of horizontal wooden rod with metal teeth. It is used to clear the excavation
site with tree debris and small rock.
Building Construction | 33
Machinery tools are operated by mechanical and hydraulic force and are used to excavate larger depths.
Figure 2.6 (a) and (b) shows machinery for excavation. Different types of machine tools used in
modern-day construction are as follows:
2.4 FOUNDATION
The word ‘foundation’ has emerged from the Latin word ‘fundare’. The word ‘fundare’ means to ‘set
on a solid base’. Foundation is the lowermost part of the structure which transfers the load of the
superstructure and other loads to the ground. A foundation may be defined as a solid base on
which the structure rests. Foundation remains in direct contact with the ground to transfer the
dead load and superimposed load. The foundation plays a major role in the stability and strength
of the structure. As the ultimate load from all the building components is to be transferred through
34 | Construction of substructure
the foundation, it is essential to construct the foundation carefully. The selection of type of
foundation requires deep knowledge about the soils and their characteristics Fun
The foundation is one of the most important parts of the building. The structural elements like columns,
beams, and slabs transfer the load to each other but it is the foundation that ultimately transfers
the load of the whole structure to the earth. So, the foundation plays a vital role in the safety and
serviceability of a structure. The major functions of the foundation are discussed as follows:
(1) A foundation provides a hard and level surface that is suitable for the construction of a
superstructure over it.
(2) The foundation distributes the load from the structure to a larger area which helps in reducing
the load intensity. We know that pressure is the ratio of force to area. If the area is larger the
pressure reduces. The foundation acts on the same principle. The load of the structure is
distributed by the foundation and transferred to the ground. The larger the area of the
foundation, the lesser will be the load intensity and the safer will be the structure.
(3) The load is distributed uniformly by the foundation. If the load is distributed non-uniformly or
unevenly, there can be differential settlements in the base. The differential settlements can
cause cracks in the building components. In extreme cases, even failure of building components
can occur.
(4) There is a significant impact of winds and earthquakes on the buildings. The wind and
earthquake loads have a tendency to overturn the building due to their horizontal impact. The
foundation binds the superstructure and provides lateral stability to the structure.
(5) The foundations save the components of the building from the cracks during the movement of
the soil. The soils can expand or contract which can cause the cracking of the structural
components of the buildings. Special measures during the construction of the foundation are
taken to save the structure from cracking.
(6) The foundation reduces the impact of undermining and scouring on the building.
Strap footings
Mat foundations
2.7.1 Depth of Shallow foundation
The soil at the surface is loose and weak generally. So, the topsoil is removed for the construction of
the foundation. There are the following three choices are considered:
If the topsoil is very weak in nature and has poor strength, it will not be able to withstand the
load from the foundation. In this case, the soil can be treated and its mechanical properties can
be enhanced by the process of stabilization of soil. The loose soil of a larger area can be replaced
with a mixture of gravel and sand.
The topsoil can be removed and replaced with plain concrete. It will enhance the strength of
the base.
If the soil at the surface has enough strength to withstand the loads from the foundation, still a
minimum depth of the foundation should be kept. The minimum depth of a shallow foundation
can be calculated from Rankine’s formula as follows:
𝑃 1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜑 (2.1)
𝐷𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝛾 1 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜑
Here P is the pressure at the footing’s base in kN/m2
γ is the unit weight of the soil in kN/m3
φ is the angle of repose
The angle of repose represents the inclination at which a particular material can stand safely. For
example, dry sand has an angle of repose from 25º to 35º.
𝑃
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴
𝑞𝑠 (2.2)
The shape of the concrete pad can be same as the shape of the column. In figures 2.7 (c), x
shows the offsets. The offset of 10 cm to 20 cm can be given. The dimensions of the base pad
can’t be less than two times of the column dimension. Figure 2.7 (d) shows details of plan.
Fig 2.7 (a). Single column footing Fig 2.7 (b). Plan of single footing
Building Construction | 37
Fig 2.7 (c). Single column footing Fig 2.7 (d). Details of plan of single footing
If the pad is constructed of cement concrete, thickness of the pad should be equal to the offset.
If the pad is constructed from lime concrete, thickness of the pad should be 1.5 times of the
offset.
The spread is shown by n:1. The angle of spread should be 1:1 for the cement concrete footing
while angle of spread for the lime concrete should be 0.66:1.
The single column footings provided only of the load coming to the column is small and the
bearing capacity is large.
Fig 2.8(a). Stepped column footing Fig 2.8(b). Plan of stepped column footing
During the construction of stepped column footing, the following recommendations are considered:
The stepped column footing is provided when the load coming to the column is more than the
safe bearing capacity of the soil.
The spread is given so that the load can be transferred gradually to the base.
Consider figure 2.8 (c), in the stepped footing, the layers of masonry are provided before giving
the concrete base. The spread is shown with n:1 and n1:1. The rate of spread for the masonry
is kept 0.5:1, 0.66:1 for the lime concrete, and 1:1 for cement concrete is provided.
For the masonry pillar, the offset should be between 10 to 15 cm and the step height may vary
from 15 cm to 22.5 cm.
The sloped column footing is constructed on an inclination of 45º from all sides. Sloped footings save
material and gradually transfers the load to the ground. The sides of the footing are provided with
a slope with a concrete layer at the bottom for uniform distribution of loads.
Fig 2.9 (a). Sloped column footing Fig 2.9 (b). Plan of sloped column footing
The sloped footing has simple geometry but the size of vertical and horizontal bars can’t be uniform
due to the slope. If very steep slopes are provided, the sloped foundation can be unstable. The
major advantage of the slope foundations is their economy but this poses more challenges and
problems during construction. Figure 2.9 (a) shows the sloped footing and figure 2.9 (b) shows
the plan of the sloped footing.
Fig 2.10 (a). Strip wall footing Fig 2.10 (b). Plan of strip wall footing
During the construction of strip footing, the following recommendations are considered:
The width of the wall footings is calculated the following formula:
𝑃
𝐵
𝑞𝑠 (2.3)
Here, P is the load coming to the footing and qs is the safe bearing capacity of the soil
When the safe bearing capacity of the soil is very high and the load coming to the wall is light,
in this case, simple strip footing is provided.
The concrete pad is provided directly under the wall and there is no need of providing the
masonry offsets.
The offsets along the wall should be from 10 cm to 20 cm.
The angle of spread is kept the same as in the case of simple column footing.
The width of the concrete pad is kept equal to or more than two times of the wall width.
The depth of the concrete pad should be equal to the offset in the case of cement concrete and
should be equal to 1.5 times of offset in the case of lime concrete.
40 | Construction of substructure
Fig 2.11 (a). Stepped wall footing Fig 2.11 (b). Plan of stepped wall footing
During the construction of stepped wall footing, the following recommendations are considered:
If the load on the wall is very high and the bearing capacity of the soil is not significant, in this
case, stepped wall footing can be used. When the load is very high on the wall, the masonry
offsets are provided as in the case of the column.
The maximum angle of the spread in the wall step footing can be given 0.5 in horizontal to 1
in vertical in the case of brick or stone masonry.
The maximum angle of spread should not be more than 0.66 in horizontal to 1 in vertical in the
case of lime concrete and it should be 1:1 for cement concrete.
The minimum depth is calculated using the following formula:
1 (2.4)
𝐷 𝐵 𝑇
2𝑛
Here, n is the spread in horizontal with respect to vertical
B is the width of the footing
T is the width of the wall
In the case of brick masonry, the offset should be equal to or less than 5 cm and the height of
the step can’t be more than 10 cm.
For stone masonry, the offset may vary from 7.5 cm to 10 cm while the height of the step may
be from 15 cm to 20 cm.
The depth of the concrete bed can be calculated using the following formula:
3𝑞
𝐷𝑐𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑎 (2.5)
𝑚
Here, a is the offset of concrete beyond masonry in figure 2.11 (c)
Building Construction | 41
f. Grillage foundation
A grillage foundation consists of a combination of beams laid over each other resting on the layer of
concrete. The area is spread at the bottom of the column by the combination of beams to spread
the superimposed loads. The grillage foundation provides more stability and strength and can take
very high loads. The grillage foundation can be constructed from steel or timber. Figure 2.12 (a)
shows the grillage foundation and figure 2.12 (b) shows the plan of the grillage foundation. A
grillage foundation can be constructed from steel or timber. If the superstructure consists of very
heavy elements like steel columns, piers, etc., the grillage foundation can be recommended. The
major advantage of the grillage foundation is that it can be constructed in lesser time as
prefabricated parts are to be installed. It can take and distribute heavy loads efficiently to the
ground.
During the construction of the grillage footing, the following recommendations are considered:
The grillage foundation is provided for the heavy load of columns or steel stanchions if the
bearing capacity of the soil is poor.
The depth of the grillage foundation is kept from 1 m to 1.5 m.
In the steel grillage foundation, the steel beams are separated by pipe separators of 25 mm
diameter and spacers of 20 mm diameter. The distance between the steel beams should be
sufficient so that concrete can get compacted easily. The minimum clearance between the
beams can be kept 8 cm.
The minimum concrete cover of 15 cm is provided to the lower beams and 10 cm for the upper
beams.
In case of timber grillage foundation, the timber boards of 8 m to 10 cm thickness are stacked
to form the timber grillage. The maximum spacing between the timber beams can be 38 cm.
42 | Construction of substructure
Fig 2.13 (a). Combined rectangular footing Fig 2.13 (b). Plan of combined rectangular footing
Sometimes the columns have different loads. So, the column with a higher
load requires more area to spread the load while the column with
lower loading requires a lesser area for spreading the superimposed
loads. In this case, a combined trapezoidal shape footing can be
used. This type of footing is known as combined trapezoidal footing.
The centre of gravity of the columns and the centroid of the footing
area should be aligned in the same line. In the case of differential
load, the trapezoidal combined footing saves material and gives
optimum strength. Figure 2.14 (a) shows the combined trapezoidal
footing and figure 2.14 (b) shows the plan of the trapezoidal footing
for the columns.
In some conditions, the walls and columns both can be used for the transfer of the load to the foundation.
So, a combined footing for the walls and columns can be provided depending on the superimposed
load. If the columns have equal loads, the combination of rectangular combined footing can be
44 | Construction of substructure
used as shown in figure 2.15 (a). If the load by columns is unequal, a combination of trapezoidal
and rectangular footing can be used as shown in figure 2.15 (b).
Fig 2.14 (a). Combined trapezoidal footing Fig 2.14 (b). Plan of combined trapezoidal
footing
The combined footing acts as a beam that is loaded in an upward direction and rests on columns.
The portion of the beam outside the columns acts as a cantilever.
The load of the column and weight of the footing are added to get the total load in the downward
direction.
The area of the footing is calculated by dividing the total downward load by the safe bearing
capacity of the soil.
The location of the centre of the columns from the edges is calculated such that the centre of
gravity of the loads coincides with the centre of gravity of the footing.
The shear force and bending moment acting on the combined footing is calculated and checked
while designing.
The reinforcement is provided to counteract the induced bending moment and checked for
safety.
a. If the property line is near to the column and isolated footing can’t be provided, a strap
footing can be provided.
b. If the bearing capacity of the soil is not sufficient, strap footings can be recommended.
c. As suggested before, if the distance between the columns is very high and a combined
footing can increase the bending moments, in this case, strap footing can be provided.
d. If the combined footing requires excessive excavation due to the higher distance between
columns, it can prove costly. So, strap footing can be a cost-effective solution in this case.
footings difficult too. Figure 2.16 (a) shows the strap footing and figure 2.16 (b) shows the plan
of strap footing.
Fig 2.17 (a). Raft footing Fig 2.17 (b). Plan of raft footing
Fig 2.18 (a). Pile foundation Fig 2.18 (b). Mechanism of end bearing piles
The end-bearing piles transfer the superimposed load through their bottom tip. These piles act as a load-
bearing structure. These types of piles are used to transfer the load through the layer of water or
soft soil to an underlying hard stratum. Figure 2.18 (a) shows the pile foundation and figure 2.18
(b) show the mechanism of transfer of load for the end-bearing piles.
Building Construction | 49
soil and transfers the load to the soil around the circumference of the piles. Figure 2.19 shows the
transfer of the load by the skin friction mechanism.
The combined piles transfer the load by the combined action of their bottom tip and body friction. These
types of piles have greater bearing capacity. Normally combined action piles are used in the case
of granular soil. Figure 2.20 shows the combined action piles.
The piles can be made of different materials. The piles can be classified into the following four
categories based on the material:
(1) Timber piles
(2) Steel Piles
(3) Concrete Piles
(4) Composite piles
The trunks of the trees are used for making the timber piles. The timber used for making these piles
should be straight and has sufficient strength. The timber should be defect free. The major
advantage of these piles is that the timber is easily available. The cost of this type of pile is less.
The timber piles have lesser life as these are prone to termite attack. So, these types of piles are
used for underwater construction. The bottom of the timber piles is provided with a steel cap so
that it can be protected from damage.
The steel piles are strong in tension. These are provided in the form of pipes or H section. The steel
piles are durable. These can be driven into the ground. These types of piles are easy to transport
and can withstand rough handling. The bearing capacity of these piles is very high. If the ground
conditions are very stiff and penetration is difficult, the steel piles can be a good alternative. These
piles can be prone to erosion. Epoxy coating is provided for saving the steel piles from erosion.
The concrete piles have sufficiently strong and can withstand very heavy loads. The cement concrete is
used to construct the concrete piles. These types of piles are either precast type or cast in situ
type. The precast type concrete piles are prefabricated in plants and transported to the site. These
piles can be driven into the stratum. The concrete piles can be constructed on the site too. The
bore holes are excavated and the concrete is poured to construct the bored piles.
The composite piles are made of more than one material. The concrete piles can be provided a steel cap
at the bottom tip to enhance the penetration capacity. Similarly, the timber piles can also be
provided with the steel caps. Sometimes the concrete pile is provided above water table and joined
with timber pile below the water table.
The drilled piers require strict supervision during the concreting. The construction of the piers requires
highly skilled workmanship. There is a need of conducting extensive subsurface explorations
before the construction of piers. The excavation is to be done very carefully during the
construction of piers as there is a chance of subsidence or soil failures. Figure 2.21 (a) shows the
straight shaft pier and figure 2.21 (b) shows the bell-shaped pier.
Fig 2.21 (a) Straight shaft pier Fig 2.21 (b) Bell-shaped pier
2.8.3 Caissons
Caissons are box or cylindrical type structures that are hollow in nature. The caissons are fabricated on
the ground and penetrated at the waterbed. The caissons are used to support the bridges in the
water bodies. The caissons are of the following three types:
Open caissons or well foundation
Floating caissons
Pneumatic caissons
The open caissons are also known as well foundations. The open caissons remain open from the top and
the bottom. The bottom of the open caissons has penetrating cutting edges which help it in
penetrating through the bottom of the river, canals, harbours, or other water bodies. During
underwater construction, the biggest challenge is to keep the water away from the construction
site. Open caissons can fulfill this purpose too. The open caissons help in the construction of piers
under the bridges. The open caissons are used for the construction on soft soils. These can be
made of steel or concrete. Figure 2.22 shows the open caisson.
52 | Construction of substructure
caissons are floated to the destination where these are to be installed. The floating caissons are
sunk into the underwater soil bed by increasing their weight. The weight of the floating caisson
is increased by filling it with sand, rocks, concrete, etc. The floating caissons are not penetrated
in the ground but are sat on the level surface. These are stable because of their weight. Figure
2.23 shows the floating caissons.
The pneumatic caissons are constructed on the ground and these contain some working chambers. The
working chamber is facilitated by a compressed air mechanism that helps in the prevention of
entry of water into the working chamber. The airlocks are provided in the pneumatic caissons.
Pneumatic caissons are very difficult to place at the desired location. Figure 2.24 shows the
pneumatic caisson.
There are two shafts in a pneumatic caisson. One is used to enter the working chamber and the other is
used to extract the excavated material. The compressed air is induced into the working chamber
and the water is excluded. The pressure at the entry of the system is kept equal to the atmosphere.
54 | Construction of substructure
As the labourers enter, the pressure is increased gradually. The workers come to the working
chamber through the ladder. As the water is excluded by the compressed air, the workers can
excavate in a dry environment. As the caisson is penetrated at the desired depth, the concrete plug
is constructed that seals the pneumatic caisson at the bottom.
points are connected to a pipe called riser pipe which is attached to a horizontal pipe of 15 cm to
30 cm in diameter. Figure 2.25 shows the well point.
The well points are installed and connected to the horizontal pipe. The
horizontal pipe is connected to a pump. The pump sucks the water
through the well points. A depression is formed around every well
point. These cones of depression form a drawdown curve. The
screening provided at the periphery of the well point can prevent the
coarse material. So, the well points are suitable for soils with good
permeability. These can lower the water table by 5 m to 6 m. In the
case of shallow foundations, the well points are installed at a
distance of 1 m to 3 m at the same level. The water is extracted as
shown in figure 2.26. This system is known as a single-stage well-
point system.
Centrifugal
Pump
Ground
Level
Vertical
Pipe
Trenc
Trench
h
Sump
If the water to be lowered is more than 6m depth, then a single-stage well point system can’t give desired
results. So, multi-stage well points are used for lowering the water table. In a multi-stage well
point system, a series of well points are established at different elevations. The well points are
established at stage 1 same as the single-stage system. The water is extracted up to 5 m depth.
The excavation operations are conducted and the soil is excavated up to 5 m. The well point
system are installed at a new depth now at stage 2 and the water table is further lowered. The
process can be continued for the excavation of 15 m depth. If the water is to be removed beyond
15 m, deep well systems can be used. Figure 2.27 shows the multi-stage well-point system.
56 | Construction of substructure
seal. The other materials which are impervious in nature can also be used as a seal. The header
pipe is connected to the vacuum point, a vacuum is formed. The hydraulic gradient is increased
and the process of dewatering takes place. Figure 2.28 shows the vacuum well point.
The coffer dams can be constructed from the earth, sheet piles, rocks etc. Figure 2.30 shows a
typical concept plan of the coffer dam.
The cofferdams can be of different types. The
earth cofferdams form a barrier in the
form of an embankment and restricts
the entry of water to the working area.
These are the simplest form of the
cofferdams. The earth cofferdams are
only suitable for the water depth of 3
m or less. The freeboard (height of the
dam above water level) should be at
least 1 m. Figure 2.31 shows the earth
coffer dam. Fig 2.31 Earth cofferdam
The rockfill cofferdam is constructed using the rocks laying in the groups. The rocks and pebbles used
in the rockfill dam are pervious in nature and they can absorb the water. So, an impermeable
membrane is provided at the surface of the rockfill cofferdam. This type of cofferdam remains
stable due to its self-weight like the earth cofferdam. The rockfill cofferdam have an inclination
of 1 in horizontal to 1.5 in vertical. It is not necessary that the cofferdams will be completely
watertight structure. Some seepage is allowed due to economic consideration as making a
completely water tight structure will be very costly. Figure 2.32 shows the rockfill cofferdam.
Working Area
The two-sided coffer dams can also be used. The sheet piles must be sealed properly for the construction
of a cofferdam. There may be sheet piles of special shapes that can be used for the construction
of a cofferdam. These specially shaped cofferdams are called cellular cofferdams. The cellular
cofferdams are easily fitted in each other to make a watertight structure.
UNIT SUMMARY
The construction of the substructure is planned using job layouts. The job layouts are plans and
drawings of the site.
The job layout can be drawn by the centre line method and face line method.
The job layout is helpful in the management of time and resources.
The construction site should be cleared of trees and vegetation. This process is known as site
clearance.
The demolition of the old structure if exists come under site clearance.
The pits and depressions created during the site clearance must be filled and compacted.
The foundation is excavated to the required depth. The soils with high standing capacity don’t
require any support.
If the soil hasn’t enough stability and strength, supports in the form of timbering and strutting
are provided.
The excavation of the foundation can be done manually or mechanically.
Hoe, bulldozers, power shovels, tractors, etc. are the excavation machinery that facilitates the
different requirements of excavation.
The foundation can be classified into shallow and deep foundations.
60 | Construction of substructure
EXERCISES
Multiple Choice Questions
1. What does a job layout represent?
(b) Building plan (b) Components of building (c) Site plan (d) All of the above
6. For a lightly loaded small structure, which foundation will you use?
(b) Grillage foundation (b) Mat footing (c) Strap footing (d) Strip footing
7. During a site visit, I saw steel stanchions supported on a combination of steel beams. Which
type of foundation is this?
(b) Mat foundation (b) Pier foundation (c) Grillage foundation (d) None of the above
9. If the hard stratum is not available even after 15 m depth, which type of foundation is
recommended?
(b) End bearing pile (b) Friction piles (c) Pier foundation (d) All of the above
10. In the vacuum well point, the top of the well is sealed by:
(b) Bentonite (b) Clay (c) Soil cement (d) All of the above
11. The special shape of sheet piles is used in which type of cofferdam?
(a) Cellular cofferdam (b) Single sheet pile cofferdam (c) Braced cofferdam (d) None
12. The earth-fill cofferdams can be used only up to the depth of water:
(a) 1 m (b) 7 m (c) 3 m (d) More than 10 m
5. A region has weak soil and faces high differential settlement. Identify the type of shallow
foundation to be provided for this region.
6. Explain the difference between spread and stepped footing
7. Explain different hand tools used for excavation.
8. What do you understand by timbering and strutting? Explain the different methods with
diagrams.
9. What are the different precautions taken at the time of job layout?
10. Explain the rock-fill coffer dams.
11. Draw a neat sketch of earth fill coffer dam. Identify its various parts.
12. Explain the different materials for filling of the plinth.
13. Explain centre-line method for the layout.
14. Identify the suitability of different types of piles based on their material.
15. In what type of situations, a caisson foundation can be provided?
16. What are the different types of caissons?
17. Explain the working of pneumatic caissons.
18. Write a short note on open caisson.
19. Write a short note in the vacuum well point.
20. Draw a neat sketch of multi-stage well points. Identify its various components.
21. Explain different tools used for deep foundation excavation.
22. Explore the various manual tools of excavation.
KNOW MORE
Taj Mahal is one of the finest architectural marvel in the world. The
monument is famous due to its symmetrical design and aesthetics. The
construction of Taj Mahal started in 1632 and completed into 1653.
Even after centuries, the monument is standing intact. Do you know
what type of foundation is provided in this monument? The Taj Mahal
is built over a well foundation. To know more about the foundation of
Taj Mahal, scan the bar code.
3
d
Construction of
Superstructure
UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:
To understand the types of stone masonry and their suitability
Process of selection of stone masonry
Overview of brick masonry and its requirements
To understand the different types of bonds in bricks
Discussion on composite masonry
To understand the different types of scaffolding and shoring
Overview of the process of removal of the formwork
For helping the students in the visualization of the content and to enhance their practical
knowledge, the figures are provided in 2D and 3D. The content given in this unit provides practical
knowledge and will help the students in decision-making during the fieldwork.
This unit contains short and long answer-type questions along with multiple choice questions,
a list of references, and suggested reading is given so that one can go through them for practice.
Some QR codes are given which can be scanned for more information on various topics of interest
and to get extra knowledge. Some interesting facts are given under ‘Know more’.
RATIONALE
The unit on the construction of superstructure helps the students to develop an idea about different
types of masonry used for the construction. Knowledge about the different types of stone masonry
and brick masonry is provided. The suitability of different types of masonry is also discussed in this
unit. The students get an idea about the junctions in brick masonry and joints in stone masonry.
The students will be able to understand the process of erection of scaffolding and shoring. The
students will get knowledge about precautions to be taken during the removal of formwork.
The knowledge of masonry works is essential for the students. The students can apply the
knowledge of the construction of superstructures during their fieldwork. Knowledge gained in this
unit will help the students in the selection of suitable masonry for different conditions. The students
Building Construction | 65
can apply the knowledge in the selection and implementation of suitable shoring or scaffolding
technique during the construction work. The concepts in this unit will help the student in effective
supervision of construction works of the superstructure.
PRE-REQUISITES
Basic knowledge of excavation and foundation is required.
UNIT OUTCOMES
The list of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U3-O1: To explain the different types of stone and brick masonry
U3-O2: To understand the suitability of different types of masonry
U3-O3: To understand the different types of bonds in brick masonry
U3-O4: To select the suitable type of scaffolding and shoring
U3-O5: To understand the precautions to be taken during the construction of the superstructure
MA
66 | Construction of superstructure
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you learned about the construction of the substructure. In this unit, we will learn
about the construction of the superstructure. The superstructure is constructed by bonding the
masonry units with mortar. The masonry units can be stones in the case of stone masonry or bricks
in the case of brick masonry. Masonry can be used for the construction of foundations, walls,
columns, and other building components. The masonry in a building plays multiple roles. It gives
support to the loads. It divides the space in the building. The masonry provides insulation and
soundproofing to the building. It also saves the building from the impact of weather and fire.
Stone masonry and brick masonry are used in construction extensively.
can be used in the hidden layers like the course of the foundation. The different types of rubble
masonry are classified into the following categories:
Dry rubble masonry
Random rubble masonry
Square rubble masonry
Polygonal walling masonry
Flint walling
Fig 3.3 (a) Uncoursed random rubble Fig 3.3 (b) Coursed random rubble
The appearance in the uncoursed square rubble masonry can be improved using different-sized stones.
A riser is a through stone that is bigger in size. A leveler is a thin stone. Sneck and check are the
small-sized stones. So, a pattern of the riser, leveler, and sneck-check stones can be established
for a better appearance. Figure 3.4 shows the uncoursed square rubble masonry. R represents the
riser, L represents the leveler and S represents the sneck and checks stones.
The square rubble masonry can be arranged in the courses too. In the case of coursed square rubble
masonry, irregular courses can be provided. The height of the courses may vary but the stones
are arranged in lines. This is known as built-in course square rubble masonry. It is known as
regular coursed square rubble masonry if the courses have the same height. Figure 3.5 (a) shows
irregularly coursed square rubble masonry while 3.5 (b) shows the regularly coursed square
rubble masonry.
Fig 3.5 (a) Irregular coursed square rubble Fig 3.5 (b) Regularly coursed square rubble
the perimeter of each stone is provided that may be approximately 25 mm wide and it is made by
the chisel as shown in the figure 3.7..
formation of joints should not vary by 6 mm. All the angles should be square and there should be
no chippings on the edges. The thickness of the course should not be less than 15 cm. The
maximum thickness of the mortar layer can be 5 mm. Figure 3.8 shows the ashlar fine tooled
masonry.
backing, these types of walls are cost-effective. Figure 3.10 gives detail about the ashlar-facing
masonry.
(5) Table joint: If the pressure in the lateral direction is induced, the table joint can be used. The
table joints are used for acting against the horizontal pressure and provide lateral stability. A
recess is provided on the upper stone and a joggle is provided on the bed stone. The joggle fits
the recess and makes a strong joint. The height of the projection may vary from 30 mm to 40
mm. Figure 3.12 shows some typical joints in stone masonry.
(6) Dowelled joint: Holes in the stones are made and these stones are connected by dowels. The
dowel is a piece of hard stone, slate, brass, etc. The joint is secured by cement. This type of
joint is simple in nature. It provides stability against displacement and sliding.
Building Construction | 75
(7) Cramped joints: In a cramped joint, the holes in the adjacent stones are formed and the stones
are connected by a metal cramp. Holes formed in the stones are dovetail shaped. The cramps
can be made of steel, copper, or galvanized iron. The cramps must be free from corrosion. The
ends of the cramp are turned down by 4 cm to 5 cm. The length of the cramp can be between
20 cm to 30 cm. The width can vary from 2 cm to 4 cm and the thickness can be kept between
5 mm to 10 mm. The holes can be grouted with cement or lead after placing the cramps.
(8) Saddled joints: The saddled joints are also known as the water joints. These are provided in
the cornice generally and are used to divert the water on the slope.
3) Strength: The stones have to take different types of loads. So, the stones should be able to
resist deformation and should possess sufficient strength. According to the Indian standard
code, the minimum crushing strength of the stones should be 3.5 N/ mm2. The specific gravity
of the stone should be between 2.4 to 2.8.
76 | Construction of superstructure
4) Appearance: The appearance of the stones is an important factor in the selection of stones.
The colour of the stones is selected based on the requirement. The ability to get polished and
dressed affects the appearance of the stone. The stones with poor appearance can be used in the
foundation works while the stones with pleasing appearance can be used in the surfacing works.
Fine-grained stones with uniform texture have a better appearance. The grains should be
compact and the stones should have a pleasing colour.
5) Hardness: Hardness may be defined as the resistance to the localized deformation. The stones
should be sufficiently hard. The coefficient of hardness should be at least 17 for pavements and
14 for building works.
6) Water Absorption: The stones must not be porous in nature. There should not be excess pores
in the stones. If the stone is immersed in the water for 24 hours, it should not absorb more than
5% water by its weight.
7) Cost: The cost of the stones is another important factor. The dressing of the stones increases
their cost. So, the stones are selected according to the budget too. The transportation charges
of the stones are also very high.
(1) The structure of the stones used in the construction must possess similar
characteristics. These should be homogenous in nature.
(2) The stones should be sufficiently hard. Hardness is the property of the
material to resist plastic deformation.
(3) The stones should be able to resist the shocks. The stones must be
sufficiently tough in nature. The stones must possess sufficient strength
to resist the loads.
(4) The dressing of the stones should be done according to the requirements.
(5) The stones should be watered properly. The moisture from the mortar should not be absorbed
instantly by the stones.
(6) The stones should be checked for verticality using the plumb bob.
(7) Stones should be free from the defects like cavities and patches.
(8) The texture of the stones should be uniform in nature.
(9) The laying of stones should be at their natural bed. In this case, these will be more stable.
(10) The workability of the mortar must be checked properly.
(11) The continuity of the joints is avoided during the construction of the stone masonry.
(12) A proper bond should be maintained throughout the work during the stone masonry
construction.
(13) The tensile stresses must not be induced as the stones possess low resistance towards the tensile
forces.
(14) The cavities and depressions in the masonry should be filled with mortar.
(15) The minimum time required for the curing of the stone masonry is ten days.
Building Construction | 77
Fig 3.13 (a) King closer Fig 3.13 (b) Queen closer
(f) Bevelled closer: It is a modified form of king closer in which the full length of the brick is cut
from one side in such a way that half width is maintained from one side and the other side has
the full width of the brick. Figure 3.14 (a) shows the beveled closer.
(g) Mitred closer: It is a brick that can be obtained by splaying from one end at an angle between
45° to 60°. In these brick one side of the length is equal to the original size while the other half
is cut from the center of the length. Figure 3.14 (b) shows the mitred closer.
78 | Construction of superstructure
Fig 3.14 (a) Bevelled closer Fig 3.14 (b) Mitred closer
(h) Quoins: Brick masonry that is present at the corner
of the wall is known as quoins. They provide an
aesthetic look as well as strength. They also provide
protection from the weather in a load-bearing
structure. Quoins are of header and stretcher type.
(i) Quoin Header: When the brick of quoin is laid in
such a way that its greater length is perpendicular to
the face of the wall, it is called quoin header.
(j) Quoin Stretcher: When the brick of quoin is laid
in such a way that its greater length is parallel to the
face of the wall.
(k) Course: A Course can be defined as a horizontal Fig 3.15 (a) Half bat
layer running along the wall. In brick masonry,
course thickness is equal to the height of modular
brick with one mortar joint. The course can be of
header and stretcher type. In a header course, all the
bricks will show the header as the face of the wall.
(l) Bat: It is part of the brick that is cut perpendicular
to the length of the brick. Therefore, the length of
the bat brick is smaller than modular brick. The bats
can be half bat, three-quarter bat or beveled bat. In
a half-bat, the length of the brick is half of the length
of the modular brick. In a three-quarter bat, the
length of the brick is equal to the three-quarter to
length of the modular brick. In the beveled bat, the
Fig 3.15 (b) Three-quarter bat
brick is beveled. Figure 3.15 shows the details of
different types of bat.
(m) Bond: It is an art by which bricks stick to each
other. It helps in arranging bricks in the course by
connecting them together. Bond makes the wall
look aesthetically pleasing.
(n) Joints: A joint is defined as the junction between
the adjacent bricks. When joints are present in
parallel along the face of the wall is known as a bed
Building Construction | 79
Header bond can also use in foundation for brickwork. Figure 3.18 shows different views of the
header bond.
for even and odd course for different thickness is shown in figure 3.19. Queen closer is shown
in the shaded form. Queen closers help in breaking the continuity of vertical joints.
Some additional points for the construction of English bond masonry are given as follows:
(1) A queen closer is never used at the start or at the end of the header course as it will easily lodge
from its position.
(2) In stretcher courses, the minimum overlap of the stretcher is kept 1/4th the length of the brick
over the header.
(3) A wall with a thickness equal to an even number of half bricks (1 brick, 2 brick, 3 brick thick
wall, and so on) will have a similar appearance on the outer and inner faces of the wall i.e. a
header course will have header face on the front and back face. A similar situation will occur
in the stretcher course. Figures 3.20 (a), (b) and (c) show the plan of different brick thickness.
Building Construction | 83
Fig 3.20 (b) Plan for one and half brick thick wall
(4) The walls with a thickness equal to an uneven number of half bricks (1 brick and 2 brick thick
wall and so on) will show stretcher face on one side and header face on another side in the same
course. Figure 3.20 (b) shows the details.
(5) When the thickness of the wall is equal to 2 bricks or more, the central part of a bond will have
a header placed in both the header and stretcher course. It is done so to prevent the continuous
vertical joint in the wall
(6) Vertical joints in the header course are thinner than vertical joints in the stretcher joint it is done
because the number of joints in the header course is double the number of joints in the stretcher
course.
Fig 3.22 (b) Plan for one and half brick thick wall
Single Flemish bond: This type of bond is formed by the combination of a double Flemish
bond and an English bond. In this arrangement, the outer face of the wall consists of a double
Flemish bond while the inner face has an English bond in every course. When the thickness of
the wall is less than one and a half bricks, this bond cannot be adopted for construction. A single
Flemish bond has the strength of the English bond and the beauty of the double Flemish bond.
Figures 3.23 (a) and (b) show the even and odd courses of a single Flemish bond for the
different thicknesses of walls.
Fig 3.23 (a) Plan for one and half brick thick wall
3.11.1 Tee-Junction
Tee-junction in brick masonry is formed when the partition wall/ internal wall meets the main wall/
external wall at a 90º angle. Tee-junction can be formed by various thicknesses of walls made up
of English bonds and Flemish bonds. Different conditions by which tee-junction can be formed
by either using English bond or Flemish bonds are explained in brief as follows:
(1) When both walls contain an English bond: This type of Tee junction can be seen in figure
3.24. Figure 3.24 (a) shows a Tee junction between a partition wall/ internal wall which is half
brick thick and a main wall/ external wall which is one brick thick wall made up of English
bond. The bond is made by using alternate courses (odd courses) of partition wall entering into
the main wall of stretcher course which in turn helps in overlap which is shown in the shaded
form. Even courses of the wall remain unbounded.
In figure 3.24 (b), Tee-junction can be seen between the one brick thick internal wall or cross
wall and one and a half brick thick main or external wall, whereas both the walls are built using
English bonds. In odd courses, the internal wall which is made of header courses is placed upon
the stretcher courses of the external wall through half of the brick width shown in the shaded
form. Queen closer (Q) is used for overlap by which tie brick (shaded) is overlapped by quarter
brick width. The even courses of both the walls remain unbounded.
88 | Construction of superstructure
Fig 3.24 (a) Tee-junction between half brick thick wall and one brick thick wall
Fig 3.24 (b) Tee-junction between one and a half brick thick wall and one brick thick wall
B2; Half bat brick; B1: Three-quarter bat brick; Q; Queen closer
In figure 3.24 (c), Tee-junction can be seen between the one and a half brick thick internal wall
or cross wall and one and a half brick thick main or external wall, whereas both walls are built
using English bond. In odd courses, the header brick of the internal wall enters into the junction
with stretcher course of the external wall. The overlap of a tie brick (shaded brick) is obtained
by using queen closer (Q). Three- fourth quarter brick (B1) is used for additional overlap in the
same course. Even courses of both wall remains unbounded.
Building Construction | 89
Fig 3.24 (c) Tee-junction between two one and a half brick thick walls
Fig 3.24 (d) Tee-junction between one and a half brick thick wall and two brick thick wall
B2; Half bat brick; B1: Three-quarter bat brick; Q; Queen closer
In figure 3.24 (d), Tee-junction can be seen between the one and a half brick thick internal wall
or cross wall and two brick thick main or external wall, whereas both walls are built using an
English bond. In odd courses, the header course of the internal wall enters into the junction
with the stretcher course of the external wall through half of its width. Queen closer (Q) is used
for the overlap by which tie brick (shaded) which is placed as header brick is overlapped by a
90 | Construction of superstructure
quarter-brick width. Three- fourth quarter brick (B1) is used for additional overlap in the same
course. Here also, even courses of both wall remains unbounded.
(2) When the external wall has a Flemish bond and the internal wall has an English wall: In
figure 3.25 (a), the Tee-junction can be seen between the one brick thick internal wall or cross
wall in English bond and one brick thick main or external wall in Double Flemish bond.
Fig 3.25 (a) Tee-junction between the one brick thick internal wall in English bond and
one brick thick external wall in Double Flemish bond
Fig 3.25 (b) Tee-junction between the one and a half brick thick internal wall in English
bond and Two brick thick external wall in Double Flemish bond
B2; Half bat brick; B1: Three-quarter bat brick; Q; Queen closer
In the odd course, the internal wall with the header course enters into the junction with the
external wall causing a quarter-brick width overlap. Queen closer (Q) is placed before tie brick
Building Construction | 91
(shaded) of header course in an internal wall. The even courses of both the walls remain
unbounded.
In figure 3.25 (b), Tee-junction can be seen between the one and a half brick thick internal wall
or cross wall in English bond and Two brick thick main or external wall in Double Flemish
bond. Here also, the internal wall with the header course enters into the junction with the
external wall causing a quarter-brick width overlap. Queen closer (Q) is placed before the tie
brick (shown in shaded form) of the header course in the internal wall. Three-quarter bat brick
(B1) is placed next to the stretcher brick of the main wall for an additional overlap which is in
the same course as the internal wall. The even courses of both the walls remain unbounded.
(3) When both the walls are constructed by double Flemish bond: In figure 3.26 (a), Tee-
junction can be seen between the half brick thick internal wall or cross wall and one brick thick
main or external wall, whereas both the wall built using double Flemish bond. In odd course,
internal wall with stretcher courses enter into the junction with external wall through half brick
length. Half bat brick (B2) is placed in the external wall due to this overlapping. Even courses
of both wall remains unbounded.
Fig 3.26 (a) Tee junction between one brick thick wall and half brick thick wall in
Flemish bond
In figure 3.26 (b), Tee-junction can be seen between the one brick thick internal wall or cross
wall and one and half brick thick main or external wall, whereas both the wall built using double
Flemish bond. In odd course, internal wall with stretcher course as tie brick (shaded) enter into
junction with external wall. Queen closer (Q) is placed before tie brick for overlapping. Even
courses of both wall remains unbounded.
In figure 3.26 (c), Tee-junction can be seen between the one and half brick thick internal wall
or cross wall and two brick thick main or external wall, whereas both the wall built using double
Flemish bond. One quarter brick width overlap is achieved by using queen closer (Q) and three-
quarter bat (B1) brick in external wall. Here also, even courses of both wall remains unbounded.
92 | Construction of superstructure
Fig 3.26 (b) Tee junction between one and a half brick thick wall and one brick thick wall in
Flemish bond
Fig 3.26 (c) Tee junction between one and a half brick thick wall and two brick thick wall in
Flemish bond
B2; Half bat brick; B1: Three-quarter bat brick; Q; Queen closer
An intersection or cross-junction is created when two walls are crossed perpendicular to each other i.e.
they formed right angle at junction. In this junction one wall will called as main wall while the
other wall with less thickness is known as cross wall. In figure 3.27 (a), a cross-junction can be
seen between the one brick thick internal wall or cross wall and one and half brick thick main
wall, whereas both the wall built using English bond. In odd course, cross-wall having header
course enter into junction with main wall. Tie bricks are used in cross-wall to achieve an overlap
of quarter brick width on both sides. Even courses of both wall remains unbounded.
Fig 3.27 (a) Cross junction between one and a half brick thick wall and one brick thick wall
Fig 3.27 (b) Cross junction between two one and a half brick thick walls
In 3.27 (b), a cross-junction can be seen between the one and half-brick thick both internal wall or cross
wall and main wall, whereas both the walls built using English bond. In odd course, an overlap
94 | Construction of superstructure
of quarter brick width is achieve in header course of cross-wall by using tie brick (shaded) on
both faces. Even courses of both walls remain unbounded.
Fig 3.27 (c) Cross junction between two one and a half brick thick wall and two brick thick wall
In 3.27 (c), a cross-junction can be seen between the one and half brick thick internal wall or cross wall
and two brick thick main wall, whereas both the wall built using English bond. an overlap of
quarter brick width is achieve in header course of cross-wall by using tie brick (shaded) on both
faces. Even courses of both wall remains unbounded.
Fig 3.28 (a) Squint junction between one brick thick wall and one and a half brick thick wall
Fig 3.28 (b) Squint junction between one and half brick thick walls
(2) Squint junction in double Flemish Bond: In figure 3.29 (a), a squint junction can be seen
between the one brick and one and half brick thick internal wall or cross wall and one and half
brick thick main or external wall, whereas both the wall built using double Flemish bond. It is
difficult to construct squint junction in double Flemish bond. In figure 3.29 (b), a squint
junction is shown between tow walls of one and a half brick thickness.
96 | Construction of superstructure
Fig 3.29 (a) Squint junction between one brick thick wall and one and a half brick thick wall
Fig 3.29 (b) Squint junction between two one and a half brick wall
(4) Wetting of bed: If the construction of the wall begins from an already constructed part, the
bed of the previously constructed part is to be wetted with water properly. The water pipe can
be used for wetting the bed of previous construction. It will help in establishing a strong bond
between new and old work.
(5) Toothing: If there are plans for construction in the future, the toothing can be provided. When
the walls cross each other, the extension of bricks is provided in the wall so that when future
work begins it can make a good bond with old construction. The figure 3.30 shows the toothing.
98 | Construction of superstructure
(6) Height of the wall: The difference between the heights of the walls constructed in a day should
not be more than 1 m. This limitation is suggested to prevent the differential settlement of the
foundation.
(7) Watering: After the construction, the wall should be watered for time until the mortar sets
properly. For the cement mortar, the watering is done for 7 days to 14 days while for lime
mortar the watering is done for 14 days to 21 days.
(4) Mason square: It is used for setting out the right angles
during construction.
(5) Chisel: The chisels are used for the dressing of stones.
Chisels are available in many sizes depending on their
functions.
(6) Plumb bob: Plumb bob is used for checking the verticality of the edges.
(7) Spirit level: Spirit level is used for checking the horizontality of the surface.
(8) Brick hammer: Brick hammer is sharp at the face. It is used to cut the brick and masonry in
the desired dimension.
(9) Wire brush: The wire brush is used for the removal of stone chips and excess mortar in brick
masonry.
(10) Folding foot rule: The folding foot rule is used for the measurement of the wall. It can be
folded.
(11) Straight edge: The straight edge is used for smoothing the plastering work.
100 | Construction of superstructure
Composite masonry imparts higher strength and durability. The appearance of the structures can be
improved using composite masonry. The optimum use of the locally available material helps in
achieving economy in construction.
However, composite masonry is high in cost and requires skilled workers due to the complexity of
construction. Glass composite masonry is also used nowadays. The barcode provided at the top
of this section can be scanned to know more about the composite masonry.
102 | Construction of superstructure
Fig 3.36 (a) Single frame cantilever Fig 3.36 (b) Double frame cantilever
A single frame cantilever scaffold is supported by a wall at one end and standards by another end. The
needle passes through the wall and the strut is supported at the base of the wall. In a double frame
cantilever scaffold, the strut is supported on the floor due to the weakness of the ground.
(7) In the case of suspended scaffolds, the chains, pulleys, etc. are planned and inspected by the
supervisor.
(8) After the erection of the scaffolds, a final inspection is conducted. The scaffolds require daily
inspection due to safety reasons.
(9) The supports under each leg should be inspected. If the level of support is not proper, action
should be taken.
(10) Frames should be checked for alignment using the plumb bob.
(11) All the ties and braces must be inspected for locking.
accurately. The rakers are properly braced for increasing their strength. Figure 3.40 shows the
raking shoring.
3.24 UNDERPINNING
Sometimes the foundation of the constructed structure becomes prone to failure. In this case, the
foundation below the already constructed building requires strengthening. The underpinning is
the process that is used for repairing and enhancing the strength of the foundation of structures.
A temporary structure is installed at the additional depth below the foundation to increase the
strength of the foundation and sufficient bearing capacity is achieved.
The underpinning work for the building is decided by carefully examining the behaviour of the existing
structure. If the structure shows excess settlement and chances of failure, underpinning can be
suggested. The underpinning may be suggested in the following conditions:
(1) If the functions of a building are changed, the load can be increased on the foundation. For
example, if a normal building is converted for the operation of heavy machinery, the vibration
loads can induce. In this case, the foundation of the existing structure may not have sufficient
110 | Construction of superstructure
strength. Underpinning may be suggested for the strengthening of the existing foundation in
this case.
(2) The underpinning can be suggested for the protection work. If the
existing foundation is not sufficiently strong, it may require
strengthening. If there is excess excavation of the soil in the
vicinity of the foundation, the bearing capacity may decrease.
(3) If the foundation is to be protected from external agencies like
wind and piping action, the underpinning can be proposed.
(4) If the construction of a basement is proposed for the existing
structure, the underpinning is required.
(5) If there are errors in the design of the foundation of the structure, the existing building can
become prone to failure. In this case, the design can be corrected by enhancing the area of the
foundation.
(6) The fluctuations of the water table may decrease the bearing capacity of the soil. Sometimes,
the timber piles can be deteriorated by the action of variation of water table or insects. In this
case, the underpinning is required for strengthening the foundation. The barcode can be scanned
to know more about the underpinning.
(4) Rigidity: The formworks should be able to withstand the deflections. These should be
sufficiently rigid to face the deflections induces. The maximum deflection in formworks for the
surface work is 1/300 of the span while for the hidden surfaces it is 1/150 of the deflection.
(5) Strength and durability: The formworks should be sufficiently strong to withstand the loads.
They should be able to bear the load of the poured and wet concrete. These should be strong
enough to take the impact of the hammers and load of a person while removing them. The
formworks are reused for other works. So, these should be able to withstand the impact of
weather and temperature.
(6) Reusability: As discussed before, the formworks are reused many times. So, the formworks
should be reusable in nature. They should not show variation in their characteristics after using
those one or two times. They can be used multiple times.
(7) Leakage: The joints of the formwork should be tight to prevent the leakage of the water. It is
evident that the concrete mix is designed for particular water content. If the water from the
formwork leaks in excess, it can vary the properties of the concrete itself.
(8) Finish of surface: The inner surface of the formwork should be smooth. The oiling of the inner
surface is done for achieving a smooth surface.
(1) The timber shuttering is light in weight. It can be transported and placed easily.
(2) Timber formworks are easy to install and remove.
(3) It is easy to cut timber in any desired shape.
(4) The timber for formwork is easily available as timber is a universal material.
(5) The timber formwork is economical for small projects.
The timber formwork has less durability as compared to other types of formwork. The termite attack is
common on the timber formwork. So, the coatings for termite attack prevention are provided. The
surface of the timber is not as smooth as plastic and steel.
UNIT SUMMARY
Stone masonry consists of stones and mortar while brick masonry consists of bricks and mortar.
Stone masonry is classified into rubble masonry and ashlar masonry.
Roughly dressed and irregular-shaped stones are used in rubble masonry while the stones used
in ashlar masonry are relatively well dressed.
Stone masonry can be further subdivided depending on its arrangement.
The stones are connected in different ways. The connection between the stones is known as a
joint.
The absorption of water during 24 hours of immersion of stone should not be more than 5 %.
Brick masonry can be arranged in many ways. The arrangement of stone masonry is known as
a bond.
The stretchers are placed back to back in stretcher bond while if the headers are placed at the
facing, it is known as header bond.
English bond is stronger than the Flemish bond while the Flemish bond is aesthetically
pleasing.
Bricks should be uniform in size and should be durable.
If the walls meet at a point at 90º, it is called a Tee junction.
If the walls cross each other at 90º, it is called a cross junction.
If the walls meet at any angle, it is known as a squint junction.
The bricks should be soaked for at least 12 hours before using them in construction.
The hollow concrete blocks are made of OPC and aggregates.
The hollow concrete blocks are economical in nature and can be manufactured in large sections.
The maintenance cost of the hollow concrete boxes is less and there is no requirement for
finishing and painting.
When two or more types of masonry are used together for achieving the economy is known as
composite masonry.
Scaffolds are the temporary structures that are used to support the material and artesian. If the
height of the wall is more than 1.5 m, scaffolds are required.
Single scaffolds are supported by a wall on one side and another side is supported by standards.
Single scaffolds are used for ordinary construction.
The double scaffold is supported on both sides by standards.
Scaffolds are erected and dismantled in the presence of expert.
The scaffolds should be erected and dismantled very carefully as there is a huge risk involved
for the workers.
Shoring is the temporary structure to support the excavations and structures.
Dead shoring supports the weight of the structure on it and the wall below the dead shoring can
be dismantled and constructed again.
The underpinning is the process that is used for repairing and enhancing the strength of the
foundation of structures.
Formwork may be defined as the temporary support to keep the concrete in its place. This
temporary support is provided until the concrete achieves sufficient strength to bear its own
weight and other loads coming to it.
The formwork should be removed only if the concrete has gained sufficient strength to take the
loads coming to it.
Building Construction | 115
The hardening of the concrete depends upon the type of cement, temperature, moisture, grade
of concrete, etc.
If ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is used for the construction, the formwork of the walls,
columns, and vertical faces of beams can be removed between 24 hours to 48 hours.
EXERCISES
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Granite belongs to the rock group:
(c) Igneous (b) Metamorphic (c) Sedimentary (d) None of the above
(d) Igneous (b) Metamorphic (c) Sedimentary (d) None of the above
3. The heavy stones are arranged one over another and a retaining wall is constructed without
using mortar. Identify the type of stone masonry.
(c) Random rubble (b) Dry rubble (c) Polygon walling (d) Flint walling
5. Being a civil engineer, if you have to choose a masonry for fire resistance, which one will you
choose?
(c) Stone masonry (b) Brick masonry (c) Both can be used (d) None
(d) Header bond (b) Stretcher bond (c) English bond (d) Flemish bond
11. In a scaffold, the working platform is supported by wheels and can be moved. Identify the type
of scaffolding:
(a) Single scaffold (b) Trestle scaffold (c) Double scaffold (d) Cantilever scaffold
12. Name the arrangement that is provided to support the concrete after pouring.
(a) Scaffolding (b) Formwork (c) Grouting (d) Underpinning
KNOW MORE
The first glass block was patented by Gustave Falconnier in 1886. The
glass bricks became a popular building material from 1930. These are
aesthetically pleasing and attracted the architects. The glass bricks are
used in the windows, building facades, etc. Maison Hermès in the Ginza
District Tokyo is a fabulous example of using the glass as building
masonry. La Maison de Verre in Paris was constructed in 1932 and is a
house of glass. To know the history of glass block in buildings, scan the
bar code.
4
Building Communication
d
and Ventilation
UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:
The different types of doors and their suitability.
The different types of windows and their suitability.
The different types of staircases and their suitability.
The other means of vertical and horizontal communication in the building.
For helping the students in the visualization of the content and to enhance their practical
knowledge, the figures are provided in 2 D and 3 D.
This unit contains short and long answer-type questions along with the multiple choice
questions, a list of references, and suggested reading so that one can go through them for practice.
Some QR codes are given which can be scanned for more information on various topics of interest.
The QR code provides extra knowledge about important topics.
RATIONALE
This unit on building communication and ventilation gives the students an idea about the various
facilities of communication provided in the building. It explains the different types of doors,
ventilators, and windows using 2 D and 3 D diagrams. A brief description of elevators, lifts, and
escalators is also provided. The different types of staircases and their significance is also discussed
in the detail. The content provided in this unit is important for planners, architects, and engineers.
Horizontal and vertical communication is an important requirement of a building. The
knowledge of horizontal and vertical communication is important for civil engineers and
construction planners. The students can implement the knowledge gained from this unit in the
planning, construction, and designing of the buildings.
Building Construction | 119
PRE-REQUISITES
Basic knowledge of building components is required for studying this unit.
UNIT OUTCOMES
The list of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U4-O1: Identify the suitable type of doors and windows for different types of buildings.
U4-O2: Differentiate between different types of the staircase and their suitability.
U4-O3: Explain the different types of fastenings and their suitability.
U4-O4: Understanding the standard sizes of windows and doors as per BIS standards.
MA
120 | Building Communication and Ventilation
4.1 DOORS
A door may be defined as an open part in the wall, which is left for providing access to the persons in
the building. Generally, doors are combination of different materials such as timber, steel, glass,
etc. The internal parts of a building are connected using doors. A door basically comprises of two
parts i.e. frame and a shutter. A frame is attached to the wall opening with the help of a horn and
holdfast. The shutter or leaf is attached to the door frame.
completely embedded into the wall opening. The horizontal length which is embedded inside
the wall is kept around 20 cm.
Rebate: Some depression or recess are made in the door frame to fix the door shutter. This
depression or recess is known as a rebate.
Jamb: Vertical face of the openable part of the wall which supports the door frame.
glass sheets, etc. Different types of panel doors based on the number of panels (one, two, three,
four, or multiple panels) are shown in figure 4.2.
Fig 4.3: Details of a double shutter panel door with six panel
When there is more than one panel in the door, intermediate or frieze rail and mullions are provided
apart from the lock rail. Panel doors having a single shutter or leaf are generally used when the
space of opening is small, while for wider openings, the door contains two shutters or leaves as
shown in Figure 4.3. In a panel door having two leaves, each leaf is attached separately to the
frame with the help of fixtures and fasteners. Some important points and details of panel doors
are:
(1) Panel doors are made up of single pieces. The styles are used continuously from bottom
to top without any joints in between them.
(2) The ends of the top rails, bottom rails, frieze rails, etc. are connected to styles.
(3) If any mullion is present, it is joined to adjacent rails.
(4) Intermediate rails and top rail are kept smaller than the bottom rail and lock rail.
Building Construction | 123
(5) Where there is a lock rail provided in the panel, its center line kept 80 cm above the
bottom rail.
(6) Style should have a minimum width of 10 cm.
(7) The lock rail and bottom rail have a minimum width of 15 cm.
(8) To improve the elevation of the door, extra wood bedding is provided on both sides of
the panel.
(9) The wood panels should have a minimum width and thickness of 15 cm and 1.5 cm
respectively.
(10) The wood panel as a single panel should not have an area greater than 5000 cm2. This
restriction only applies to the timber panel, and not to the plywood, glass sheets, etc.
Fig 4.5: Details of the partly glazed and partly paneled door
to the channels diagonally. The size of the iron flats is 10 to 20 mm with 5 mm thickness. The
horizontal distance between the vertical bars is kept 10 cm to 12 cm. There is no restriction for
the width of the collapsible door but the height is kept at a maximum of 3 m. T-shaped iron rails
are used in which the shutter moves with the help of rollers. These iron rails are fixed at the top
and bottom of the door. Handles and locking arrangements are provided in vertical channels.
The top portion of the door contains bush bearing while bottom side have ball bearing for supporting
the rotation of centrally placed vertical member or mullion without any friction or noise. Shutter
provided in revolving door can be fully glazed or partially paneled and partially glazed. Rubbing
end of the shutter have rubber at the end to prevent air drought condition.
(a) Plan
(b) Elevation
Figure 4.8: Rolling shutter door
Building Construction | 127
Shutters are made up of thin steel plates known as laths, having a thickness of around 1 mm to 1.25 mm.
These steel plates are interconnected and hinged for maximum strength. The frame of rolling
shutter contains guided steel channels on both sides in which the shutter moves. Drum consists
of springs and shafts which help in shutter movement by push and pull. Drum diameter varies
from 200 mm to 300 mm. Rolling shutter based on the operation of shutter is of two types:
Push-pull type: This type of operation is provided when the opening size of the door is
not more than 10 square meters.
Mechanical gear shutter: This type of doors is provided for large area. Winding handles,
connecting rod, worm gears or chain pulleys system are used in operating this shutter.
Very heavy rolling shutters (25 kg/m2 to 30 kg/m2) used this mechanism.
Due to these properties they are used as exterior doors in buildings. They are sound proof and
water proof. These doors require less maintenance and more durable.
(a) Laminated core flush door (b) Solid core flush door
Hollow core flush doors also contain styles, top and bottom rails as used in solid core flush door. This
type of door also contains minimum of two intermediate rails having a width minimum of 75 mm
and wooden battens of size 25 mm in width equally spaced. The wooden battens and intermediate
rails are paced in between the top and bottom rails, so that the area of voids limited to 500 cm2.
4.11 WINDOWS
A window may be defined as an opening in the wall that is made for the entry of natural light and fresh
air into the building. A window also provides an outside view to the residents of the building.
The windows also make the buildings aesthetically pleasing.
Building Construction | 131
The only disadvantage of the windows is that a window can lose 12 times more energy than a wall. The
following points should be kept in mind before deciding the location and type of windows:
The glass is used in the windows so that the light can enter even if the windows are closed.
The windows should be provided at the parallel wall for cross ventilation of the air.
The height of the sill of the window in the rooms is kept 60 cm to 90 cm above the floor. It
helps the residents to get a view from the outside.
The height of the windows in the bathroom is kept around 2 m above the floor.
The grills are provided at the windows for safety purposes.
The sun shade can be provided to prevent the entry of rainwater into the rooms.
(9) Pane: A pane is the glass installed in the window. It is the glass area of the window. Panes are
the central part of the window and remain transparent in nature generally.
(10) Mullion: Mullion separates the casements with a vertical partition. Mullions can be made of
the same material as that of the casements or different materials can be used. If the number of
casements in a window is more than one, these are separated vertically with mullion.
(11) Muntin: Muntins are also known as glazing bars which are thin parts of the window. These
separate small individual panes.
(12) Sash: If the two sections slide one over the other, it is called a window sash. The sashes hold
the window pane and the widows can slide over each other in the vertical direction.
(13) Transom: The transom divides the window part horizontally. It helps in opening of the upper
window independently of the lower window.
The light can enter in the glazed windows even if it is closed. It provides the facility of natural
lighting of the room.
The residents can get the outside view even if the window is closed. It prevents the entry of
pollution, pollen, rain, etc. but still gives light and the view of outside.
It is less secured but the security of glazed windows can be increased by providing double glass
coating and grills can be provided in front of the glass.
Glazed window provides more stylish and aesthetically pleasing look.
With the number of advantages, the glazed windows have some limitations too. The limitations of the
glazed windows are enlisted as follows:
The glass windows are not as solid as paneled windows. These offer lesser strength and
security.
There is requirement of curtains for privacy in the rooms due to its transparent characteristics.
However, the different types of glass can be used for blocking the view from outside.
The flexural strength of the glazed window is less than the paneled window.
The glass can resist the scratches efficiently and it is also easy to clean.
limitations. As discussed in the previous section, wooden sections can be used for making the
frames of the window and the panels of the windows too. Wood as a material for making windows
has the following salient features:
Timber is a universal material and it is available easily.
Timber is a good insulator of heat. It has low thermal conductivity.
Timber windows are durable and strong. They have an age of 20 years to 30 years if made from
well-seasoned wood.
Timber acts as a good sound insulator. So, it reduces the noise from outside the building.
The surface finishing using paints and varnishes is required for the wooden windows. So, the
wooden windows can be painted in any desired colour.
There are chances of insect attack on the wood. The termite attack is common in the case of
timber windows.
The timber is moisture sensitive and it can change its dimensions due to moisture. The wooden
windows can bend or wrap in damp conditions.
The timber requires proper maintenance for long-lasting.
Aluminium is susceptible to corrosion. So, treatment for the prevention of corrosion is required
for aluminium windows.
Fig 4.20 (a): Gable window Fig 4.20 (b): Dormer window
The skylight windows can overheat the rooms due to the excessive amount of sunlight. To
know more about the skylight window the bar code can be scanned.
4.15 VENTILATORS
An adult breathes at least 16 times in a minute. The air in the buildings can get polluted due to the CO2
produced by humans, outdoor pollution can enter the house and the equipment like furniture. In
a home, the residents require clean air. In industrial buildings, indoor pollutants are to be excluded
from the building. So, ventilators are provided to remove the contaminated air from the building.
The ventilators are the same as small windows but they are provided about 30 cm to 50 cm below
the ceiling. The ventilation in the building can be provided using the following techniques:
(1) Natural ventilation: A small window is provided below the ceiling for the purpose of natural
ventilation. The difference between the pressure due to wind and the temperature difference
due to the inside and outside of the building helps in creating natural ventilation. Natural
ventilation can offer a sufficient flow of air throughout the building. However, the natural
ventilation is subject to change due to external atmospheric conditions.
(2) Mechanical ventilation: As we know that natural ventilation depends on the outside condition
of the atmosphere. So, mechanical ventilators can be provided to extract the contaminated air
from the inside of the building. The pressure difference is created by a dynamic fan in the case
of mechanical ventilation. The exhaust fans in the bathrooms and toilets are examples of
mechanical ventilators.
142 | Building Communication and Ventilation
(3) Hybrid ventilation: It is evident that natural ventilators save energy but depend on
atmospheric conditions. So, a combined system with natural and mechanical ventilation is
provided which is known as a hybrid ventilation system. A window with the exhaust fan can
be provided in the case of hybrid ventilation.
(2) Handles: The handles are fixed to the shutters. The handles are provided on the outside and
inside of the doors and windows. These help in opening and closing of the doors and windows
conveniently. Handles can be provided in different shapes and sizes. The stylish and
aesthetically pleasing handles increase the beauty of the door and windows. The size of the
handles should be sufficient to hold it. There should not be any sharp edge on the handle for
safety purposes. Figure 4.22 shows the handles.
Building Construction | 143
(3) Bolts: The doors and the windows are kept closed using the bolts. There are different types of
the bolts that can be used in a door and window. These are made of aluminium, steel or iron.
Figure 4.23 shows the different bolts used in the doors and windows.
(4) Miscellaneous items: The locks are used to close the door with significant security. There are
different types of locks that are used. These provide security and safety to the building. The
door stoppers are also provided. The stoppers are used to prevent the sudden closing and
opening of the doors under the impact of wind and other forces. The stoppers can be made of
wood or rubber as shown in figure 4.24 (a). Figures 4.24 (b) and (c) show the different types of
locks.
Fig 4.24 (a): Door stopper Fig 4.24 (b): Pad lock Fig 4.24 (c): Cup board lock
As the lintels are beams, different materials can be used to construct the lintel beams. Timber is used as
lintels since a long time. A bearing of 150 mm to 200 mm is provided for the timber lintels. These
types of lintels are prone to fire hazards and can be attacked by insects.
Steel beams are also used as a lintel. The steel beams are light in weight and can be handled easily. The
transportation and placement of the steel lintel are easy. It has high tensile strength. The steel can
be moulded into any required shape. The steel lintels are prone to corrosion and should be
provided with anti-rust coatings.
Nowadays, reinforced cement concrete is used for the construction of lintel beams. It is very strong and
can take the tension and compression loads. The steel lintels can be pre-casted or cast on-site.
The concrete lintels are durable.
4.18 SHED/CHHAJJA
A chhajja is also known as a sunshade. It is an overhanging eave above the window. It protects the
window from the water and the sunlight. It is also called sunblock or eaves. A chhajja has the
following functions in a building:
Chhajja protects the house from sunlight and rainwater. It prevents
the entry of rainwater inside the room.
As the wood is sensitive to moisture, chhajja protects the wooden
windows from rainwater.
It can be designed to give an aesthetically pleasing appearance.
It can be used for placing the air coolers or air conditioner’s
compressor unit. To know more about chhajja, scan the bar code.
floor to the other. The ramp can be provided at the entrance of the building too. It helps in easy
entry and exit of the building. The ramps are typically like a floor that is inclined at some angle
so that the goods and heavy items can be rolled down on the ramps. The gradient of the ramps
in a building is kept from 1 in 10 to 1 in 15. Figure 4.26 shows the ramp. A ramp should have
the following characteristics:
As discussed above, the slope of the ramps is taken from 1 in 10 to 1 in 15, so the
construction of ramps requires large space.
The ramps are can be constructed in any geometric shape that is aesthetically pleasing
and suitable for the movement of persons and goods.
The texture of the ramps must not be very smooth. The smooth surfaces can pose the
risk of slipping.
The handrails should be provided on the sides of the ramp.
Fig 4.28 (a): Straight staircase Fig 4.28 (b): Plan of the straight staircase
Fig 4.29 (a): Elevation of dog legged staircase Fig 4.29 (b): Plan of the dog legged staircase
mills due to their ability to occupy less space. Figure 4.31 (a) shows the spiral staircase and figure
4.31 (b) shows the plan of the spiral staircase.
Fig 4.31 (a): Spiral staircase Fig 4.31 (b): Plan of the spiral staircase
Fig 4.32 (a): Quarter-turn Staircase Fig 4.32 (b): Three-quarter-turn staircase
Building Construction | 151
In a three-quarter-turn, the stairs turn at 270º by changing the angles multiple times. A large well is
formed in the case of a three-quarter-turn staircase. The details of both staircases is shown in
figure 4.32 (a) and (b).
The simplest form of the stone staircase is constructed by placing rectangular blocks of stone ashlar
masonry. The steps are arranged as shown in figure 4.34 (a). The spandrel steps are of near
triangular shape and the soffit remains plane. The spandrel steps are aesthetically pleasing. Figure
4.34 (b) shows the spandrel steps. The steps can be made by treads only. There is no riser in this
type of staircase. The treads are inserted into the wall from one side and act as a cantilever. Figure
4.34 (c) shows the cantilever staircase. In the built-up steps, the thin stones are placed on the steps
152 | Building Communication and Ventilation
of concrete or brick masonry. The thickness of the stone slab may vary from 2 cm to 5 cm as
shown in figure 4.35 (d).
The RCC staircases are easy to clean. This type of staircase is aesthetically pleasing. The steps can be
provided with stone covering for improving the appearance of RCC staircases.
UNIT SUMMARY
The doors are provided for the entry and exit of the user from the building.
The panelled doors provide security and privacy while the glazed doors provide natural
lighting.
BIS provides the sizes of the doors and windows.
The windows are used for providing natural light to the building.
The ventilator provides fresh air and removes the contaminated air in the building.
The ramp is provided as an alternative to staircase. It helps in easy vertical communication of
loads like furniture, cupboard, etc.
The staircase are used for communication from one floor to other.
EXERCISES
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which is the top horizontal member of the shutter?
(e) Head (b) Jamb (c) Top rail (d) Bottom rail
2. The area of the shutter enclosed between two adjacent rails is known as:
(a) Head (b) Jamb (c) Panel (d) Holdfast
13. Draw a neat sketch of bifurcated staircase. Also discuss its suitability.
14. Explain the concept of skylight window.
15. Write a short note on escalators.
16. Discuss the vertical communication using lift in the building.
17. Explain the different types of materials that are used for the construction of staircases.
18. Discuss the various functions of the window sill.
19. Explain the concept of lintel. Also discuss the purpose of providing a lintel.
20. Explain the different advantages of RCC staircases.
KNOW MORE
As discussed in this unit, spiral staircases are widely used. These are
aesthetically pleasing and stylish. Vatican museums have spiral
staircases that were constructed in the 16th century. Do you know
about the most famous spiral staircases in the world? To know more
about the most famous staircase of the world, scan the QR code
given.
5
Building Finishes
d
UNIT SPECIFICS
Through this unit we have discussed the following aspects:
The different types of floor finishes and their suitability.
The process of laying and constructing the floors.
The different types of plastering and their suitability.
The process of painting and methods of application of paint on the surface.
For helping the students in the visualization of the content and to enhance their practical
knowledge, the figures are provided in 2 D and 3 D.
This unit contains short and long answer-type questions along with the multiple choice
questions, a list of references, and suggested reading so that one can go through them for practice.
Some QR codes are given which can be scanned for more information on various topics of interest.
The QR code provides extra knowledge about important topics.
RATIONALE
This unit on building finishes gives an idea about the finishing work of the different components of
the building. It explains the different types of floor finishes and their suitability. A brief description
of roofing materials and their suitability is also provided. The different types of plastering and their
significance is also discussed in the detail. The content provided in this unit is important for
planners, architects, and engineers.
Building finishing is an important requirement of a building. The knowledge of building finishes
is important for civil engineers and construction planners. The students can implement the
knowledge gained from this unit in the planning, construction, and designing of the buildings. The
knowledge gained from this unit will help the students in the selection of suitable building finishes.
Building Construction | 157
PRE-REQUISITES
Basic knowledge of building components is required for studying this unit.
UNIT OUTCOMES
The list of outcomes of this unit is as follows:
U5-O1: Identify the suitable type of floor finish.
U5-O2: Deciding the suitable roofing material for different buildings.
U5-O3: Explain the process and different types of plastering.
U5-O4: Understanding the precautions to be taken during the painting and plastering work.
A floor may be defined as the flat surface provided at the plinth level and at the different elevations
which are used for storing, living, and working. The floors divide the building into different
levels. The topmost floor of a building is known as a roof. The floor beneath the ground level is
called the basement floor while the floor provided at the plinth level is called the ground floor.
The floors that are provided at various elevations are termed the first floor, second floor, etc.
These stones consist of calcium carbonate and which is alkaline in nature. Marble flooring has
the following features:
(1) Marble is a naturally available stone with a very high ability to
get finished. It gives a smooth and elegant appearance.
(2) Due to its smooth surface, the marble flooring is easy to clean.
(3) Marble flooring offers a range of colors. However, the color of
the purest form of the marble stone is white. As it is a naturally
occurring stone, the shades for each tile may vary slightly.
(4) These types of flooring remain cool but also offer good heat
conduction. So, these can be used in cold regions too. Radiant
heat can be used for warming the tiles.
(5) Marble flooring is highly durable. The floor remains stain free if maintained properly.
(6) Marble flooring provides continuity and the number of joints is less in the case of marble
flooring.
Marble stone is a good choice for flooring material but it may remain slippery under moisture. Due to
its slippery surface, it can prove hazardous to the residents and poses a risk of accidents. Scan the
QR code to know more about different types of available marble flooring.
Fig 5.3 (a): Ceramic tiles Fig 5.3 (b): Vitrified tiles
The vitrified tiles give a glassy appearance. The ceramic tiles and vitrified tiles have the following
features:
(1) Ceramic tiles give a natural earthen appearance while vitrified tiles give an artificial glassy
appearance.
(2) The texture of the ceramic tiles is rough as compared to the vitrified tiles. The vitrified tiles
provide a smooth surface.
(3) The ceramic tiles are protected by the process of glazing while the vitrified tiles can be polished
for providing a shiny surface.
(4) The flexural strength of ceramic tiles is lesser than vitrified tile. The flexural strength of the
ceramic tiles is approximately 20 N/ mm2 while the vitrified tiles have a flexural strength of
around 35 N/ mm2.
(5) Ceramic tiles are more porous in nature. Due to the high porosity of ceramic tiles, the frost
resistance is lesser in these tiles as compared to the vitrified tiles.
(6) Ceramic tiles are more economical as compared to vitrified tiles.
(7) There is a requirement for skilled labor for the installation of ceramic tiles. These are more
difficult to install as compared to the vitrified tiles.
(8) The breaking strength of the ceramic tiles varies from 700 N to 1000 N while the vitrified tiles
have a breaking strength of more than 1100 N.
height of the battens should be equal to the depth of the floor. M 15 or M 20 concrete mix is used
for the construction of the concrete floor. The alternative panes are filled with concrete mix. The
surface is leveled with the trowel and straight edge. The panels filled with concrete are left for 24
hours. Figure 5.7 shows the alternate filling of the panels.
As the concrete in the alternative panels is set, the formwork of battens is removed and the unfilled
panels are filled with concrete mix. The panels are left for 24 hours again. After the setting of the
concrete, the battens are removed. The curing of the concrete floor should be done with water in
a proper way. The concrete flooring has the following salient features:
(1) The concrete floors have sufficient strength. These are durable in nature.
(2) The concrete flooring offers good resistance to dampness.
(3) These floors offer good resistance to fire.
(4) The concrete floors can be used for any loading conditions. These can sustain very heavy loads.
(5) These floors require less maintenance and can prove cost-effective.
Concrete floors are economical in the long run however the initial cost of construction of concrete floors
is high. If the construction is defective, the repair costs for the concrete floors will be high. So,
these types of floors require skilled workmanship.
(4) These types of floors can absorb vibrations and shocks. So, these are recommended in
earthquake-prone regions.
(5) The timber flooring is aesthetically pleasing and stylish.
The wooden flooring has the following limitations:
(1) The timber flooring is less durable.
(2) It requires frequent maintenance.
(3) Wood is prone to termites and other insect attacks.
(4) Wooden floors are costly in manufacturing.
(5) This type of floor doesn’t offer good resistance to fire.
(5) If the soil used in the construction of the floor is weak, it can be treated. The strength of the soil
can be enhanced by the chemical or physical treatment of the soil.
(6) The layer of lime concrete or cement concrete of a depth of 10 cm to 15 cm is placed on the
floor. The concrete is compacted and rammed properly.
(7) The curing by sprinkling the water on the concrete is done after setting the concrete.
(8) After setting, the base layer is cleaned and flooring is provided. The base must be cleaned
properly before providing the topping.
and dampness. The RCC slabs are durable and long-lasting. The RCC slabs are laid in the
following three steps:
(1) At the initial stage, the concrete requires support after poring. So, the formwork is erected in
the first step. The formwork should be provided according to the provisions of Indian Standard
code IS: 14687-1999.
(2) The concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. So, the reinforcement is designed
for the concrete. The steel bars are provided at the designed spacing in the second step. The
deformed steel bars are provided according to the provisions of the Indian Standard code IS:
1786-1985.
(3) The concrete mix is designed according to the codal provisions. M 15 or M 20 concrete mix
can be used in the construction of roofs. The concrete mix is poured into the formwork and
compacted with the help of vibrators. After setting the concrete, it is cured by sprinkling the
water on the surface for 14 days to 21 days. A bitumen layer is provided on the concrete layer
and a lime concrete layer is provided at the top. The bitumen layer acts as a damp proof course
(DPC) in the roof and prevents the entry of moisture. Figure 5.9 shows the RCC slab as a roof.
(4) The Mangalore tiles can be moulded into any desired shape.
(5) These tiles look aesthetically pleasing.
(6) These tiles have less strength. These tiles are unable to withstand heavy loads.
(5) The plastic sheets can provide entry to the light through them.
(6) The plastic acts as an insulator of the heat.
(7) These sheets are cost-effective and prove economical.
The characteristics of the plastic can be improved by providing fiber reinforcement. The sheets that are
reinforced by vinyl, epoxy, etc. are known as fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP). The fiberglass
sheets give more natural light. The strength of the fiber sheets is more than the normal plastic
sheets. In regions of cool temperatures, fiber sheets can be used. To know more about the roofing
materials, scan the barcode.
The wood joists of 8 cm × 12 cm are placed at a spacing of 30 cm. clay tiles are placed on these joists.
The size of the clay tiles is generally 30 cm× 15 cm× 5 cm. Cement mortar of 1:3 mix is used for
placing the tiles. A layer of cement plaster is placed above the tiles. A bitumen layer as a damp
proofing treatment is provided above the cement plaster layer. At the top, a 10 cm layer of soil is
placed. The slope of the roof is kept at 1 in 40. This slope is provided for the drainage of rainwater.
RCC battens may be used instead of timber joists. These offer better resistance to fire. The RCC
battens are also more durable and long lasting as compared to the timber joists. Figure 5.10 shows
the battened or mud roof.
The flag-stone roofs are used in the regions where flag-stone is available locally. These roofs prove
economical in the regions of Haryana and Rajasthan. The flagstone roofs are cost-effective and
easy to construct. The flagstones of 2 m to 2.5 m in length are placed to form the roof. However,
if the span of the room is large, T-section steel girders can be used for supporting the stone
sections. The joints of the stone are sealed with lime mortar. A 10 cm thick lime concrete layer
is placed on the top. The layer is finished and the roof is sloped for drainage purposes. RCC slabs
Building Construction | 169
are also used as roofs. The details of the RCC slab as a flat roof are described in the previous
section.
(5) King post truss is not suitable for spans more than 9 m.
The queen post truss is used for spans of 8 m to 12 m. Queen post trusses have the following features:
(1) The queen posts provide more stability. This type of truss also provides more space in the room.
(2) Queen post trusses are used for a span of 8 m to 12 m.
(3) The queen post truss is cost-effective.
(4) These trusses are simple to design.
(5) The design of the queen post truss is widely accepted by engineers.
(6) The queen post truss looks aesthetically pleasing.
(7) This type of truss is used in churches and other buildings that require more open space.
(8) The queen post truss is not used for spans of more than 12 m.
(9) This type of truss is not suitable for regions with high rainfall.
(10) The queen post truss performs poorly under the uniformly distributed load.
building parts. It provides even, clean and durable surfaces for easy and direct decoration.
Plastering is done on buildings components for the following reasons:
It protects the external surface of the building from environmental effects such as rain and wind.
It provides a smooth and even surface in which dust or mud cannot stay on the wall.
It provides a better surface for decoration.
It helps in protecting building surfaces from bugs or insects.
It covers the defects due to unskilled workmanship.
It provides an excellent base for whitewashing, painting, or distempering.
(4) Finish coating application: The finish coating is applied in the following steps:
The finishing coat thickness varies from 2 to 3 mm.
The ratio of cement to sand is 1:4 to 1:6.
Flat wooden floats and steel trowels are used for even surfaces and provide the
finishing touch.
Application is done from top to bottom and in one single operation so that no cracks
can be developed.
(5) Curing after plastering: After finishing the coat, the water sprinkling is done for at least 7
days to gain proper strength and hardness. Plastering works is raped with jute gunny bags to
172 | Building Finishes
keep wet for a longer duration. Proper curing work should be carried out otherwise cracking
formation can occur.
surface finish and for ornamentals work. POP is also known as gypsum plaster. It has the
following properties:
POP can be used adequately over timber material and components made up of metals as it has
fire-resistance properties.
It is very light in weight.
It acts as a sound insulator.
Ornamentals works carried out in building use effectively POP for construction
It can be easily attached to fibrous materials.
Its setting time is less and there is no change in volume after set, so there is no shrinkage on
drying.
It can only be used for interior work in building as gypsum plaster is soluble in water.
5.18 PLASTERBOARD
The plasterboard is made of gypsum. These are used for dry construction as an alternative to cement
concrete construction. Plasterboards are invented in 1940. These are used for the construction of
walls and ceilings. The sheets made of gypsum are fastened to the frame of the house with the
help of screws, nails, or adhesives. Figure 5.15 shows the plasterboards.
Building Construction | 175
The plasterboard consists of a surface paper that makes the surface of the wall smooth. The plasterboards
have the following features:
(1) The plasterboards are easy to install. This type of construction doesn’t require mortar for
adhesion. The plasterboards can be fixed with the help of fasteners.
(2) Plasterboards are cost-effective materials. The cost of the plasterboards is less than the cement
and brick.
(3) This type of construction offers good resistance to sound. The plasterboards act as a barrier to
sound.
(4) The material used in the making of plasterboards is environmentally friendly. It doesn’t contain
harmful chemicals.
(5) These boards are fire-resistant and moisture-resistant.
(1) Blistering: The blistering defect occurs in the lime plaster. Sometimes, the lime in the lime
plaster is not calcinated completely. So, the unslaked lime particles remain in the paster that
absorbs the moisture from the environment. Due to the absorption of moisture, the unslaked
lime particles get calcinated. The surface of the plaster bulks up and the plaster starts crumbling.
The blistering can be prevented by calcinating the lime properly before using it in plastering.
(2) Cracking: The plaster can be cracked due to multiple reasons. If the surface is not prepared
well before the plastering work, the plastering can get cracked. The cracking in plaster may
also occur due to frequent changes in the temperature. The variation in the temperature results
in the shrinkage and expansion of the plaster which leads to the cracking of the surface.
Sometimes, the excessive thickness of the plaster layer may be the reason of the cracking of
the plastering. The cracking can be prevented by improving the quality of plaster work. The
thickness of the plaster layer is kept between 15 mm to 20 mm.
Building Construction | 177
(3) Plaster falling: The plaster falls off the wall due to various reasons. The primary reason for
the falling of the plaster is poor bonding between the layers of the plaster or wall. It may be due
to the presence of moisture at the surface of the wall. If the binding material like cement is not
provided in the proper ratio, it can lead to poor bonding that results in the falling of the plaster.
The falling of the plaster can be prevented by preparing the surface properly before proving the
plaster layer. The amount of binding material should be provided according to the mix design.
(4) Efflorescence: If the amount of salt in the bricks or water used in the construction is high, it
may appear on the surface of the plaster. This phenomenon of appearing of salt on the surface
of the wall or plaster is known as efflorescence. The efflorescence can be prevented by using
good-quality brick. The damp proof course provided at the plinth may also help in the
prevention of efflorescence.
5.22 POINTING
The process of coating the joints with mortar is known as pointing. In pointing, the whole wall is not
plastered but only the joints are coated with mortar. The wall need not to be painted in this case.
So, it provides a natural appearance.
(4) Keyed pointing: In keyed pointing, the semi-circular groove is filled with mortar. It is used in
brick masonry generally.
178 | Building Finishes
(5) Raked pointing: In raked pointing, the square grooves are made for a stylish appearance.
(6) Weathered pointing: In this pointing, a slope is provided. This slope helps in draining the
water rapidly from the joint.
(7) Mason-V pointing: Mason-V pointing is used in stone masonry. The mortar points out in this
case.
(8) Bastard pointing: In the bastard pointing, a strip of 6 mm width is extended from the wall by
3 mm.
(9) Beaded pointing: In the beaded pointing, a semi-circular strip extends beyond the wall.
(10) Tuck pointing: In the tuck pointing a rectangular groove is made. This groove is filled with
putty of different colors that make the pointing beautiful. Figure 5.16 shows the different types
of pointings.
The paint rollers can cover a large area of painting in relatively lesser time.
The paint rollers are user-friendly.
Paint rollers can be used to give an artistic appearance to the surface.
The rollers are easy to use. These can perform vertical painting easily.
The rollers are costlier as compared to the brushes. However, these prove economical as these
can be replaced after degradation. Rollers can’t be used in the corners. Figure 5.17 shows a paint
roller.
(3) Spray gun: The painting of the surfaces can be done by the spray guns too. The spray guns
spray the paint on the surface through the air. Air gun spraying uses large equipment for
painting. The spray gun has the following features:
The spray finish reduces the chances of stains and scratches as these are applied in thin
layers.
The spray gun technique is a time-saving technique for painting. It takes lesser time
than brushing or roller.
Spray guns can be used to apply paint in the corners and edges.
The spraying technique is user-friendly and easy to apply.
The quality of the painting by spraying is good. It provides consistency in the painting.
UNIT SUMMARY
Floor is constructed into two parts i.e. base and flooring.
The base provides the structural stability to the floor.
The flooring or floor covering consists of the material that make the surface of the floor smooth.
The floor covering can be of concrete, wood, tiles, paver blocks, etc.
Ceramic tiles are prepared using clay while the vitrified tiles are prepared by mixing clay and
silica.
Chequered tiles have grooves and can fit each other.
Skirting tiles are provided along the perimeter of the bottom of the wall. These tiles connect
the floor and wall.
Dado tiles are provided in the kitchen and washroom to protect the wall from the impact of
water.
The surface of the floor loses its shine with time. So, the floors need to be maintained
periodically. The floors are polished and finished manually or mechanically.
The permanent covering provided on the rooms to protect them from the impact of weather,
sun, rain, storms, etc. is called a roof.
The asbestos cement sheets are prepared by mixing 15% of the asbestos fiber into the cement.
These sheets are used as the sheds of factories and workshops.
Plastic is a versatile material that is used as a roof covering. It protects the building from
ultraviolet (UV) rays.
King post truss is created by the combination of triangular frames. A king post truss consists
of the members like tie beams, rafters, struts, king posts, and ridge beams.
Building Construction | 181
If the span is larger than 9 m, the king post can’t be used. In this case, a queen post truss is
used.
Plastering is a procedure in which a wet mixed material (cement/lime mortar) is used to cover
the internal and external walls and rough patches on the surface of columns, beams, and other
building parts.
In Neeru finishing, lime paste or putty is used to render the cracks and level the uneven surface
to obtain a smooth and leveled finish.
Plaster of Paris is made by heating finely powered gypsum at 160°C - 170°C. It is white in
color. It starts to get settle within 3 - 4 minutes of adding water.
In the pebble finishing, the small pieces of stones having diameters from 10 mm to 20 mm are
dashed on the surface of the wall.
Wall cladding is the process of providing the layer of one material over the layer of other
material to protect the building components from the impact of moisture.
The process of coating the joints with mortar is known as pointing.
Painting may be defined as an oily coating that is provided on the surface of wood, masonry,
iron, etc. A good paint should have sufficient covering capacity.
The paint can be applied by painting brush or roller.
The paint can be sprayed on the surface too.
EXERCISES
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following is not a floor finish?
9. The process in which only joints are sealed with mortar is called:
(d) Painting (b) Pointing (c) Semi-plastering (d) None of the above
10. Dry construction of the wall is done with the help of:
(e) Pebble finish (b) Plastering (c) Plaster boards (d) All of the above
KNOW MORE
Mangalore tiles are very famous and widely used in India. These tiles
are known for their aesthetics and structural integrity but do you know
Mangalore tiles have a great historical significance? The Mangalore
tiles were discovered in 1860s. Georg Plebst, a German missionary,
discovered the clay in Mangalore city that was used for the
manufacturing of the Mangalore tiles. Scan the QR code to read this
interesting article about the Mangalore tiles.
APPENDICES
APPENDIX-A
184
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APPENDIX-B
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186
187 |
188 |
188
189 |
190 |
190
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ANNEXURE A
Plan of House
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ANNEXURE B
ANNEXURE C
194
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Course outcomes (COs) for this course can be mapped with the program outcomes (POs) after the
completion of the course and a correlation can be made for the attainment of POs to analyze the
gap. After proper analysis of the gap in the attainment of POs necessary measures can be taken to
overcome the gaps.
The data filled in the above table can be used for gap analysis.
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A D
Assembly building 4
Deep well 38
Ashlar masonry 72
Dowelled joint 75
Architrave 131
Doors 120
Apron 131
Door sizes 130
Aluminum window 136
Dormer 140
AC sheets 166
Dog-legged staircase 148
Dado 163
B Double coat plastering 172
Business building 5
Bracing 29
E
Box sheeting 29
Educational building 4
Backhoe 33
Earthwork 27
Bulldozer 33
English bond 82
Foundation 14, 15
Excavation 27, 28
Beveled closer 78
Escalators 146
Bat 78
Eaves 167
Bay window 138
Efflorescence 177
Bifurcated stairs 151
Blistering 176
F
Framed structures 6
C
Flat roof 14
Cavity wall 11
Face line method 25, 26
Curved roof 15
Floating caissons 52
Center line method 24, 25
Flint walling 70
Course 78
Flemish bond 84
Components of door 120
Formwork 110
Combined footing 43,44
Flying shoring 108
Coffer dams 57
Flush doors 127
Collapsible door 124
Full panelled 133
Cramped joints 75
Fixtures 142
Casement 131
Clerestory window 139 G
Corner window 139 Grillage footing 41, 42
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H N
Hazardous building 6 Nosing 147
Header bond 81 Newel post 147
Hollow concrete block 100 Neeru finish 173
I O
Industrial building 5 Open well staircase 149
Intersection 93
P
J Partition wall 11
Job layout 22 Parapet 16
Joints in stone 74 Plinth materials 31
Joints in brick 79 Pile footing 48, 49, 50
Jambs 131 Pier footing 50, 51
Pneumatic caissons 53
K Polygon walling 70
King closer 77 Plywood formwork 112
Kota finish 158 Paneled doors 121
King post 169 Pane 132
Partly paneled window 135
Paver blocks 161
L
Plastering 171
Lap 79
POP 173
Load bearing structures 6
Pebble finish 174
Lintel 12, 144
Plasterboard 174
Louvered window 138
Pointing 177
Lift 146
Paint roller 178
Q
M Quoins 78
Mercantile building 5 Quarter turn 150
Mezzanine floor 13 Queen post 167, 170
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R
Residential building 3
Rammer 13 Shed 145
Rake 13 Stone stairs 151
Raft footing 47 Skirting 163
Rubble masonry 68 Stucco plaster 173
Revolving doors 125 Sponge finish 174
Rolling shutter 126 Spray gun 180
Reveal 131
Ramp 146 T
RCC stairs 152 Tee junction 87, 88
Timbering and strutting 28
S Tractor 14
Saddled joint 75
Sub-structure 8 V
Superstructure 10 Vertical sheeting 30
Sill 12, 131, 144 Vacuum well point 56
Sloping roof 14 Vitrified tiles 159, 160
Site clearance 23, 24
Spread footing 16, 17, 18 W
Stepped footing 37, 40 Well footing 54, 55
Strip footing 39 Windows 131
Strap footing 45 Window type 132
Sheet pile 59 Wooden window 136
Stone masonry 66 Winder 147
Stretcher bond 80 Wooden flooring 162, 163
Squint junction 94 Wall cladding 175
Scaffolding 102
Suspended scaffold 104
Shoring 106
Sash 132
Sliding window 137
Spiral staircase 149
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